TOPIC 1: THE PLANT CELL

The basic structural and functional units of living organisms are called cells. Living organisms,
from bacteria to roses to blue whales, are composed of cells.
Most plant cells and a majority of animal cells are so small that they are invisible to the unaided
eye. However, there are some cells which may be macroscopic.
The unit of measurement used for microscopic objects is usually the micron (pm). (A micron is
equivalent to 0.001 millimeter.)
There are thousands of kinds of cells, but they can be classified in just two ways: a) by their
fundamental structural elements; and b) by the way they obtain food.
Structurally speaking, cells are either prokaryotes or eukaryotes. Prokaryotes cells lack a
nucleus and membrane-bounded organelles. The DNA is scattered in the cytoplasm. All prokaryotes
are independent single-celled organisms. They include eubacteria and archaebacterial. Eukaryotic cells
have membrane-bounded nucleus that houses the DNA in complex structures called chromosomes. In
addition, eukaryotic cells have membrane-bounded organelles like the mitochondria, ER, and Golgi
bodies.
The second classification categorizes cells as either autotrophs or heterotrophs. Autotrophs are
"selffeeders." They use either light energy or chemical energy to manufacture their own food. Plant
cells use light energy in a process called photosynthesis to produce food, while chemosynthetic
bacteria use inorganic substances from their surroundings to synthesize organic materials.
Heterotrophs derive their energy from other organisms.

PARTS OF A PLANT CELL

Starting from the outermost part, the following are the major parts of a plant cell:

1. Cell wall

The cell wall is the outermost part of a plant cell. Almost all plant cells have cell walls, except for
the sperm cells of some seed plants. Cell walls contain large amounts of polysaccharide, of which
cellulose is one. Some cellulose molecules may crystallize to form an extremely strong microfibril.
Cellulose microfibrils are packed together by other polysaccharides called hemicelluloses, which are
produced in dictyosomes or Golgi bodies and brought to the wall by the dictyosome vesicles.
In multicellular plants, the cell wall of one cell is glued to the walls of adjacent cells by an
adhesive-like layer, the middle lamella, which is composed mainly of pectic substances. All plant cells
have cell walls called the primary wall. Between the primary wall and the protoplast, a secondary wall
may arise. This wall is usually much thicker than the primary wall and is impregnated with the
compound lignin, making it stronger—Both the primary and secondary cell walls are permanent; once
deposited, they are never degraded or depolymerized. Cell walls can be found in plant and not in
animal cells.
2. Plasma membrane
Known as the plasmalemma of the cell, the plasma membrane provides a covering for the cell. It is
impermeable to harmful substances and permeable to beneficial ones, which makes it a semi-
permeable membrane. Molecular pumps in the plasma membrane keep substances moving by actively
pumping them in and out of the cell. The plasma membrane is composed of a double layer of
phospholipids and associated proteins. The chemical composition of the plasma membrane is very
important in the transport process.

3. Cytoplasm
It is the largest part of the cell, having many cellular inclusions and organelles surrounded by the
plasma membrane. Cytoplasmic inclusions are as follows:

a. Mitochondria

The process of cellular respiration takes place in this organelle. Compounds such as sugars,
starches, and amino acids are broken down and the energy released is used to synthesize new
compounds that are both highly energetic and very reactive. The most common of these compounds is
adenosine triphosphate (ATP).
The inner membranes of the mitochondria have many tube-like infoldings called cristae. The
folded nature of the cristae increases the mitochondrion's inner surface area, providing more space for
a number of enzymatic activities favorable to its functions. Between the cristae is the liquid matrix, the
site of most chemical reactions. The inner membrane of the mitochondria is the center for ATP
synthesis. The outermost membrane, which is smooth, (i.e., having no folds), is readily permeable to
solutes. Numerous ionic pumps and channels are present, facilitating chemiosmosis.
Mitochondria have their own ribosomes and DNA, both of which are different from their extra-
mitochondrial counterparts. These organelles can grow in size, like the cell, or grow in number as the
demand for respiration increases. They are around 1 pm in diameter and 5 um in length, and are
capable of division. Because of this, the number of mitochondria per cell increases and may range from
100-1000, depending on the function of the cell. (Remember that the morphology of the cell is related to
its physiology. The more mitochondria there are, the more energy can be produced.)

