Forest Botany Unit 5 and 6

CELL STRUCUTRE AND PLANT TISSUES

The cell is the basic structural, functional, and biological unit of all known living organisms. A
cell is the smallest unit of life. Cells are often called the "building blocks of life". The study of
cells is called cell biology.

Cells are of two types: eukaryotic, which contain a nucleus, and prokaryotic, which do not.
Prokaryotes are single-celled organisms, while eukaryotes can be either single-celled or
multicellular.

Sub cellular components

All cells, whether prokaryotic or eukaryotic, have a membrane that envelops the cell, regulates
what moves in and out (selectively permeable), and maintains the electric potential of the cell.
Inside the membrane, the cytoplasm takes up most of the cell's volume.

In cell biology, the cytoplasm is all of the material within a cell, enclosed by the cell membrane,
except for the cell nucleus. The material inside the nucleus and contained within the nuclear
membrane is termed the nucleoplasm. The main components of the cytoplasm are cytosol – a
gel-like substance, the organelles – the cell's internal sub-structures, and various cytoplasmic
inclusions. The cytoplasm is about 80% water and usually colorless.[1]

Protoplasm is the living content of a cell that is surrounded by a plasma membrane

Protoplast is a biological term proposed by Hanstein in 1880 to refer to the entire cell, excluding
the cell wall.

The cytosol, also known as intracellular fluid (ICF) or cytoplasmic matrix is the liquid found
inside cells.[2] It is separated into compartments by membranes. For example, the mitochondrial
matrix separates the mitochondrion into many compartments.

Membrane

The cell membrane, or plasma membrane, is a biological membrane that surrounds the cytoplasm
of a cell. In animals, the plasma membrane is the outer boundary of the cell, while in plants and
prokaryotes it is usually covered by a cell wall.

This membrane serves to separate and protect a cell from its surrounding environment and is
made mostly from a double layer of phospholipids, which are amphiphilic (partly hydrophobic
and partly hydrophilic). Hence, the layer is called a phospholipid bilayer, or sometimes a fluid
mosaic membrane. Embedded within this membrane is a variety of protein molecules that act as
channels and pumps that move different molecules into and out of the cell.[3]

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FUNTIONS: The membrane is semi-permeable, and selectively permeable, in that it can either
let a substance (molecule or ion) pass through freely, pass through to a limited extent or not pass
through at all. Cell surface membranes also contain receptor proteins that allow cells to detect
external signaling molecules such as hormones.

Cytoskeleton

The cytoskeleton acts to organize and maintain the cell's shape; anchors organelles in place;
helps during endocytosis, the uptake of external materials by a cell, and cytokinesis, the
separation of daughter cells after cell division; and moves parts of the cell in processes of growth
and mobility. The eukaryotic cytoskeleton is composed of microfilaments, intermediate filaments
and microtubules. There are a great number of proteins associated with them, each controlling a
cell's structure by directing, bundling, and aligning filaments.

Organelles

Organelles are parts of the cell which are adapted and/or specialized for carrying out one or more
vital functions, analogous to the organs of the human body (such as the heart, lung, and kidney,
with each organ performing a different function).[3] Both eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells have
organelles, but prokaryotic organelles are generally simpler and are not membrane-bound.

There are several types of organelles in a cell. Some (such as the nucleus and golgi apparatus)
are typically solitary, while others (such as mitochondria, chloroplasts, peroxisomes and
lysosomes) can be numerous (hundreds to thousands).

Cell nucleus:.

In cell biology, the nucleus (pl. nuclei; from Latin nucleus or nuculeus, meaning kernel or seed)
is a membrane-enclosed organelle found in eukaryotic cells. Eukaryotes usually have a single
nucleus, but a few cell types, such as mammalian red blood cells, have no nuclei, and a few
others including osteoclasts have many.

Cell nuclei contain most of the cell's genetic material, organized as multiple long linear DNA
molecules in a complex with a large variety of proteins, such as histones, to form chromosomes.
The genes within these chromosomes are the cell's nuclear genome and are structured in such a
way to promote cell function. The nucleus maintains the integrity of genes and controls the
activities of the cell by regulating gene expression—the nucleus is, therefore, the control center
of the cell.

The main structures making up the nucleus are the nuclear envelope, a double membrane that
encloses the entire organelle and isolates its contents from the cellular cytoplasm, and the nuclear
matrix (which includes the nuclear lamina), a network within the nucleus that adds mechanical
support, much like the cytoskeleton, which supports the cell as a whole.

Functions

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Because the nuclear envelope is impermeable to large molecules, nuclear pores are required to
regulate nuclear transport of molecules across the envelope. The pores cross both nuclear
membranes, providing a channel through which larger molecules must be actively transported by
carrier proteins while allowing free movement of small molecules and ions. Movement of large
molecules such as proteins and RNA through the pores is required for both gene expression and
the maintenance of chromosomes. Although the interior of the nucleus does not contain any
membrane-bound subcompartments, its contents are not uniform, and a number of sub-nuclear
bodies exist, made up of unique proteins, RNA molecules, and particular parts of the
chromosomes. The best-known of these is the nucleolus, which is mainly involved in the
assembly of ribosomes. After being produced in the nucleolus, ribosomes are exported to the
cytoplasm where they translate mRNA.

Mitochondria

The mitochondrion (plural mitochondria) is a double-membrane-bound organelle found in

most eukaryotic organisms. Some cells in some multicellular organisms may, however, lack
them (for example, mature mammalian red blood cells).

Mitochondria are commonly between 0.75 and 3 μm in diameter [5] but vary considerably in size
and structure. Unless specifically stained, they are not visible.. These compartments or regions
include the outer membrane, the intermembrane space, the inner membrane, and the cristae and
matrix.

Although most of a cell's DNA is contained in the cell nucleus, the mitochondrion has its own
independent genome that shows substantial similarity to bacterial genomes.

Functions:

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

PLASTID

The plastid is a membrane-bound organelle[1] found in the cells of plants, algae, and some other
eukaryotic organisms.

Plastids are the site of manufacture and storage of important chemical compounds used by the
cells of autotrophic eukaryotes. They often contain pigments used in photosynthesis, and the
types of pigments in a plastid determine the cell's color. They have a common evolutionary
origin and possess a double-stranded DNA molecule that is circular, like that of prokaryotic
cells.

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Plastids that contain chlorophyll can carry out photosynthesis and are called chloroplasts.
Plastids can also store products like starch and can synthesize fatty acids and terpenes, which can
be used for producing energy and as raw material for the synthesis of other molecules. For
example, the components of the plant cuticle and its epicuticular wax are synthesized by the
epidermal cells from palmitic acid, which is synthesized in the chloroplasts of the mesophyll
tissue.[2] All plastids are derived from proplastids, which are present in the meristematic regions
of the plant. Proplastids and young chloroplasts commonly divide by binary fission, but more
mature chloroplasts also have this capacity.

Types

In plants, plastids may differentiate into several forms, depending upon which function they play
in the cell. Undifferentiated plastids (proplastids) may develop into any of the following
variants:[3]

 Chloroplasts: green plastids for photosynthesis; see also etioplasts, the predecessors of
chloroplasts
 Chromoplasts: coloured plastids for pigment synthesis and storage
 Gerontoplasts: control the dismantling of the photosynthetic apparatus during plant
senescence
 Leucoplasts: colourless plastids for monoterpene synthesis; leucoplasts sometimes
differentiate into more specialized plastids:
o Amyloplasts: for starch storage and detecting gravity (for geotropism)

o Elaioplasts: for storing fat

o Proteinoplasts: for storing and modifying protein

o Tannosomes: for synthesizing and producing tannins and polyphenols

Endoplasmic reticulum

The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a type of organelle found in eukaryotic cells that forms an
interconnected network of flattened, membrane-enclosed sacs or tube-like structures known as
cisternae. The membranes of the ER are continuous with the outer nuclear membrane. The
endoplasmic reticulum occurs in most types of eukaryotic cells, but is absent from red blood
cells and spermatozoa.

There are two types of endoplasmic reticulum: rough (granular) and smooth (agranular). The
outer (cytosolic) face of the rough endoplasmic reticulum is studded with ribosomes that are the
sites of protein synthesis. The rough endoplasmic reticulum is especially prominent in cells such

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as hepatocytes. The smooth endoplasmic reticulum lacks ribosomes and functions in lipid
manufacture and metabolism, the production of steroid hormones, and detoxification.[1] The
smooth ER is especially abundant in mammalian liver and gonad cells.

The general structure of the endoplasmic reticulum is a network of membranes called cisternae.
These sac-like structures are held together by the cytoskeleton. The phospholipid membrane
encloses the cisternal space (or lumen), which is continuous with the perinuclear space but
separate from the cytosol.

