BIO Reviewer – 2nd Quiz

CELLULAR BASIS OF LIFE

INTRODUCTION:

Cell (biology) is the basic unit of life. Cells are the smallest structures capable of basic life
processes, such as taking in nutrients, expelling waste, and reproducing. All living things are composed
of cells. Some microscopic organisms, such as bacteria and protozoa, are unicellular, meaning they
consist of a single cell.
Plants, animals, and fungi are multicellular; that is, they are composed of a great many cells working in
concert.
Cells carry out thousands of biochemical reactions each minute and reproduce new cells that perpetuate
life.

HISTORY

1665: Robert Hooke

-Discovered thin slices of cork and other plant materials contain minute partitions separating cavities
that he called cells.

1833: Robert Brown

-Discovered the nucleus as the central part of the cell.

1838: Matthias Schleiden

-Stated that cells are the unit of structure in plants.

1939: Theodor Schwann

Cells are the unit structure in animals.

Rudolf Virchow
Cell theory: all living things are composed of cells.
All living cells come from other living cell and that there is no spontaneous creation of cells from non-
living matter.

CELL
-the basic structural and functional unit of life.
Types of Cells
1. Prokaryotic – lacks a true nucleus
2. Eukaryotic – with a true nucleus
ANIMAL CELL
-typically contains several types of membrane-bound organs, or organelles.

Nucleus directs activities of the cell and carries genetic information from generation to generation.

Mitochondria generate energy for the cell.

Proteins are manufactured by ribosomes, which are bound to the rough endoplasmic reticulum or float
free in the cytoplasm.

Golgi apparatus modifies, packages, and distributes protein

Lysosomes store enzymes for digesting food.

The entire cell is wrapped in a lipid membrane that selectively permits materials to pass in and out of
the cytoplasm.

PLANT CELL

-contain a variety of membrane-bound structures called organelles.

These include:
-a nucleus that carries genetic material;
-mitochondria that generate energy;
-ribosomes that manufacture proteins;
-Smooth endoplasmic reticulum that manufactures lipids used for making membranes and storing
energy and a thin lipid membrane that surrounds the cell.

Plant cells also contain chloroplasts that capture energy from sunlight and a single fluid-filled vacuole
that stores compounds and helps in plant growth. Plant cells are surrounded by a rigid cell wall that
protects the cell and maintains its shape.

Differences between a Plant Cell and Animal Cell

1. -Plant cells have cell wall.
- Animal cells contain lysosomes.
2. - Plant cells contain plastids.
- Animal cells lack plastids
. 3. - Plant cells have large vacuoles for storage for water
- Animal cells have small vacuoles for storage of food
4. Metabolic rate in animal cell is faster than plant cell.

3 Regions of the Cell

Cell membrane – also called plasma membrane

-The plasma membrane that surrounds eukaryotic cells is a dynamic structure composed of two layers of
phospholipid molecules interspersed with cholesterol and proteins.
- It forms a boundary that separates the cell from its surroundings and selectively controls what
substances enter or leave the cell.

Cytoplasm
-is the part of the cell that lies between the plasma membrane and the nucleus. It consist of a
viscous fluid, the cytosol, which is 90 % water and contains dissolved amino acids, salts, sugar and other
substances, and organelles.

Nucleus
-present in eukaryotic cells, is a discrete structure containing chromosomes, which hold the genetic
information for the cell. Separated from the cytoplasm of the cell by a double-layered membrane called
the nuclear envelope, the nucleus contains a cellular material called nucleoplasm.

- Nucleus (biology), membrane-bound structure of a cell that plays two crucial roles. The nucleus carries
the cell’s genetic information that determines if the organism will develop; and it directs most cell
activities including growth, metabolism, and reproduction by regulating protein synthesis (the
manufacture of long chains of amino acids).

- It is the control center of the cell because it contains the chromosomes.

Parts of the Nucleus

1. Nucleolus
- Small nucleus at the center
- Small sphere made of DNA, RNA, and proteins.
-form a type of RNA called ribosomal RNA, which becomes a part of ribosomes (a cell organelle) and is
involved in protein synthesis.
2. Nucleoplasm or nuclear sap
- Chromatins are suspended
3. Chromatin
- Thin thread-like structures where deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is stored
- become the chromosomes during cell division.
4. Nuclear envelope
- Outermost part
- separates the nucleus and cytoplasm
5. Nuclear pores
- Tiny holes
- Passageways of substances in and out of the nucleus

Cell Parts and Their Functions

Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)

-is a flattened, interconnected, folded membranes that acts as the cell’s factory by manufacturing,
storing, and transporting a range of substances.
Types:
*smooth ER (SER)
*rough ER (RER)

The outer surface of rough ER is covered with tiny structures called ribosomes, where protein synthesis
occurs. These proteins are transported into the rough ER, where enzymes fold and link them into the
three dimensional shape that completes their structure

The rough ER also transports proteins either to regions of the cell where they are needed or to the Golgi
apparatus from which they may be exported from the cell. Rough ER is particularly dense in cells that
manufacture proteins for export. White blood cells, for example, which produce and secrete antibodies,
contain abundant rough ER.