b. Dictyosomes (Golgi bodies)

Dictyosomes consist of disk-shaped sacs that are stacked-up together in a flat or cup-shaped
array close to the endoplasmic reticulum. The tendency of dictyosomes (or Golgi bodies) to form stacks
is related to their functions.
Dictyosomes receive vesicles from the endoplasmic reticulum along the forming face. Once inside
the dictyosome, the material is modified in the lumen of the vesicle. New material may also be
synthesized. The vesicles then start to swell and are released from the maturing face. These secretory
vesicles are either for export to the outside of the cell or for its own use. The cell may use its own
secretory materials for the repair of its worn-out parts or for the formation of lysosomal vesicles.

c. Endoplasmic reticulum
The endoplasmic reticulum is a system of narrow tubes and sheets of membrane forming a
network throughout the cytoplasm. The endoplasmic reticulum to which most of the cell's ribosomes
are attached is called rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER), while the one without attached ribosomes is
called smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER). The smooth ER is involved in lipid synthesis, while the
rough ER is in-charge of protein synthesis. The synthesized proteins from the ribosomes pass through
the ER, where they undergo sorting and modification.

d. Ribosomes
Ribosomes are common structures found dispersed in the cytoplasm or attached to the ER. They
are responsible for protein synthesis in the cell. Comparatively speaking, animal cells synthesize more
proteins and are richer in ribosomes, particularly those found in the liver, compared to plant cells.

e. Microbodies
Microbodies are numerous spherical bodies, about 0.5-1.5 pm in diameter, found in the
cytoplasm. There are two classes of microbodieé: the glyoxysomes and the peroxisomes. Both types
isolate reactions that either produce or use the compound hydrogen peroxide (H202). If peroxide were
to escape from the microbodies, it would damage most things it would come in contact with. However,
these two bodies also contain the enzyme catalase, which detoxifies peroxides through chemical
reactions, converting it to oxygen and water. Peroxisomes can also detoxify some products of
photosynthesis. Glyoxysomes are only found in plant cells and are involved in converting stored fats
into sugars in plants. They are important in the germination of oily seeds, such as those of the
sunflower, peanut, and coconut.

f. Plastids
Like the mitochondria, plastids always have inner and outer membranes, and an inner fluid called
stroma. They also have ribosomes and a circular DNA that is not associated with histones. Plastids
may be grouped into chromoplasts and leucoplasts. Chromoplasts, which include chloroplasts and
carotene, are colored plastids, while leucoplasts, like the proplastids and amyloplasts, are large,
unpigmented plastids. All these pigments help in the process of photosynthesis, either in storage
organelles like amyloplasts, or in photosynthetic organelles like chloroplasts.

g. Microtubules
Microtubules are thin, hollow, tube-like structures that are commonly found just inside the
plasma membrane, where they regulate the addition of cellulose to the cell wall. They are also found in
the spindle fibers and cell plates of dividing cells.

h. Microfilaments

These structures are found in almost all cells as long, protein filaments arranged in bundles. They
play an important role in cyclosis, the streaming movement of the cytoplasm. Together with the
microtubules they form a flexible framework within the cytoplasm.

i. Vacuoles

The most common vacuoles in plants are the water vacuoles. They are filled with a watery fluid
called cell sap. Young plant cells always tend to have smaller vacuoles than older cells. As much as
90% or more of the cell volume may be occupied by one or two large central vacuoles in mature plant
cells.
j. Nucleus

The nucleus is found along the central part of the cell. It is considered to be the control center
where the chromatin material is found. Its main parts are:

1. Nuclear envelope — outermost covering of the nucleus. It is composed of a membrane

perforated by numerous pores.
2. Nucleoplasm — the granular fluid inside the nucleus.

3. Chromatin — darkly-staining bodies inside the nucleus. They contain the genes, which
determine the inherited characteristics of the organism.

4. Nucleolus — the site of synthesis of ribosomal RNA, which, when transported outside
the nucleus, combines with protein to form the ribosomes.