Functions

The functions of the endoplasmic reticulum can be summarized as the synthesis and export of
proteins and membrane lipids, but varies between ER and cell type and cell function. The
quantity of both rough and smooth endoplasmic reticulum in a cell can slowly interchange from
one type to the other, depending on the changing metabolic activities of the cell. Transformation
can include embedding of new proteins in membrane as well as structural changes. Changes in
protein content may occur without noticeable structural changes.

Golgi apparatus:

The Golgi apparatus, also known as the Golgi complex, Golgi body, or simply the Golgi, is an
organelle found in most eukaryotic cells.[1] It was identified in 1897 by the Italian scientist
Camillo Golgi and named after him in 1898.[2]

Part of the endomembrane system in the cytoplasm, the Golgi apparatus packages proteins into
membrane-bound vesicles inside the cell before the vesicles are sent to their destination. The
Golgi apparatus resides at the intersection of the secretory, lysosomal, and endocytic pathways. It
is of particular importance in processing proteins for secretion, containing a set of glycosylation
enzymes that attach various sugar monomers to proteins as the proteins move through the
apparatus.

Function

The Golgi apparatus is a major collection and dispatch station of protein products received from
the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). Proteins synthesized in the ER are packaged into vesicles,
which then fuse with the Golgi apparatus. These cargo proteins are modified and destined for
secretion via exocytosis or for use in the cell. In this respect, the Golgi can be thought of as
similar to a post office: it packages and labels items which it then sends to different parts of the
cell or to the extracellular space. The Golgi apparatus is also involved in lipid transport and
lysosome formation.[10]

Lysosomes Lysosomes contain digestive enzymes (acid hydrolases). They digest excess or
worn-out organelles, food particles, and engulfed viruses or bacteria.

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Peroxisomes have enzymes that rid the cell of toxic peroxides. The cell could not house these
destructive enzymes if they were not contained in a membrane-bound system.[3]

Centrosome: the cytoskeleton organiser: The centrosome produces the microtubules of a cell – a
key component of the cytoskeleton. It directs the transport through the ER and the Golgi
apparatus. Centrosomes are composed of two centrioles, which separate during cell division and
help in the formation of the mitotic spindle. A single centrosome is present in the animal cells.
They are also found in some fungi and algae cells.

Vacuoles:

A vacuole is a membrane-bound organelle which is present in all plant and fungal cells and
some protist, animal[1] and bacterial cells[2][verification needed] and are essentially enclosed
compartments which are filled with water containing inorganic and organic molecules including
enzymes in solution, though in certain cases they may contain solids which have been engulfed.
Vacuoles are formed by the fusion of multiple membrane vesicles and are effectively just larger
forms of these.[3] The organelle has no basic shape or size; its structure varies according to the
requiThe function and significance of vacuoles varies greatly according to the type of cell in
which they are present, having much greater prominence in the cells of plants, fungi and certain
protists than those of animals and bacteria. In general, the functions of the vacuole include:

Isolating materials that might be harmful or a threat to the cell

Containing waste products

Containing water in plant cells

Maintaining internal hydrostatic pressure or turgor within the cell

Maintaining an acidic internal pH

Containing small molecules

Exporting unwanted substances from the cell

Allows plants to support structures such as leaves and flowers due to the pressure of the
central vacuole

By increasing in size, allows the germinating plant or its organs (such as leaves) to grow
very quickly and using up mostly just water.[4]

In seeds, stored proteins needed for germination are kept in 'protein bodies', which are
modified vacuoles.

Ribosomes: The ribosome is a large complex of RNA and protein molecules.[3] They each
consist of two subunits, and act as an assembly line where RNA from the nucleus is used to
synthesise proteins from amino acids. Ribosomes can be found either floating freely or bound to
a membrane (the rough endoplasmatic reticulum in eukaryotes, or the cell membrane in
prokaryotes).[18]

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Structures outside the cell membrane

Many cells also have structures which exist wholly or partially outside the cell membrane. These
structures are notable because they are not protected from the external environment by the
semipermeable cell membrane. In order to assemble these structures, their components must be
carried across the cell membrane by export processes.

Plant cell walls

Plant cell walls vary from 0.1 to several µm in thickness.

Up to three strata or layers may be found in plant cell walls:

 The primary cell wall, generally a thin, flexible and extensible layer formed while the
cell is growing.
 The secondary cell wall, a thick layer formed inside the primary cell wall after the cell is
fully grown. It is not found in all cell types. Some cells, such as the conducting cells in
xylem, possess a secondary wall containing lignin, which strengthens and waterproofs the
wall.
 The middle lamella, a layer rich in pectins. This outermost layer forms the interface
between adjacent plant cells and glues them together

Composition

In the primary (growing) plant cell wall, the major carbohydrates are cellulose, hemicellulose
and pectin. The outer part of the primary cell wall of the plant epidermis is usually impregnated
with cutin and wax, forming a permeability barrier known as the plant cuticle.

Secondary cell walls contain a wide range of additional compounds that modify their mechanical
properties and permeability. The major polymers that make up wood (largely secondary cell
walls) include:

 cellulose, 35-50%
 xylan, 20-35%, a type of hemicellulose
 lignin, 10-25%, a complex phenolic polymer that penetrates the spaces in the cell wall
between cellulose, hemicellulose and pectin components, driving out water and
strengthening the wall.

Secondary walls - especially in grasses - may also contain microscopic silica crystals, which may
strengthen the wall and protect it from herbivores.

Cells with secondary cell walls can be rigid, as in the gritty sclereid cells in pear and quince fruit.
Cell to cell communication is possible through pits in the secondary cell wall that allow
plasmodesmata to connect cells through the secondary cell walls.

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The middle lamella is laid down first, formed from the cell plate during cytokinesis, and the
primary cell wall is then deposited inside the middle lamella. [clarification needed] The cells are held
together and share the gelatinous membrane called the middle lamella, which contains
magnesium and calcium pectates (salts of pectic acid). Cells interact though plasmodesmata,
which are inter-connecting channels of cytoplasm that connect to the protoplasts of adjacent cells
across the cell wall.

Functions:

Cell walls serve similar purposes in those organisms that possess them. They may give cells
rigidity and strength, offering protection against mechanical stress. In multicellular organisms,
they permit the organism to build and hold a definite shape (morphogenesis). Cell walls also
limit the entry of large molecules that may be toxic to the cell. They further permit the creation
of stable osmotic environments by preventing osmotic lysis and helping to retain water. Their
composition, properties, and form may change during the cell cycle and depend on growth
conditions.

In most cells, the cell wall is flexible, meaning that it will bend rather than holding a fixed shape,
but has considerable tensile strengt

Cytoplasm inclusions (non -living)/ ergastic materials

They are diverse intracellular [1] non-living substances [2] that are not able to carry out any
metabolic activity and are not bound by membranes. Inclusions are stored nutrients, secretory
products, and pigment granules.

1.A carbohydrate is a biomolecule consisting of carbon (C), hydrogen (H) and oxygen (O)
atoms, usually with a hydrogen–oxygen atom ratio of 2:1 (as in water) and thus with the
empirical formula Cm(H2O)n (where m may be different from n)

The major dietary carbohydrates

Class Subgroup Components

Monosaccharides Glucose, galactose, fructose, xylose

Sugars Disaccharides Sucrose, lactose, maltose, trehalose

Polyols Sorbitol, mannitol

Oligosaccharides Malto-oligosaccharides Maltodextrins

Other oligosaccharides Raffinose, stachyose, fructo-oligosaccharides

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 Starch Amylose, amylopectin, modified starches
Polysaccharides Non-starch Glycogen, Cellulose, Hemicellulose, Pectins,
polysaccharides Hydrocolloid

2. Proteins are large biomolecules, or macromolecules, consisting of one or more long chains of
amino acid residues. Proteins perform a vast array of functions within organisms, including
catalysing metabolic reactions, DNA replication, responding to stimuli, providing structure to
cells and organisms, and transporting molecules from one location to another. Proteins differ
from one another primarily in their sequence of amino acids, which is dictated by the nucleotide
sequence of their genes, and which usually results in protein folding into a specific three-
dimensional structure that determines its activity.

3. In biology and biochemistry, a lipid is a biomolecule that is soluble in nonpolar solvents.[3]

Non-polar solvents are typically hydrocarbons used to dissolve other naturally occurring
hydrocarbon lipid molecules that do not (or do not easily) dissolve in water, including fatty
acids, waxes, sterols, fat-soluble vitamins (such as vitamins A, D, E, and K), monoglycerides,
diglycerides, triglycerides, and phospholipids.

Other cell products

1.tannins (or tannoids) are a class of astringent, polyphenolic biomolecules that bind to and
precipitate proteins and various other organic compounds including amino acids and alkaloids.