Smooth ER lacks ribosomes and so has a smooth appearance. It is involved in the synthesis of most of
the lipids that make up the cell membrane, as well as membranes surrounding other cell structures like
mitochondria.
It also manufactures carbohydrates, stores carbohydrates and lipids, and detoxifies alcohol and drugs

Ribosomes
-Cell structure that uses genetic instructions transported in ribonucleic acid (RNA) to link a specific
sequence of amino acids into chains to form proteins

Golgi Bodies or Golgi complex or Golgi apparatus

-network of stacked sacs found within nucleated cells that store, package, and distribute the proteins
and lipids made in the endoplasmic reticulum
-also manufactures long-chained sugars called polysaccharides that cells secrete into their external
environments. Examples include cellulose and pectin used to construct plant cell walls, and the
polysaccharides in the mucus of animal cells.

Mitochondria or mitochondrion (singular)

Small cellular structures, or organelles, found in the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells
- Responsible for converting nutrients into the energy-yielding molecule adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
to fuel the cell's activities.
*This function, known as aerobic respiration, is the reason mitochondria are frequently referred to as
the powerhouse of the cell.

Centrioles
- An intracellular organelle, involve in chromosomal movement during cell division.
Peroxisomes
-detoxify substances
Lysosomes -membrane-bound sac found in nucleated cells that contains digestive enzymes that break
down complex molecules in the body.
- are numerous in disease-fighting cells, such as white blood cells, that destroy harmful invaders or
cell debris.

Microfilament and Microtubule - involve in chromosomal movement during cell division

Microvilli - Absorption

Cilia - In animals for protection

-In bacteria for attachment food capturing, and motility

Secretory Vesicles - Passageways of substances

Vacuoles (in plants only) - for water economy

Plasmodesmata (in plants only) - Passageways of substance

Chloroplast
-Structure in the cells of plants and algae where photosynthesis takes place
-Most abundant in leaf cells,
-Enclosed in a double membrane.
Internally, it consists of a ground substance called the stroma, which is traversed by a complex network
of interconnected disks called thylakoids

Many of the thylakoids are stacked called grana. Molecules of chlorophyll, which absorb light for
photosynthesis, are attached to the thylakoids. The light energy captured by the chlorophyll is converted
to adenosine triphosphate, or ATP, in a series of chemical reactions that take place in the grana.
Chloroplasts also contain small starch grains that temporarily store the products of photosynthesis.

Cell Wall
-In plants this wall protects the cellular contents and limits cell size. It also has important structural and
physiological roles in the life of the plant, being involved in transport, absorption, and secretion.
-It determines the shape of the bacterial cell. The wall is a tough but resilient shell that keeps bacterial
cells from drying out and helps them resist environmental stress. In some cases the cell wall protects the
bacterium from attack by the body’s disease-fighting immune system.

PLANTS

The Plant Kingdom

 This kingdom has organisms that are multi-cellular, have cell walls and chlorophyll, produce
their own food, and don’t physically move from one place to another.
Non-Vascular
- plants that do not have tubes to carry water up the plant or tubes to carry food made in the
leaves down the plant
Examples:
-Mosses
-liverworsts
-ferns and
- hornworts
Spore: the reproductive cell of a nonvascular plant.

Vascular
Plants have tubes to carry water up and food down the plant
Examples:
American dogwood tree
roses
grass

GROUP OF PLANTS
GYMNOSPERMS
- are seed bearing vascular plants
- Gymnosperm means “naked seed”(From the Greek: gymnos = naked; sperm = seed)
- Seeds are formed naked
- The seeds lack a protective enclosure (unlike flowering plants which have flowers and fruit)
- Seeds are produced on the scales of cones