TOPIC 2: HOW MATERIALS ENTER AND LEAVE A CELL

Chemical compounds found in plants are composed of relatively few elements. The inorganic
compounds are relatively simple; the organic compounds are more complex.
Diffusion results from the tendency of molecules to become equally distributed, as illustrated by
the mixing of two gases, of a gas and a liquid, of two liquids, or of a solid and a liquid, to form a
homogeneous mixture. The mixture. of a gas and a liquid, of a solid and a liquid, or of two liquids is a
solution. The liquid involved in a solution is the solvent, the other substance the solute. If two liquids are
concerned one of which is, water, the water is commonly considered the solvent. Solutions occurring in
plants are chiefly of solids, liquids, and gases in water. Solutes in water diffuse independently of one
another, but the process is affected by the nature of the solute. Temperature affects solubility, solids as
a rule becoming more soluble, gases less soluble, as the temperature rises.
Osmosis is diffusion through a membrane. The rate of osmosis varies with the nature of the
membrane, of the solvent, and of the solute, with the concentration of the solute, and with the
temperature. Permeable membranes allow both solvent and solute to diffuse with little hindrance;
impermeable membranes are permeable neither to solvent nor to solute. A differentially permeable
membrane is permeable to both solvent and solute but to different degrees.
A living cell is enclosed by a cell wall and a plasma membrane, both of which are differentially
permeable. Because of its lesser permeability to solutes, the plasma membrane chiefly determines
what substances shall leave; or enter the cell by osmosis. Since solutes are ordinarily more
concentrated within a protoplast than in the liquid outside the cell, water passes into the protoplast by
osmosis and develops a pressure (turgor), causing the cell to become turgid. If the conditions just
mentioned are reversed, water is withdrawn and the protoplast is plasmolyzed.
The structure and composition of living membranes are important in determining what
substances shall enter or leave a cell. The permeability of living membranes varies from time to time,
depending upon conditions within and without the cell, such as age, temperature, and light.
 Osmosis is important in the transport of water and dissolved substances within the plant and in
the absorption of substances in solution from the soil by roots. The form of a non-woody plant is
maintained largely by the turgidity of its cells.
Imbibition plays an important part in the absorption by cell walls of water and dissolved
substances, bringing these substances into contact with the plasma membrane through which they may
pass by imbibition and osmosis. The protoplasts of some plants contain substances which imbibe and
hold large quantities of water, enabling them to endure periods of drought.
Every healthy protoplast possesses a suction tension, resulting from its tendency to take up
water by osmosis and imbibition. Suction tension is a factor not only in the absorption of water, but also
in the transfer of water and dissolved substances.

TOPIC 3: MITOSIS
Mitosis is the process of nuclear division in which the chromosomes are distributed to two
daughter nuclei. Together with cytokinesis, it produces two identical daughter cells.

Interphase is the period of a cell’s life when it carries out its normal metabolic activities and
grows. Interphase is not part of mitosis.

• During interphase, the DNA-containing material is in the form of chromatin. The nuclear
envelope and one or more nucleoli are intact and visible.

• There are three distinct periods of interphase:

 G1: The centrioles begin replicating.
 S: DNA is replicated.
 G2: Final preparations for mitosis are completed and centrioles finish replicating.
Prophase—first phase of mitosis
Early Prophase Late Prophase
• The chromatin condenses, forming barlike • The nuclear envelope breaks up, allowing the
chromosomes. spindle to interact with the chromosomes.

• Each duplicated chromosome consists of two
identical threads, called sister chromatids, held
together at the centromere. (Later when the
chromatids separate, each will be a new
chromosome.)
• Some of the growing spindle microtubules
attach to kinetochores (ki-ne´ to-korz), special
protein structures at each chromosome’s
centromere. Such microtubules are called
kinetochore microtubules.