The tannin compounds are widely distributed in many species of plants, where they play a role in
protection from predation, and perhaps also as pesticides, and might help in regulating plant
growth.[1] The astringency from the tannins is what causes the dry and puckery feeling in the
mouth following the consumption of unripened fruit, red wine or tea. [2] Likewise, the destruction
or modification of tannins with time plays an important role when determining harvesting times.

2. An essential oil is a concentrated hydrophobic liquid containing volatile (easily evaporated at

normal temperatures) aroma compounds from plants. Essential oils are also known as volatile
oils, ethereal oils, aetherolea, or simply as the oil of the plant from which they were extracted,
such as oil of clove. An essential oil is "essential" in the sense that it contains the "essence of"
the plant's fragrance—the characteristic fragrance of the plant from which it is derived.

3.In polymer chemistry and materials science, resin is a solid or highly viscous substance of
plant or synthetic origin that is typically convertible into polymers.[1] Resins are usually mixtures
of organic compounds. This article focuses on naturally-occurring resins.

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Plants secrete resins for their protective benefits in response to injury. The resin protects the
plant from insects and pathogens.[2] Resins confound a wide range of herbivores, insects, and
pathogens, while the volatile phenolic compounds may attract benefactors such as parasitoids or
predators of the herbivores that attack the plant.[3]

4. Natural gums are polysaccharides of natural origin, capable of causing a large increase in a
solution’s viscosity, even at small concentrations. They are mostly botanical gums, found in the
woody elements of plants or in seed coatings.

5. Alkaloids are a class of naturally occurring organic compounds that mostly contain basic
nitrogen atoms. This group also includes some related compounds with neutral [2] and even
weakly acidic properties.[3] Some synthetic compounds of similar structure may also be termed
alkaloids.[4] In addition to carbon, hydrogen and nitrogen, alkaloids may also contain oxygen,
sulfur and, more rarely, other elements such as chlorine, bromine, and phosphorus.[5]

Alkaloids are produced by a large variety of organisms including bacteria, fungi, plants, and
animals

6. The organic acids occupy a central position in the metabolism of plants. They are early
products of photosynthesis and as such serve as precursors for the synthesis of many other
compounds. They also arise as products of the degradation of the more reduced chemical entities
in the plant.

7. Crystals of various minerals are found in plants as waste products. These crystals are made up
of calcium oxalate or calcium carbonate. The crystals of calcium carbonate are found in
cellulose walls. In banyan (Ficus) leaves are developed in the shape of bunch of grapes and are
said as Cystolith.

Topic: Plant tissues

Plant tissues can also be divided differently into two types:

1. Meristematic tissues
2. Permanent tissues.

Meristematic tissues

Meristematic tissue consists of actively dividing cells, and leads to increase in length and
thickness of the plant. The primary growth of a plant occurs only in certain, specific regions,
such as in the tips of stems or roots. It is in these regions that meristematic tissue is present. Cells
in these tissues are roughly spherical or polyhedral, to rectangular in shape, and have thin cell
walls. New cells produced by meristem are initially those of meristem itself, but as the new cells
grow and mature, their characteristics slowly change and they become differentiated as
components of the region of occurrence of meristematic tissues, they are classified as:

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  Apical Meristem - It is present at the growing tips of stems and roots and increases the
length of the stem and root. They form growing parts at the apices of roots and stems and
are responsible for the increase in length, also called primary growth. This meristem is
responsible for the linear growth of an organ.
 Lateral Meristem - This meristem consists of cells which mainly divide in one plane and
cause the organ to increase in diameter and growth. Lateral meristem usually occurs
beneath the bark of the tree in the form of Cork Cambium and in vascular bundles of
dicots in the form of vascular cambium. The activity of this cambium results in the
formation of secondary growth.
 Intercalary Meristem - This meristem is located in between permanent tissues. It is
usually present at the base of the node, internode and on leaf base. They are responsible
for growth in length of the plant and increasing the size of the internode, They result in
branch formation and growth.

The cells of meristematic tissues are similar in structure and have thin and elastic primary cell
wall made up of cellulose. They are compactly arranged without inter-cellular spaces between
them. Each cell contains a dense cytoplasm and a prominent nucleus. Dense protoplasm of
meristematic cells contains very few vacuoles. Normally the meristematic cells are oval,
polygonal or rectangular in shape.

Meristematic tissue cells have a large nucleus with small or no vacuoles, they have no
intercellular spaces.

Permanent tissues

Permanent tissues may be defined as a group of living or dead cells formed by meristematic
tissue and have lost their ability to divide and have permanently placed at fixed positions in the
plant body. Meristematic tissues that take up a specific role lose the ability to divide. This
process of taking up a permanent shape, size and a function is called cellular differentiation.
Cells of meristematic tissue differentiate to form different types of permanent tissues. There are
3 types of permanent tissues:

1. simple permanent tissues

2. complex permanent tissues
3. special or secretory tissues (glandular).

Simple tissues

A group of cells which are similar in origin; similar in structure and similar in function are called
simple permanent tissue. They are of four types:

1. Parenchyma
2. Collenchyma
3. Sclerenchyma

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 4. Epidermis (botany)

Parenchyma

Parenchyma (para - 'beside'; enchyma - 'tissue') is the bulk of a substance. In plants, it consists of
relatively unspecialized living cells with thin cell walls that are usually loosely packed so that
intercellular spaces are found between cells of this tissue. These are generally isodiametric, in
shape. This tissue provides support to plants and also stores food. In some situations,
parenchyma contains chlorophyll and performs photosynthesis, in which case it is called a
chlorenchyma. In aquatic plants, large air cavities are present in parenchyma to give support to
them to float on water. Such a parenchyma type is called aerenchyma. Some of the parenchyma
cells have metabolic waste and is known as idioblast. Spindle shape fiber also contained into this
cell to support them and known as prosenchyma, succulent parenchyma also noted.

Collenchyma

Cross-section of a flax plant stem with several layers of different tissue types:
1. Pith
2. Protoxylem
3. Xylem I
4. Phloem I
5. Sclerenchyma (bast fibre)
6. Cortex
7. Epidermis

Cross section of collenchyma cells

Collenchyma is Greek word where "Collen" means gum and "chyma" means infusion. It is a
living tissue of primary body like Parenchyma. Cells are thin-walled but possess thickening of
cellulose, water and pectin substances (pectocellulose) at the corners where a number of cells

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join together. This tissue gives tensile strength to the plant and the cells are compactly arranged
and have very little inter-cellular spaces. It occurs chiefly in hypodermis of stems and leaves. It
is absent in monocots and in roots. Sometimes it contains chlorophyll which can help them
photosynthesize.

Collenchymatous tissue acts as a supporting tissue in stems of young plants. It provides

mechanical support, elasticity, and tensile strength to the plant body. It helps in manufacturing
sugar and storing it as starch. It is present in the margin of leaves and resists tearing effect of the
wind.

Schlerenchyma

Schlerenchyma is Greek word where "Schlerena" means hard and "chyma" means infusion. This
tissue consists of thick-walled, dead cells and protoplasm is negligible. These cells have hard and
extremely thick secondary walls due to uniform distribution and high secretion of lignin. They
do not have intermolecular space between them. Lignin deposition is so thick that the cell walls
become strong, rigid and impermeable to water which is also known as a stone cell or sclereids.
These tissues are mainly of two types: sclerenchyma fiber and sclereids. Schlerenchyma cells
have a narrow lumen and are long, narrow and unicellular. .

Complex permanent tissue

The complex tissue consists of more than one type of cells which work together as a unit.
Complex tissues help in the transportation of organic material, water, and minerals up and down
the plants. That is why it is also known as conducting and vascular tissue. The common types of
complex permanent tissue are:

 Xylem or wood
 Phloem or bast.

Xylem and phloem together form vascular bundles.

Xylem

Xylem consists of:

 Tracheids
 Vessel members
 Xylem fibres
 Xylem parenchyma

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Cross section of 2-year-old Tilia Americana, highlighting xylem ray shape and orientation.

Xylem serves as a chief conducting tissue of vascular plants.

It is responsible for the conduction of water and mineral ions/salt. Xylem tissue is organized in a
tube-like fashion along the main axes of stems and roots. It consists of a combination of
parenchyma cells, fibers, vessels, tracheids, and ray cells. Longer tubes made up of individual
cells are vessels tracheids, while vessel members are open at each end. Internally, there may be
bars of wall material extending across the open space. These cells are joined end to end to form
long tubes. Vessel members and tracheids are dead at maturity. Tracheids have thick secondary
cell walls and are tapered at the ends. They do not have end openings such as the vessels. The
tracheids end overlap with each other, with pairs of pits present. The pit pairs allow water to pass
from cell to cell.