General Features
- Most of the gymnosperms are trees
- Some are evergreen, i.e. pine
- All gymnosperms have exposed seeds
- All of them don’t possess flowers
- Mostly massive
- Occupy large areas of the earth's surface
- Can grow in drier condition
- Are those plants are generally cone-bearing in nature.
Habitat of Gymnosperms
- Gymnosperms that occupy areas of the world with severe climatic conditions are adapted to
conserving water;
- leaves are covered with a heavy, waxy cuticle
- pores (stomata) are sunken below the leaf surface to decrease the rate of evaporation
Scientific Classification
Gymnosperms belong to 4 different phyla which are
1. Coniferophyta
- The LARGEST: Gymnosperm Phylum
- Conifers include Pines, Firs, Spruces, Yews, Junipers, Cedars, Cypress, and Redwoods
- They have long, thin, needle-shaped leaves (Cypress)
- Some plants have broad and flat leaves
 - Well adapted in drier climates
2. Cycadophyta
- Members are scattered around the globe but are restricted to tropical or subtropical climates
- Cycads are distributed throughout the world but are concentrated in equatorial regions
3. Ginkgophyta
- Used as medicinal plants
- produce bad smelling fruits
4. Gnetophyta
- They are closely related with conifers
- Though they are non-flowering plants, it has a reproductive structure similar to that of
flowering plants
- Gnetophytes grow at high altitudes

Importance of Gymnosperms

Ecological Importance
- Provide food and habitat for wild life
- Forests prevent soil erosion
- Reduce greenhouse gases
- Conifers are often featured in gardens
- Junipers are low-growing shrubs and are cultivated to cover grounds
- Conifers are effective wind breakers
- They are major source of lumber, paper pulp, turpentine and resins
- They are used as fuel
- They are major source of world’s timber
- Used as medicines (Ginkgos)
- Source of food (Pine Nuts)
- Are widely used as ornamentals

Angiosperms
- Largest group of plant in the world
- Found in all types of climates
- Produce flower for reproduction
- Are those kinds of plants who contain an ovary within the flower, and fruits are often produced
from the ripened ones.
- Seeds are those that are concealed within the fruit.  

PARTS OF THE PLANTS

Plant Organs
 Roots
 Stems
 Leaves
 Flowers
 Seeds
Types of Root System
- Looks like a tangled mass of roots
Examples of plants with this root system are
 Banana
 Coconut
 Rice
 Corn
 Sugar Cane

Tap Roots
- Have a large main central root
- Have many branching roots
- Go deep in the soil
- Examples of plants :
- Large trees e.g. mango, avocado
- Shrubs e.g. tomato, peppers
Aerial Roots
- Plant attaches itself to tree branch or telephone wire
- Roots hang down in mid-air and absorb water from rainfall
- Examples :
Wild Pine
Some Orchids
Specialized Roots
STILT ROOTS
- e.g.Mangrove
PROP ROOTS
- e.g. Corn
ADVENTITIOUS ROOTS
- grow from unusual places on plants such as stems, leaves and even fruits
Functions of Roots
- anchor plants firmly in the ground
- absorb water and minerals from the soil
- can store starch
- can be used to grow a new plant
STEMS
Functions:
- Hold the plant up
- Support the leaves
- Carry water and food to other parts of the plant
Stems can be:
- Soft and green
 - Flexible
- Stiff and woody
Stems contain narrow tubes that carry water, nutrients and food.
- Xylem
- - transport water and nutrients upward from roots to leaves
- - responsible for conduction of water and dissolved mineral nutrients
- -also stores food and helps support the plant.
- -The layers of xylem cells form rings; these rings can be counted to determine the age of the
tree in areas with distinct growing season.
CAMBIUM
- separates the living xylem cells from the phloem. As the tree grows and develops, the cambium
forms new phloem and xylem cells.
Phloem
- Transport foods downward from leaves to roots.
- responsible for conduction of food
LEAVES
- Leaves are the food factories for trees.
- They use water and nutrients from the soil, carbon dioxide from the air, and energy from
sunlight to make food.
- The process is called photosynthesis. Oxygen is produced which plants release into the air.
Leaves take part in other plant functions as well, including transpiration and guttation, both of which
remove excess water from the plant, and respiration, the process by which a plant obtains oxygen and
energy.
Leaves also may store food and water and provide structural support.

Transpiration
- lose water vapor from a plant's surface, especially through minute surface pores stomata
- is responsible for the movement of water from the roots of the tree up to the top. As water is lost
through the leaves, water that enters the roots is pulled upward through the xylem tissue to replace the
lost moisture, ensuring a constant circulation of water through the tissues of the tree.
Guttation
-exudation of water droplets: the oozing out of water droplets from the uninjured surface of a plant
leaf.

Many flowers have brightly coloured petals and an attractive scent.