• As the chromosomes appear, the nucleoli • The remaining spindle microtubules (not
disappear, and the two centrosomes separate attached to any chromosomes) are called polar
from one another. microtubules. The microtubules slide past each
other, forcing the poles apart.
• Microtubule arrays called asters (“stars”) extend
from the centrosome matrix. • The kinetochore microtubules pull on each
chromosome from both poles in a tug-of-war
• The centrosomes act as focal points for growth that ultimately draws the chromosomes to the
of a microtubule assembly called the mitotic center, or equator, of the cell.
spindle. As the microtubules lengthen, they propel
the centrosomes toward opposite ends (poles) of
the cell

Metaphase—second phase of mitosis

• The two centrosomes are at opposite poles of the cell.

• The chromosomes cluster at the midline of the cell, with their centromeres precisely aligned at the
equator of the spindle. This imaginary plane midway between the poles is called the metaphase
plate.

• Enzymes act to separate the chromatids from each other.

Anaphase—third phase of mitosis
The shortest phase of mitosis, anaphase begins abruptly as the centromeres of the
chromosomes split simultaneously. Each chromatid now becomes a chromosome in its own right.

• The kinetochore microtubules, moved along by motor proteins in the kinetochores, gradually pull
each chromosome toward the pole it faces.

• At the same time, the polar microtubules slide past each other, lengthen, and push the two poles of
the cell apart.

• The moving chromosomes look V shaped. The centromeres lead the way, and the chromosomal
“arms” dangle behind them.

• Moving and separating the chromosomes is helped by the fact that the chromosomes are short,
compact bodies. Diffuse threads of chromatin would trail, tangle, and break, resulting in imprecise
“parceling out” to the daughter cells.

Telophase —final phase of mitosis

Telophase begins as soon as chromosomal movement stops. This final phase is like
prophase in reverse.

• The identical sets of chromosomes at the opposite poles of the cell uncoil and resume their
threadlike chromatin form.

• A new nuclear envelope forms around each chromatin mass, nucleoli reappear within the nuclei,
and the spindle breaks down and disappears.

• Mitosis is now ended. The cell, for just a brief period, is binucleate (has two nuclei) and each new
nucleus is identical to the original mother nucleus.

Cytokinesis begins during late anaphase and continues through and beyond telophase. A
contractile ring of actin microfilaments forms the cleavage furrow and pinches the cell apart.
TOPIC 4: THE PLANT TISSUE
The individual cells of multicellular organisms are arranged into groups that function collectively as
tissues. In plants, tissues work together for the organ and organ systems to function well.
Plant tissues may be classified based on their origin, structure, and function.
The two major types of plant tissues, based on origin, are:
1. Meristematic or embryonic tissues
- tissues in which cells actively divide. They are responsible for the production of more cells. Old cells
come from these group of young cells. The new cells produced are typically small, each with a
proportionately large nucleus in the center and tiny vacuoles or no vacuoles at all. As they mature, they
assume different shapes and sizes related to the cells' ultimate function.

2. Permanent tissues

- tissues derived from the meristems that have already assumed various shapes and sizes related to
their specific functions as they develop and mature. They are usually non-dividing cells, with a few
exceptions.

Meristematic tissues based on their location in the body of the plants are:
a. Apical meristems — found at the tips of shoots and roots. They increase in length as the
apical meristems produce new cells. Three primary meristems develop from each apical
meristem, namely: protoderm, ground meristem and procambium. The tissues produced are
called primary meristems.

b. Lateral metistems or cambia — meristems that increase the girth or diameter of the plant.
They are found along the sides of some roots and stems. Two types of lateral meristems are
usually present in dicot plants. These are the vascular cambium and cork cambium.
c. Intercalary meristems — usually found in the vicinity of nodes (leaf attachment areas), which
occur at intervals along stems. Just like the apical meristems, they also increase the length of
stems. These are short-lived meristems since they are eventually transformed into permanent
tissues.
Permanent tissues based on the type of cells present:
a. Simple permanent tissues — these tissues are mostly composed of only one kind of cell. These
cells are uniform in function and structure.

b. Complex permanent tissues— these tissues are composed of several kinds of cells working
together to perform a specific function in the body.