Though most conduction in xylem tissue is vertical, lateral conduction along the diameter of a
stem is facilitated via rays.[1] Rays are horizontal rows of long-living parenchyma cells that arise
out of the vascular cambium. In trees and other woody plants, rays radiate out from the center of
stems and roots and appear like spokes on a wheel in cross section. Rays, unlike vessel members
and tracheids, are alive at functional maturity.[2]

Phloem

Phloem consists of:

 Sieve tube
 Companion cell
 Phloem fibre
 Phloem parenchyma.

Phloem is an equally important plant tissue as it also is part of the 'plumbing system' of a plant.
Primarily, phloem carries dissolved food substances throughout the plant. This conduction
system is composed of sieve-tube member and companion cells that are without secondary walls.
The parent cells of the vascular cambium produce both xylem and phloem. This usually also
includes fibers, parenchyma and ray cells. Sieve tubes are formed from sieve-tube members laid
end to end. The end walls, unlike vessel members in xylem, do not have openings. The end

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walls, however, are full of small pores where cytoplasm extends from cell to cell. These porous
connections are called sieve plates. In spite of the fact that their cytoplasm is actively involved in
the conduction of food materials, sieve-tube members do not have nuclei at maturity. It is the
companion cells that are nestled between sieve-tube members that function in some manner
bringing about the conduction of food. Sieve-tube members that are alive contain a polymer
called callose, a carbohydrate polymer, forming the callus pad/callus, the colourless substance
that covers the sieve plate. Callose stays in solution as long as the cell contents are under
pressure. Phloem transports food and materials in plants upwards and downwards as required.

Plant secretory tissue

The tissues that are concerned with the secretion of gums, resins, volatile oils, nectar latex, and
other substances in plants are called secretory tissues These tissues are divided into two groups-

1. Laticiferous tissues
2. Glandular tissues

Laticiferous tissues

These consist of thin walled, greatly elongated and much branched ducts containing a milky or
yellowish colored juice known as latex. They contain numerous nuclei which lie embedded in
the thin lining layer of protoplasm. They irregularly distributed in the mass of parenchymatous
cells. Laticiferous ducts, in which latex are found are again two types-

1. Latex cell or non-articulate latex ducts

2. Latex vessels or articulate latex

Latex cells

Also called as "non-articulate latex ducts", these ducts are independent units which extend as
branched structures for long distances in the plant body. They originate as minute structures,
elongate quickly and by repeated branching ramify in all directions but do not fuse together.
Thus a network is not formed as in latex vessels.

Latex vessel

Also called "articulate latex ducts", these ducts or vecssels are the result of anastamosing of
many cells together. They grow more or less as parallel ducts which by means of branching and
frequent anastamose form a complex network. Latex vessels are commonly found in many
angiosperm families Papaveraceae, Compositae, Euphorbiaceae, Moraceae, etc.

Function

The function of laticiferous ducts is not clearly understood. They may also act as food storage
organs or as reservoir of waste products. They may also act as translocatory tissues.

15
Glandular tissues

This tissue consists of special structures; the glands. These glands contain some secretory or
excretory products. A gland may consist of isolated cells or small group cells with or without a
central cavity. They are of various kinds and may be internal or external.
Internal glands are


 Oil-gland secreting essential oils, as in the fruits and leaves of orange, lemon.
 Mucilage secreting glands, as in the betel leaf
 Glands secreting gum, resin, tannin, etc.
 Digestive glands secreting enzymes or digestive agents
 Special water secreting glands at the tip of veins

External glands are commonly short hairs tipped by glands. They are

 water-secreting hairs or glands,

 Glandular hairs secreting gum like substances as in tobacco, plumbago, etc.
 Glandular hairs secreting irritating, poisonous substances, as in nettles
 Honey glands, as in carnivorous plants.

In plant anatomy, tissues are categorized broadly into three tissue systems: the epidermis, the
ground tissue, and the vascular tissue.

1. Epidermal cell: Cells forming the outer surface of the leaves and of the young plant

Epidermis - Cells forming the outer surface of the leaves and of the young plant body. The
epidermis is a single layer of cells that covers the leaves, flowers, roots and stems of plants.

It forms a boundary between the plant and the external environment. The epidermis serves
several functions: it protects against water loss, regulates gas exchange, secretes metabolic
compounds, and (especially in roots) absorbs water and mineral nutrients. The epidermis of most
leaves shows dorsoventral anatomy: the upper (adaxial) and lower (abaxial) surfaces have
somewhat different construction and may serve different functions. Woody stems and some other
stem structures produce a secondary covering called the periderm that replaces the epidermis as
the protective covering.

Guard cell: The leaf and stem epidermis is covered with pores called stomata (sing., stoma), part
of a stoma complex consisting of a pore surrounded on each side by chloroplast-containing
guard cells, and two to four subsidiary cells that lack chloroplasts. The stomata complex

16
regulates the exchange of gases and water vapor between the outside air and the interior of the
leaf.

2. Vascular tissue - The primary components of vascular tissue are the xylem and phloem.
These transport fluids and nutrients internally.

Ground tissue - Ground tissue is less differentiated than other tissues. Ground tissue
manufactures nutrients by photosynthesis and stores reserve nutrients. The ground tissue of
plants includes all tissues that are neither dermal nor vascular. It can be divided into three types
based on the nature of the cell walls.

1. Parenchyma cells have thin primary walls and usually remain alive after they become
mature. Parenchyma forms the "filler" tissue in the soft parts of plants, and is usually
present in cortex, pericycle, pith, and medullary rays in primary stem and root.
2. Collenchyma cells have thin primary walls with some areas of secondary thickening.
Collenchyma provides extra mechanical and structural support, particularly in regions of
new growth.
3. Sclerenchyma cells have thick lignified secondary walls and often die when mature.
Sclerenchyma provides the main structural support to a plant.[

Cortex is the outermost layer of a stem or root in a plant. The cortex is the outermost layer of the
stem or root of a plant, bounded on the outside by the epidermis and on the inside by the
endodermis. In plants, it is composed mostly of differentiated cells, usually large thin-walled
parenchyma cells of the ground tissue system. The outer cortical cells often acquire irregularly
thickened cell walls, and are called collenchyma cells. Some of the outer cortical cells may
contain chloroplasts. It is responsible for the transportation of materials into the central cylinder
of the root through diffusion and may also be used for food storage in the form of starch.[1]

The endodermis is the central, innermost layer of cortex in some land plants. It is made of
compact living cells surrounded by an outer ring of endodermal cells that are impregnated with
hydrophobic substances (Casparian Strip) to restrict apoplastic flow of water to the inside.[1] The
endodermis is the boundary between the cortex and the stele.

The pericycle is a cylinder of parenchyma or sclerenchyma cells that lies just inside the
endodermis and is the outer most part of the stele of plants.

Although it is composed of non-vascular parenchyma cells, it's still considered part of the
vascular cylinder because it arises from the pro-cambium as do the vascular tissues it surrounds.

Unit 6 Topic: Physiological Functions of Plant

17
Diffusion is the net movement of molecules from a region of higher concentration to a region of
lower concentration. Diffusion is driven by a gradient in chemical potential of the diffusing
species.

Biologists often use the terms "net movement" or "net diffusion" to describe the movement of
ions or molecules by diffusion. For example, oxygen can diffuse through cell membranes so long
as there is a higher concentration of oxygen outside the cell. However, because the movement of
molecules is random, occasionally oxygen molecules move out of the cell (against the
concentration gradient). Because there are more oxygen molecules outside the cell, the
probability that oxygen molecules will enter the cell is higher than the probability that oxygen
molecules will leave the cell. Therefore, the "net" movement of oxygen molecules (the difference
between the number of molecules either entering or leaving the cell) is into the cell. In other
words, there is a net movement of oxygen molecules down the concentration gradient.

Imbibition is a special type of diffusion when water is absorbed by solids-colloids causing an

enormous increase in volume. Examples include the absorption of water by seeds [1] and dry
wood. If it were not for the pressure due to imbibition, seedlings would not have been able to
emerge out of soil into the open; they probably would not have been able to establish.

Imbibition is also diffusion since water surface potential movement is along a concentration
gradient; the seeds and other such materials have almost no water hence they absorb water easily.
Water potential gradient between the absorbent and the liquid imbibed is essential for imbibition.
In addition, for any substance to imbibe any liquid, affinity between the adsorbant and the liquid
is also a prerequisite.

Imbibition occurs when a wetting fluid displaces a non-wetting fluid, contrary to drainage where
a non-wetting phase displaces the wetting fluid. The two processes are governed by different
mechanisms.