This is so that they attract bees and other insects.
The main function of a flower is to reproduce and make new seeds so that new plants will grow

each year.
Parts of the flower:
 Sepals
 Petals
 Stamen
 Pistil
 Receptacle and Peduncle
Petals
- attract pollinating insects with their bright colour and attractive scent.
- surround the stamens and collectively are termed the corolla.
Sepals
- The sepals protect the flower before it opens.
- -the outermost whorl, together are called the calyx.
Female Parts
Pistil is the female structure of flower that has 3 parts:
Stigma
 a slightly flared and sticky structure at the top of the pistil, functions by trapping
pollen grains, the structures that give rise to the sperm cells necessary for
fertilization
Style
 is a narrow stalk that supports the stigma.
 helps connect both the stigma and the ovary with one another. It is the part of
the flower which gets fertilized after pollination.
Ovary - protects the ovules(egg).
 Once fertilization has taken place it will become the fruit
 An ovary that contains one or more ovules also is called a carpel
Male Parts
Stamen
- male reproductive part
-consists of a slender stalk called the filament, which supports the anther, a tiny compartment
where pollen forms.
Anther
- top part of the stamen, that makes pollen.
- helps release the pollen which is spread by the pollinators, wind and/or water.
Filament
- this is the stalk of the Anther
Receptacle and Peduncle
- The receptacle is an area where a flower binds itself to the stalk. After the fertilization process
occurs, this receptacle often becomes part of the fruit produced by the flower.
- the stalk of the flower is often known as a peduncle which provide support for the flower when
it elevates itself to attract pollinators.
Pollination
- the transfer of pollen from the stamen (specifically from the anther) to the pistil (specifically to
the stigma) of a flower.
- initiates the process of fertilization.
Agents of Pollination
- insects (commonly bees), wind, water, humans
Types of Pollination
 Self -pollination
Pollens are transferred to the flower of the same plant.
 Cross-pollination
Pollens are transferred to the flower of another plant.

Parts of a seed
Internal structure of a seed
- After fertilization inside the ovary of a flower, the fertilized egg cell divides many times to form
the embryo. The plant embryo forms a hard wall around itself and is then known as a seed.
- Although seeds may differ in size, shape and color, they have parts which are common. These
are the seed coat, the embryo and the food supply.

- seed coat is tough and waterproof. It covers and protects the embryo and the food supply.
- embryo is the baby plant. A part of the embryo, the radicle, grows into the primary root.
- endorsperm the seed’s own food supply. The cotyledon, or seed leaf, absorbs the food in the
endorsperm and transports it to the embryo.
Important Plant Hormones
- specialized chemical substances produced by plants, are the main internal factors controlling
growth and development.
Abscisic Acid (ABA)
- promotes leaf and fruit fall
- promotes dormancy in seeds and buds
Auxins
- affects the growth and
- development of all plant parts
Ex.
- elongation of stems
- dropping off- of flowers,
- fruits, and leaves
Gibberellins
- promotes growth and seed germination
- which form in the seeds, young leaves, and roots, are also responsible for protein synthesis,
especially in the main stem of the plant
- move upward from the roots
Cytokinins
- form in the roots and move up to the leaves and fruit to maintain growth , cell differentiation,
and promote cell division
Florigen
- promotes flowering
Ethylene
- promotes ripening of fruits
Kinds of Plant Cells
Meristematic Cells
– found in parts where cell division occurs
- found in the meristematic region (apices or tips)
 - cells that are actively dividing
- capable of multiplication
Differentiated Cells
– found in matured parts
- cells that already formed as part of a matured organ
- perform other functions such as storage, strengthening, and photosynthesis.
Meristematic Regions
Meristem – or meristematic region
- the region where growth occurs
 Apical Meristem – found in the apices or tips
 Lateral Meristem – found in the lateral parts
Types of Plant Growth
 Primary Growth
- the growth in terms of height
- occurs in the apices or tips

 Secondary Growth
- the growth in terms of girth or diameter
- occurs in the lateral parts
Plants use photosynthesis to make and store their food. The trigger for this process is light, preferably
natural sunlight. There are two phases:
a.) light dependent reaction and
b.) light independent reaction.
Photosynthesis
- Plants have chlorophyll in their leaves and stems. This green chemical absorbs light and uses this
energy to convert carbon dioxide and water into glucose, a sugar.
Light Dependent Reaction
- Daylight initiates the first phase of photosynthesis.
- This phase of photosynthesis takes place when there is a light source. In the natural world, this
is in daylight. It takes the hydrogen from water, releases oxygen, changes the light energy into
chemical energy and makes glucose.
Light Independent Reaction
- The second phase occurs after the sun goes down.
- It uses oxygen and glucose already made within the plant to create and release water and
carbon dioxide. Depending on how much energy the plant has stored during the daytime, this
process can continue long into the night.
Aerobic Respiration
 At night aerobic respiration takes precedence.
 Plants use aerobic respiration to release energy from the food they produce. In the daytime the
process of photosynthesis makes more energy than the plant can use. At night, when
photosynthesis changes from light-dependent to light-independent, the aerobic respiration
process takes precedence.