A. SIMPLE PERMANENT TISSUES

KINDS OF SIMPLE PERMANENT TISSUES
1. Parenchyma — these are the most abundant of all the cell types found in almost all major par-s
higher plants. The cells are more or less spherical in shape when newly produced, but when mature,
they push against each other and their thin, pliable walls are flattened at the poin:s contact. As a
result, they assume various shapes. They are usually big and thin-walled, with vacuoles and air
spaces in between the cells. Parenchyma tissues with extensive connected spaces are referred to as
aerenchyma, while parenchyma cells containing numerous chloroplas= called chlorenchyma.
Parenchyma tissues generally function for food and waste storage. The edible parts of most and
vegetables consist largely of parenchyma.
2. Collenchyma — this tissue is composed of thick-walled cells of uneven thickness. Collenchyma
cells often occur just beneath the epidermis. Typically, they are longer than they are wide and cell
walls are pliable as well as strong. They are usually smaller than parenchyma cells.
3. Sclerenchyma — characterized by cells that are thick and tough-walled. These are impregnated
with lignin. Most sclerenchyma cells are dead at maturity. They, however, supporting tissues in plants.

Two types of sclerenchyma are:

a. Sclereids — may be distributed randomly in other tissues. For example, the gritty textz:: chico
and pears is due to sclereids, or stone cells, present in the fruit.
b. Fibers— may be found in association with different tissues. They are usually much longer =
broad and have a tiny cavity or lumen in the center of the cell.
4. Epidermis — this is the outermost layer of cells found in all young plant organs. This is usually cell
thick although may be of several layers in some.

Most epidermal cells screte a fatty substance called cutin. It forms a protective layer called cuticle.

Hairs or trichomes of different nature occus on the epidermis of above-ground plants. They may
consist of one to seven cells. Some may glandular in nature, just like the trichomes found in oregano
palnts.

Leaves also have numerous small pores or stomata bordered by pairs of specialized epidermal cells
called guard cells. Guard cells differ in shape from other epidermal cells due to the presence of
chloroplasts within.
Some epidermal cells may also be modified as glands that secrete protective covering.

5. Cork — serves as the outermost covering of old stems and old roots of woody dicot plants. This
consists of several layers of dead cells when mature. Their cell walls are impregnated with a waxy
substance called suberin, which renders them impermeable to substances such as water. This results
in their death upon maturity.
6. Secretory tissues — composed of secretory cells that produce hormones or waste products no
longer important to the plant.
Among the most common secretory tissues are those that secrete nectar in flowers, oil in citrus,
menthol in mint leaves, and mucilage, latex, and resins in pine trees.
B. COMPLEX PERMANENT TISSUES

These are the tissues that occur in definite positions in a plant's body and are associate definite
functions. There are two types of complex tissues in the body of a plant: xylem and phloem. The xylem
is concerned primarily with the transport of water and minerals from the soil to the various parts of the
plants. The phloem is responsible for the translocation of food manufactured by the leaves parts of the
plant.
XYLEM
This is composed of four cell types, namely:
1. Xylem fibers — similar in appearance to ordinary schlerenchyma fibers.
2. Xylem parenchyma — smaller in size than ordinary parenchyma cells.

3. Vessels — long tubes made up of individual cells that are open at each end and are join—. to end to
form the tubes. They are shorter and much wider than tracheids.

4. Tracheids — more or less elongated cells with oblique and tapering end walls. They are in cross-
section and are dead at maturity.
Tracheids and vessel elements make up the so-called tracheary elements of the xylem. T
elements are grouped into 5 types based on structure. They are the following:

a. Spiral — helical or spiral appearance of the thickening

b. Scalariform — thickenings appear ladder-like
c. Pitted type — with rounded depressions or pore-like structures called pits
d. Reticulate — thickenings appear webbed or net-like
e. Annular — cell wall thickenings in ring-like forms

PHLOEM

A complex permanent tissue composed of:

1. Companion cells- small, nucleated parenchymatous cells that are usually associated with some sieve
tubs,

2. Phloem fibers- look like ordinary sclerenchyma cells.

3. Phloem parenchyma- look like ordinary parenchyma cells.

4. Sieve tube elements- elongated cells joined end to end, forming sieve tubes. Their end walls or cross
walls have a large number of small pores called sieve plates. Sieve tubes are living cells that do not
have nuclei. Their walls are not lignified.