One example of imbibition that is found in nature is the absorption of water by hydrophilic
colloids. Matrix potential contributes significantly to water in such substances. Examples of plant
material which exhibit imbibition are dry seeds before germination. Imbibition can also entrain
the genetic clock that controls circadian rhythms in Arabidopsis thaliana and (probably) other
plants. Another example is that of imbibition in the Amott test.

Osmosis is the spontaneous net movement of solvent molecules through a selectively permeable
membrane into a region of higher solute concentration, in the direction that tends to equalize the
solute concentrations on the two sides.[2][3][4] It may also be used to describe a physical process in
which any solvent moves across a selectively permeable membrane (permeable to the solvent,
but not the solute) separating two solutions of different concentrations.[5][6] Osmosis can be made
to do work.[7]

Osmotic pressure is defined as the external pressure required to be applied so that there is no net
movement of solvent across the membrane. Osmotic pressure is a colligative property, meaning
that the osmotic pressure depends on the molar concentration of the solute but not on its identity.

18
Osmosis is a vital process in biological systems, as biological membranes are semipermeable. In
general, these membranes are impermeable to large and polar molecules, such as ions, proteins,
and polysaccharides, while being permeable to non-polar or hydrophobic molecules like lipids as
well as to small molecules like oxygen, carbon dioxide, nitrogen, and nitric oxide. Permeability
depends on solubility, charge, or chemistry, as well as solute size. Water molecules travel
through the plasma membrane, tonoplast membrane (vacuole) or protoplast by diffusing across
the phospholipid bilayer via aquaporins (small transmembrane proteins similar to those
responsible for facilitated diffusion and ion channels). Osmosis provides the primary means by
which water is transported into and out of cells. The turgor pressure of a cell is largely
maintained by osmosis across the cell membrane between the cell interior and its relatively
hypotonic environment.

Importance of osmosis in plant life:

 Root hair absorbs water from the soil by the process of osmosis; at least entry of water is
controlled by osmosis.
 From the root hairs, cell to cell osmosis takes place until the cortical cell if the root
becomes saturated with water.

 The osmotic pressure generated in the root cortex is responsible for the forcing water into
the xylem vessels, and possibly upwards through them at least to some height.

 Osmosis makes cell turgid. This turgidity gives a certain amount of turgidity to the
young, soft parts of the plant body.

TURGIDITY:

Turgor pressure is the force within the cell that pushes the plasma membrane against the cell
wall.[1] It is also called hydrostatic pressure, and more intricately defined as the pressure
measured by a fluid, measured at a certain point within itself when at equilibrium. [2] Generally,
turgor pressure is caused by the osmotic flow of water and occurs in plants, fungi, and bacteria.
The phenomenon is also observed in protists that have cell walls.[3] This system is not seen in
animal cells, seeing how the absence of a cell wall would cause the cell to lyse when under too
much pressure.[4] The pressure exerted by the osmotic flow of water is called turgidity. It is
caused by the osmotic flow of water through a selectively permeable membrane. Osmotic flow
of water through a semipermeable membrane is when the water travels from an area with a low-
solute concentration, to one with a higher-solute concentration. In plants, this entails the water
moving from the low concentration solute outside the cell, into the cell's vacuole.[5]

Mechanism

19
Osmosis is the process in which water flows from an area with a low solute concentration, to an
adjacent area with a higher solute concentration until equilibrium between the two areas is
reached.[6] All cells are surrounded by a lipid bi-layer cell membrane which permits the flow of
water in and out of the cell while also limiting the flow of solutes. In hypertonic solutions, water
flows out of the cell which decreases the cell's volume. When in a hypotonic solution, water
flows into the membrane and increases the cell's volume. When in an isotonic solution, water
flows in and out of the cell at an equal rate.[4]

Turgidity is the point at which the cell's membrane pushes against the cell wall, which is when
turgor pressure is high. When the cell membrane has low turgor pressure, it is flaccid. In plants,
this is shown as wilted anatomical structures. This is more specifically known as plasmolysis.[7]

The volume and geometry of the cell affects the value of turgor pressure, and how it can have an
effect on the cell wall's plasticity. Studies have shown how smaller cells experience a stronger
elastic change when compared to larger cells.[3]

Turgor pressure also plays a key role in plant cell growth where the cell wall undergoes
irreversible expansion due to the force of turgor pressure as well as structural changes in the cell
wall that alter its extensibility.[8]

Turgor pressure in plants and its importance

Turgor pressure within cells is regulated by osmosis and this also causes the cell wall to expand
during growth. Along with size, rigidity of the cell is also caused by turgor pressure; a lower
pressure results in a wilted cell or plant structure (i.e. leaf, stalk). One mechanism in plants that
regulate turgor pressure is its semipermeable membrane, which only allows some solutes to
travel in and out of the cell, which can also maintain a minimum amount of pressure. Other
mechanisms include transpiration, which results in water loss and decreases turgidity in cells.[9]
Turgor pressure is also a large factor for nutrient transport throughout the plant. Cells of the
same organism can have differing turgor pressures throughout the organism's structure. In higher
plants, turgor pressure is responsible for apical growth of things such as root tips[10] and pollen
tubes.[11]

Plasmolysis is the process in which cells lose water in a hypertonic solution. The reverse
process, cytolysis, can occur if the cell is in a hypotonic solution resulting in a lower external

20
osmotic pressure and a net flow of water into the cell. Through observation of plasmolysis and
deplasmolysis, it is possible to determine the tonicity of the cell's environment as well as the rate
solute molecules cross the cellular membrane.

Before plasmolysis (top) and after (bottom)

Topic: Absorption of water and minerals salts

The absorption of water by plants is essential for various metabolic activities. Terrestrial plants
get their water supply from soil which serves as the source of water and [minerals]. The way in
which water from soil enters roots, particularly to the root xylem, is called "mechanism of water
absorption". Both active and passive absorption have been proposed for mechanism of water
absorption.This process is known as Conduction

Active absorption

Active absorption refers to the absorption of water by roots with the help of ATP, generated by
the root respiration: as the root cells actively take part in the process, it is called active
absorption. According to Renner, active absorption takes place in low transpiring and well-
watered plants, and 4% of total water absorption is carried out in this process. The active
absorption is carried out by two theories; active osmotic water absorption and Active non-
osmotic water absorption. In this process energy is required.

Active osmotic water absorption

This theory was given by Pari (1910) and Priestley (1921). According to this theory, the root
cells behave as an ideal osmotic pressure system through which water moves up from the soil
solution to the root xylem along an increasing gradient of D.P.D. (suction pressure, which is the
real force for water absorption). If solute concentration is high and water potential is low in the
root cells, water can enter from soil to root cells through endosmosis. Mineral nutrients are
absorbed actively by the root cells due to utilisation of adenosine triphosphate (ATP). As a

21
result, the concentration of ions (osmotica) in the xylem vessels is more in comparison to the soil
water. A concentration gradient is established between the root and the soil water. Hence, the
solute potential of xylem water is more in comparison to that of soil and correspondingly water
potential is low than the soil water.If stated, water potential is comparatively positive in the soil
water. This gradient of water potential causes endosmosis. The endosmosis of water continues
till the water potential both in the root and soil becomes equal. It is the absorption of minerals
that utilise metabolic energy, but not water absorption. Hence, absorption of water is indirectly
an active process in a plant's life.Active transport is in an opposite direction to that of diffusion.[1]

Active non-osmotic water absorption

This theory was given by Thimann (1951) and Kramer (1959). According to the theory,
sometimes water is absorbed against a concentration gradient. This requires expenditure of
metabolic energy released from respiration of root cells. There is no direct evidence, but some
scientists suggest involvement of energy from respiration. In conclusion, it is said that, the
evidences supporting active absorption of water are themselves poor.[2]

Passive absorption

This mechanism is carried out without utilisation of metabolic energy. Here, only the roots act as
an organ of absorption or passage. Hence, sometimes it is called water absorption 'through roots',
rather 'by' roots. It occurs in rapidly transpiring plants during the daytime, because of the opening
of stomata and the atmospheric conditions. The force for absorption of water is created at the leaf
end i.e. the transpiration pull. The main cause behind this transpiration pull, water is lifted up in
the plant axis like a bucket of water is lifted by a person from a well. Transpiration pull is
responsible for dragging water at the leaf end, the pull or force is transmitted down to the root
through column of water in the xylem elements. The continuity of the water column remains
intact due to the cohesion between the molecules and it act as a rope. Roots simply act as a
passive organ of absorption. As transpiration proceeds, water absorption occurs simultaneously
to compensate the water loss from the leaf end. Most volume of water entering plants is by
means of passive absorption. Passive transport is no different from diffusion, it requires no input
of energy: there is free movement of molecules from their higher concentration to their lower
concentration. The water will enter the plant via the root cells that can be found in the roots
where mainly passive absorption occurs. Also, with the absorption of water, minerals and
nutrients are also absorbed.