Autotrophs are organisms that can produce their own food from the substances available in their
surroundings using light or chemical energy (chemosynthesis).
- are usually plants; they are also called "self feeders" or "primary producers".
E.g.: Plants, algae and some bacteria
Heterotrophs cannot synthesize their own food and rely on other organisms -- both plants and animals
for nutrition.
E.g. : Herbivores, omnivores and carnivores

PLANT NUTRITION
Macronutrients (derived from air and water)
Carbon
- forms the backbone of many plants biomolecules including starches and cellulose. Carbon is
fixed through photosynthesis from the carbon dioxide in the air and is a part of the
carbohydrates that store energy in the plant.
Hydrogen
- also is necessary for building sugars and building the plant. It is obtained almost entirely from water.
Oxygen
- are necessary for plant cellular respiration. Cellular respiration is the process of generating energy-
rich adenosine triphosphate (ATP) via the consumption of sugars made in photosynthesis.

MICRONUTIENTS (PRIMARY)
Phosphorus
- is important in plant bioenergetics -study of the processes by which living cells use, store, and
release energy.
- As a component of ATP, phosphorus is needed for the conversion of light energy to chemical
energy (ATP) during photosynthesis.
- is important for plant growth and flower/seed formation.
- if there’s deficiency in plants is characterized by an intense green coloration in leaves.
- If the plant is experiencing high phosphorus deficiencies
*the leaves may become denatured and show signs of necrosis.
* the leaves may appear purple from an accumulation of anthocyanin .
*Because phosphorus is a mobile nutrient, older leaves will show the first signs of deficiency.
Potassium
- regulates the opening and closing of the stomata Since stomata are important in water
regulation, potassium reduces water loss from the leaves and increases drought tolerance.
- helps in fruit colouration, shape and also increases its brix. Hence, quality fruits are produced in
Potassium rich soils.
- serves as an activator of enzymes used in photosynthesis and respiration.
- Potassium is used to build cellulose and aids in photosynthesis by the formation of a chlorophyll
precursor.
Nitrogen
- is an essential component of all proteins.
-Nitrogen deficiency most often results in stunted growth, slow growth, and chlorosis.
-a yellowing or whitening of a plant's leaves and stems caused by a lack of chlorophyll
- Nitrogen deficient plants will also exhibit a purple appearance on the stems, petioles and
underside of leaves from an accumulation of anthocyanin pigments.
- Most of the nitrogen taken up by plants is from the soil.
-
(secondary and tertiary)
Sulphur
- is essential in the manufacturing of chloroplasts.
- Symptoms of deficiency include yellowing of leaves and stunted growth.
Calcium
- Regulates transport of other nutrients into the plant and is also involved in the activation of
certain plant enzymes.
- Deficiency results in stunting.
- This nutrient is involved in photosynthesis
Iron
- is necessary for photosynthesis and is present as an enzyme cofactor in plants.
- Iron deficiency can result in necrosis. Iron is not a structural part of chlorophyll but very much
essential for its synthesis. Copper deficiency can be responsible for promoting an iron
deficiency.
Copper
- is important for photosynthesis. Symptoms for copper deficiency include chlorosis.
- necessary for proper photosynthesis.
Manganese
- is necessary for photosynthesis, including the building of chloroplasts.
- Manganese deficiency may result in coloration abnormalities, such as discolored spots on the
foliage.
Sodium
 Stomatal function
 Photosynthesis
 Improves the crop quality e.g. improve the taste of carrots by increasing sucrose
Zinc
 is required in a large number of enzymes and plays an essential role in DNA transcription.
 typical symptom of zinc deficiency is the stunted growth of leaves, commonly known as "little
leaf" and is caused by the oxidative degradation of the growth hormone auxin
Magnesium
- is an important part of chlorophyll, a critical plant pigment important in photosynthesis
Silicon
- strengthens cell walls, improving plant strength, health, and productivity.
- other benefits to plants include improved drought and frost resistance, decreased lodging
potential and boosting the plant's natural pest and disease fighting systems.
- shown to improve plant vigor and physiology by improving root mass and density, and
increasing above ground plant biomass and crop yields.
- is the second most abundant element in earth's crust.