Topic: Conduction of water and minerals salts

Root pressure is the transverse osmotic pressure within the cells of a root system that causes sap
to rise through a plant stem to the leaves.[1]

Root pressure occurs in the xylem of some vascular plants when the soil moisture level is high
either at night or when transpiration is low during the day. When transpiration is high, xylem sap
is usually under tension, rather than under pressure, due to transpirational pull. At night in some

22
plants, root pressure causes guttation or exudation of drops of xylem sap from the tips or edges
of leaves. Root pressure is studied by removing the shoot of a plant near the soil level. Xylem
sap will exude from the cut stem for hours or days due to root pressure. If a pressure gauge is
attached to the cut stem, the root pressure can be measured.

Root pressure is caused by active distribution of mineral nutrient ions into the root xylem.
Without transpiration to carry the ions up the stem, they accumulate in the root xylem and lower
the water potential. Water then diffuses from the soil into the root xylem due to osmosis. Root
pressure is caused by this accumulation of water in the xylem pushing on the rigid cells. Root
pressure provides a force, which pushes water up the stem, but it is not enough to account for the
movement of water to leaves at the top of the tallest trees. The maximum root pressure measured
in some plants can raise water only to 6.87 meters, and the tallest trees are over 100 meters tall.

Topic: Transpiration

it is the process of water movement through a plant and its evaporation from aerial parts, such as
leaves, stems and flowers. Water is necessary for plants but only a small amount of water taken
up by the roots is used for growth and metabolism. The remaining 97–99.5% is lost by
transpiration and guttation.[1]

The three major types of transpiration are: (1) Stomatal Transpiration (2) Lenticular
Transpiration and (3) Cuticular Transpiration.

Transpiration mainly takes place through surface of leaves. It is known as Foliar transpiration
(more than 90%). Transpiration occurs through young or mature stem is called as Cauline
transpiration.

Stomatal Transpiration:

Water vapour diffuses out through minute pore (stomata) present in soft aerial part of plant is
known as Stomatal Transpiration. Of the total water loosed, near about 85 – 90% of water loosed
by the stomatal transpiration.

Lenticular Transpiration:

Sometimes water may evaporate through certain other openings present on the older stems.
These openings are called Lenticels and the transpiration that takes place through term is known
as Lenticular Transpiration.

Cuticular transpiration:

23
Loss of water may also take place through cuticle, but the amount so lost is relatively small and
make up only about 5 to 10 percent of the total transpiration. This type of transpiration depends
upon the thickness of the cuticle and presence or absence of wax coating on the surface of the
leaves. Xerophytic plants generally have very thick cuticle and wax coating on the leaves and
stem in order to check cuticular transpiration.

Factor affecting transpiration

Feature Effect on transpiration

More leaves (or spines, or other photosynthesizing organs) means a bigger

Number of
surface area and more stomata for gaseous exchange. This will result in greater
leaves
water loss.

Number of
More stomata will provide more pores for transpiration.
stomata

A leaf with a bigger surface area will transpire faster than a leaf with a smaller
Size of the leaf
surface area.

A waxy cuticle is relatively impermeable to water and water vapour and reduces
evaporation from the plant surface except via the stomata. A reflective cuticle
will reduce solar heating and temperature rise of the leaf,[citation needed] helping to
Presence of reduce the rate of evaporation. Tiny hair-like structures called trichomes on the
plant cuticle surface of leaves also can inhibit water loss by creating a high humidity
environment at the surface of leaves.[citation needed] These are some examples of the
adaptations of plants for conservation of water that may be found on many
xerophytes.

The rate of transpiration is controlled by stomatal aperture, and these small pores
open especially for photosynthesis. While there are exceptions to this (such as
Light supply
night or "CAM photosynthesis"), in general a light supply will encourage open
stomata.

Temperature affects the rate in two ways:

Temperature 1) An increased rate of evaporation due to a temperature rise will hasten the loss
of water.
2) Decreased relative humidity outside the leaf will increase the water potential
gradient.
Relative Drier surroundings gives a steeper water potential gradient, and so increases the
humidity rate of transpiration.

Wind In still air, water lost due to transpiration can accumulate in the form of vapor

24
 close to the leaf surface. This will reduce the rate of water loss, as the water
potential gradient from inside to outside of the leaf is then slightly less. Wind
blows away much of this water vapor near the leaf surface, making the potential
gradient steeper and speeding up the diffusion of water molecules into the
surrounding air. Even in wind, though, there may be some accumulation of water
vapor in a thin boundary layer of slower moving air next to the leaf surface. The
stronger the wind, the thinner this layer will tend to be, and the steeper the water
potential gradient.

Water stress caused by restricted water supply from the soil may result in
Water supply
stomatal closure and reduce the rates of transpiration.

Significance of Transpiration:

Several beneficial and harmful effects are ascribed to transpiration.

Advantages:

There are three possible advantages of transpiration to the plants and these are discussed below:

I. Transport of minerals:

Usually, high transpiration rates cause high rates of mineral absorption. However, deep
understanding of diffusion and differentially permeable membranes point towards the
independent absorption of minerals.

It is generally held that minerals absorbed by the plant from the soil usually move up through the
plant via transpiration stream.

The quantum of minerals reaching the leaves is dependent upon the rate of absorption of
minerals by the roots rather than the rate of transpiration.

Rates of transpiration do not seem to affect the availability of minerals in the leaf. On the
contrary when the mineral in the soil are in abundance then the rate of transpiration is vital for
their translocation.

II. Lowering of leaf temperature:

Transpiration of water from a surface of the leaf lowers the temperature of that organ since the
loss of water molecules of a relatively high kinetic energy; the molecules having highest kinetic
energy are the first to evaporate.

Rough estimates show around that transpiration removes about 600 calories per gram of
evaporated water.

25
There are other ways e.g., radiation and convection by which heat is removed. If transpiration
stops, there would be an enhanced loss of heat by radiation and convection because of the
increased leaf temperature.

III. Optimum turgidity:

It is generally argued that there is an optimum level of water potential within the plant. Many and
varied functions are slowed down or are rendered inefficient both above and below this level.

In the absence of transpiration, plants tend to become over turgid and will cease to grow.
Similarly when the water potential becomes highly negative growth also stops.

IV. Bringing water to the top of a plant:

It is also suggested that importance of transpiration is embodied in its essentiality to pull water to
the top of the trees.

Disadvantages:

The conclusive fact about transpiration is that it is harmful. It is loss of one of the essential
components of life and one of the substrates of most important process for the plant life-
photosynthesis. It may be added that the existence of transpiration in plants may not be taken to
mean that it is useful to the plant body.

Guttation

it is the exudation of drops of xylem sap on the tips or edges of leaves of some vascular plants,
such as grasses and a number of fungi. Guttation is not to be confused with dew, which
condenses from the atmosphere onto the plant surface.

At night, transpiration usually does not occur, because most plants have their stomata closed.
When there is a high soil moisture level, water will enter plant roots, because the water potential
of the roots is lower than in the soil solution. The water will accumulate in the plant, creating a
slight root pressure. The root pressure forces some water to exude through special leaf tip or
edge structures, hydathodes or water glands, forming drops. Root pressure provides the impetus
for this flow, rather than transpirational pull. Guttation is most noticeable when transpiration is
suppressed and the relative humidity is high, such as during the night. The process of guttation
formation in fungi is unknown.

Topic: Ascent of sap

The ascent of sap in the xylem tissue of plants is the upward movement of water and minerals
from the root to the crown. Xylem is a complex tissue consisting of living and non-living cells.

26
The conducting cells in xylem are typically non-living and include, in various groups of plants,
vessels members and tracheids. Both of these cell types have thick, lignified secondary cell walls
and are dead at maturity. Although several mechanisms have been proposed to explain the
phenomenon, the cohesion-tension mechanism[1] has the most evidence and support. Although
cohesion-tension has received criticism, for example due to the apparent existence of large
negative pressures in some living plants, experimental and observational data favor this
mechanism.[2] [3]

The more recently proposed compensating pressure (CP) theory favors a version of vital theory
proposed by Jagdish Chandra Bose. However, experimental evidence has not supported it [4]

An alternative theory based on the behavior of thin films has been developed by Henri Gouin, a
French professor of fluid dynamics.[5] The theory is intended to explain how water can reach the
uppermost parts of the tallest trees, where the applicability of the cohesion-tension theory is
debatable.[6]

The theory assumes that in the uppermost parts of the tallest trees, the vessels of the xylem are
coated with thin films of sap. The sap interacts physically with the walls of the vessels: as a
result of van der Waals forces, the density of the film varies with distance from the wall of a
vessel. This variation in density, in turn, produces a "disjoining pressure", whose value varies
with distance from the wall. (Disjoining pressure is a difference in pressure from that which
prevails in the bulk of a liquid; it is due to the liquid's interaction with a surface. The interaction
may result in a pressure at the surface that is greater or less than that which prevails in the rest of
the liquid.) As a tree's leaves transpire, water is drawn from the xylem's vessels; hence, the
thickness of the film of sap varies with height within a vessel. Since the disjoining pressure
varies with the thickness of the film, a gradient in the disjoining pressure arises during
transpiration: the disjoining pressure is greater at the bottom of the vessel (where the film is
thickest) and less at the top of the vessel (where the film is thinner). This spatial difference in
pressure within the film results in a net force that pushes the sap upwards towards the leaves.

Topic: Manufacturing of food:

Photosynthesis:

Photosynthesis is a process used by plants and other organisms to convert light energy into
chemical energy that can later be released to fuel the organisms' activities. This chemical energy
is stored in carbohydrate molecules, such as sugars, which are synthesized from carbon dioxide
and water – hence the name photosynthesis, from the Greek φῶς, phōs, "light", and σύνθεσις,
synthesis, "putting together".[1][2][3] In most cases, oxygen is also released as a waste product.
Most plants, most algae, and cyanobacteria perform photosynthesis; such organisms are called
photoautotrophs. Photosynthesis is largely responsible for producing and maintaining the oxygen
content of the Earth's atmosphere, and supplies all of the organic compounds and most of the
energy necessary for life on Earth.[4]

Although photosynthesis is performed differently by different species, the process always begins
when energy from light is absorbed by proteins called reaction centres that contain green

27
chlorophyll pigments. In plants, these proteins are held inside organelles called chloroplasts,
which are most abundant in leaf cells, while in bacteria they are embedded in the plasma
membrane. In these light-dependent reactions, some energy is used to strip electrons from
suitable substances, such as water, producing oxygen gas. The hydrogen freed by the splitting of
water is used in the creation of two further compounds that serve as short-term stores of energy,
enabling its transfer to drive other reactions: these compounds are reduced nicotinamide adenine
dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) and adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the "energy currency" of
cells.

In plants, algae and cyanobacteria, long-term energy storage in the form of sugars is produced by
a subsequent sequence of light-independent reactions called the Calvin cycle; some bacteria use
different mechanisms, such as the reverse Krebs cycle, to achieve the same end. In the Calvin
cycle, atmospheric carbon dioxide is incorporated into already existing organic carbon
compounds, such as ribulose bisphosphate (RuBP).[5] Using the ATP and NADPH produced by
the light-dependent reactions, the resulting compounds are then reduced and removed to form
further carbohydrates, such as glucose.

The first photosynthetic organisms probably evolved early in the evolutionary history of life and
most likely used reducing agents such as hydrogen or hydrogen sulfide, rather than water, as
sources of electrons.[6] Cyanobacteria appeared later; the excess oxygen they produced
contributed directly to the oxygenation of the Earth,[7] which rendered the evolution of complex
life possible. Today, the average rate of energy capture by photosynthesis globally is
approximately 130 terawatts,[8][9][10] which is about three times the current power consumption of
human civilization.[11] Photosynthetic organisms also convert around 100–115 billion tonnes (91-
104 petagrams) of carbon into biomass per year.[12][13]

chemosynthesis :In biochemistry, chemosynthesis is the biological conversion of one or more

carbon-containing molecules (usually carbon dioxide or methane) and nutrients into organic
matter using the oxidation of inorganic compounds (e.g., hydrogen gas, hydrogen sulfide) or
methane as a source of energy, rather than sunlight, as in photosynthesis. Chemoautotrophs,
organisms that obtain carbon through chemosynthesis, are phylogenetically diverse, but also
groups that include conspicuous or biogeochemically-important taxa include the sulfur-oxidizing
gamma and epsilon proteobacteria, the Aquificae, the methanogenic archaea and the neutrophilic
iron-oxidizing bacteria.

Many microorganisms in dark regions of the oceans use chemosynthesis to produce biomass
from single carbon molecules. Two categories can be distinguished. In the rare sites at which
hydrogen molecules (H2) are available, the energy available from the reaction between CO 2 and
H2 (leading to production of methane, CH4) can be large enough to drive the production of
biomass. Alternatively, in most oceanic environments, energy for chemosynthesis derives from
reactions in which substances such as hydrogen sulfide or ammonia are oxidized. This may occur
with or without the presence of oxygen.

Topic: Translocation and storage of food:

28
  In plants, food is prepared by the
leaves by the process of
photosynthesis. The food prepared
by the leaves is in the form of
simple sugars (glucose). No other
part of the plant can prepare food.
So, all the parts of a plant require
food for getting energy,
maintenance and growth. That is
why; the food prepared by the
leaves is transported to all the
other parts of a plant through
phloem. The transportation of
food from the leaves to other parts
of the plant is called translocation.

Why translocation of food is

necessary for plants?

The food made by the leaves of

the plant is necessary to be
translocated to all the other parts
of the plant so that every part of
the plant can utilize the food for
obtaining energy as well as for
growth and repair.

Unit 7 plant cytology and genetics

Genetics is a branch of biology concerned with the study of genes, genetic variation, and
heredity in organisms.[1][2][3]

Heredity is the passing on of traits from parents to their offspring, either through asexual
reproduction or sexual reproduction, the offspring cells or organisms acquire the genetic
information of their parents. Through heredity, variations between individuals can accumulate
and cause species to evolve by natural selection. The study of heredity in biology is genetics.

Gregor Mendel, a scientist and Augustinian friar, discovered genetics in the late 19th-century.
Mendel studied "trait inheritance", patterns in the way traits are handed down from parents to
offspring. He observed that organisms (pea plants) inherit traits by way of discrete "units of
inheritance". This term, still used today, is a somewhat ambiguous definition of what is referred
to as a gene.

Topic:

29
Mendelian inheritance is a type of biological inheritance that follows the laws originally
proposed by Gregor Mendel in 1865 and 1866 and re-discovered in 1900. These laws were
initially controversial. When Mendel's theories were integrated with the Boveri–Sutton
chromosome theory of inheritance by Thomas Hunt Morgan in 1915, they became the core of
classical genetics. Ronald Fisher combined these ideas with the theory of natural selection in his
1930 book The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection, putting evolution onto a mathematical
footing and forming the basis for population genetics within the modern evolutionary synthesis.[1]

A monohybrid cross is a mating between two organisms with

different variations at one genetic chromosome of interest.[1][2]
The character(s) being studied in a monohybrid cross are governed
by two or multiple variations for a single locus.

A cross between two parents possessing a pair of contrasting characters is known as monohybrid
cross. To carry out such a cross, each parent is chosen to be homozygous or true breeding for a
given trait (locus). When a cross satisfies the conditions for a monohybrid cross, it is usually
detected by a characteristic distribution of second-generation (F2) offspring that is sometimes
called the monohybrid ratio.

Mendel's Law of Dominance “In a cross of parents that are pure for contrasting traits, only one
form of the trait will appear in the next generation. Offspring that are hybrid for a trait will have
only the dominant trait in the phenotype.”

Definition. Law of segregation. During gamete formation, the alleles for each gene segregate
from each other so that each gamete carries only one allele for each gene.

Dihybrid cross is a cross between two different lines/genes that differ in two observed traits.
According to Mendel's statement, between the alleles of both these loci there is a relationship of
complete dominance - recessive. In the example pictured to the right, RRYY/rryy parents result
in F1 offspring that are heterozygous for both R and Y (RrYy).[1]

Law of independent assortment. Genes for different traits can segregate independently during
the formation of gametes.

Backcrossing is a crossing of a hybrid with one of its parents or an individual genetically similar
to its parent, in order to achieve offspring with a genetic identity which is closer to that of the
parent. It is used in horticulture, animal breeding and in production of gene knockout organisms.

In genetics, a test cross, first introduced by Gregor Mendel, involves the breeding of an
individual with a phenotypically recessive individual, in order to determine the zygosity of the
former by analyzing proportions of offspring phenotypes. Zygosity can either be heterozygous or
homozygous.

Non-Mendelian inheritance

30
In four o'clock plants, the alleles for red and white flowers show incomplete dominance. As seen
in the F1 generation, heterozygous (wr) plants have "pink" flowers—a mix of "red" (rr) and
"white" (ww) coloring. The F2 generation shows a 1:2:1 ratio of red:pink:white
Main article: Non-Mendelian inheritance

Mendel explained inheritance in terms of discrete factors—genes—that are passed along from
generation to generation according to the rules of probability. Mendel's laws are valid for all
sexually reproducing organisms, including garden peas and human beings. However, Mendel's
laws stop short of explaining some patterns of genetic inheritance. For most sexually reproducing
organisms, cases where Mendel's laws can strictly account for the patterns of inheritance are
relatively rare. Often, the inheritance patterns are more complex.

The F1 offspring of Mendel's pea crosses always looked like one of the two parental varieties. In
this situation of "complete dominance," the dominant allele had the same phenotypic effect
whether present in one or two copies. But for some characteristics, the F 1 hybrids have an
appearance in between the phenotypes of the two parental varieties. A cross between two four
o'clock (Mirabilis jalapa) plants shows this common exception to Mendel's principles. Some
alleles are neither dominant nor recessive. The F 1 generation produced by a cross between red-
flowered (RR) and white flowered (WW) Mirabilis jalapa plants consists of pink-colored
flowers (RW). Which allele is dominant in this case? Neither one. This third phenotype results
from flowers of the heterzygote having less red pigment than the red homozygotes. Cases in
which one allele is not completely dominant over another are called incomplete dominance. In
incomplete dominance, the heterozygous phenotype lies somewhere between the two
homozygous phenotypes.

A similar situation arises from codominance, in which the phenotypes produced by both alleles
are clearly expressed. For example, in certain varieties of chicken, the allele for black feathers is
codominant with the allele for white feathers. Heterozygous chickens have a color described as
"erminette", speckled with black and white feathers. Unlike the blending of red and white colors
in heterozygous four o'clocks, black and white colors appear separately in chickens. Many
human genes, including one for a protein that controls cholesterol levels in the blood, show
codominance, too. People with the heterozygous form of this gene produce two different forms
of the protein, each with a different effect on cholesterol levels.

In Mendelian inheritance, genes have only two alleles, such as a and A. In nature, such genes
exist in several different forms and are therefore said to have multiple alleles. A gene with more
than two alleles is said to have multiple alleles. An individual, of course, usually has only two
copies of each gene, but many different alleles are often found within a population. One of the
best-known examples is coat color in rabbits. A rabbit's coat color is determined by a single gene
that has at least four different alleles. The four known alleles display a pattern of simple
dominance that can produce four coat colors. Many other genes have multiple alleles, including
the human genes for ABO blood type.

Furthermore, many traits are produced by the interaction of several genes. Traits controlled by
two or more genes are said to be polygenic traits. Polygenic means "many genes." For example,
at least three genes are involved in making the reddish-brown pigment in the eyes of fruit flies.

31
Polygenic traits often show a wide range of phenotypes. The broad variety of skin color in
humans comes about partly because at least four different genes probably control this trait.

Monogenic inheritance refers to the kind of inheritance whereby a trait is determined by the
expression of a single gene or allele, not by several genes as in polygenic inheritance. ... A
monogenic disease or monogenic disorder would thus result when a single pair of genes is
involved. Synonym(s): Mendelian inheritance.Jul 31, 2017

Gene

In biology, a gene is a sequence of nucleotides in DNA or RNA that codes for a molecule that
has a function. During gene expression, the DNA is first copied into RNA. The RNA can be
directly functional or be the intermediate template for a protein that performs a function. The
transmission of genes to an organism's offspring is the basis of the inheritance of phenotypic
trait. These genes make up different DNA sequences called genotypes. Genotypes along with
environmental and developmental factors determine what the phenotypes will be. Most
biological traits are under the influence of polygenes (many different genes) as well as gene–
environment interactions. Some genetic traits are instantly visible, such as eye color or number
of limbs, and some are not, such as blood type, risk for specific diseases, or the thousands of
basic biochemical processes that constitute life.

Deoxyribonucleic acid is a molecule composed of two chains that coil around each other to
form a double helix carrying the genetic instructions used in the growth, development,
functioning, and reproduction of all known living organisms and many viruses. DNA and
ribonucleic acid (RNA) are nucleic acids; alongside proteins, lipids and complex carbohydrates
(polysaccharides), nucleic acids are one of the four major types of macromolecules that are
essential for all known forms of life.

The two DNA strands are also known as polynucleotides as they are composed of simpler
monomeric units called nucleotides.[2][3] Each nucleotide is composed of one of four nitrogen-
containing nucleobases (cytosine [C], guanine [G], adenine [A] or thymine [T]), a sugar called
deoxyribose, and a phosphate group. The nucleotides are joined to one another in a chain by
covalent bonds between the sugar of one nucleotide and the phosphate of the next, resulting in an
alternating sugar-phosphate backbone. The nitrogenous bases of the two separate polynucleotide
strands are bound together, according to base pairing rules (A with T and C with G), with
hydrogen bonds to make double-stranded DNA.

The complementary nitrogenous bases are divided into two groups, pyrimidines and purines. In
DNA, the pyrimidines are thymine and cytosine; the purines are adenine and guanine.

Both strands of double-stranded DNA store the same biological information. This information is
replicated as and when the two strands separate. A large part of DNA (more than 98% for
humans) is non-coding, meaning that these sections do not serve as patterns for protein
sequences.

32
The two strands of DNA run in opposite directions to each other and are thus antiparallel.
Attached to each sugar is one of four types of nucleobases (informally, bases). It is the sequence
of these four nucleobases along the backbone that encodes genetic information. RNA strands are
created using DNA strands as a template in a process called transcription. Under the genetic
code, these RNA strands specify the sequence of amino acids within proteins in a process called
translation.

Within eukaryotic cells, DNA is organized into long structures called chromosomes. Before
typical cell division, these chromosomes are duplicated in the process of DNA replication,
providing a complete set of chromosomes for each daughter cell. Eukaryotic organisms (animals,
plants, fungi and protists) store most of their DNA inside the cell nucleus and some in organelles,
such as mitochondria or chloroplasts.[4] In contrast, prokaryotes (bacteria and archaea) store their
DNA only in the cytoplasm. Within eukaryotic chromosomes, chromatin proteins, such as
histones, compact and organize DNA. These compact structures guide the interactions between
DNA and other proteins, helping control which parts of the DNA are transcribed.

Ribonucleic acid (RNA) is a polymeric molecule essential in various biological roles in coding,
decoding, regulation and expression of genes. RNA and DNA are nucleic acids, and, along with
lipids, proteins and carbohydrates, constitute the four major macromolecules essential for all
known forms of life. Like DNA, RNA is assembled as a chain of nucleotides, but unlike DNA it
is more often found in nature as a single-strand folded onto itself, rather than a paired double-
strand. Cellular organisms use messenger RNA (mRNA) to convey genetic information (using
the nitrogenous bases of guanine, uracil, adenine, and cytosine, denoted by the letters G, U, A,
and C) that directs synthesis of specific proteins. Many viruses encode their genetic information
using an RNA genome.

Comparison with DNA

Three-dimensional representation of the 50S ribosomal subunit. Ribosomal RNA is in ochre,

proteins in blue. The active site is a small segment of rRNA, indicated in red.

The chemical structure of RNA is very similar to that of DNA, but differs in three primary ways:

Unlike double-stranded DNA, RNA is a single-stranded molecule[1] in many of its
biological roles and consists of a much shorter chain of nucleotides.[2] However, RNA
can, by complementary base pairing, form intrastrand (i.e., single-strand) double helixes,
as in tRNA.

While the sugar-phosphate "backbone" of DNA contains deoxyribose, RNA contains
ribose instead.[3] Ribose has a hydroxyl group attached to the pentose ring in the 2'
position, whereas deoxyribose does not. The hydroxyl groups in the ribose backbone
make RNA less stable than DNA because it is more prone to hydrolysis.

The complementary base to adenine in DNA is thymine, whereas in RNA, it is uracil,
which is an unmethylated form of thymine.[4]

33
DNA replication
DNA replication: The double helix is un'zipped' and unwound, then each separated strand
(turquoise) acts as a template for replicating a new partner strand (green). Nucleotides (bases) are
matched to synthesize the new partner strands into two new double helices.

In molecular biology, DNA replication is the biological process of producing two identical
replicas of DNA from one original DNA molecule and occurs in all living organisms acting as
the basis for biological inheritance. The cell possesses the distinctive property of division, which
makes replication of DNA essential.

DNA is made up of a double helix of two complementary strands. During replication, these
strands are separated. Each strand of the original DNA molecule then serves as a template for the
production of its counterpart, a process referred to as semiconservative replication. As a result of
semi-conservative replication, the new helix will be composed of an original DNA strand as well
as a newly synthesized strand.[1] Cellular proofreading and error-checking mechanisms ensure
near perfect fidelity for DNA replication.[2][3]

In a cell, DNA replication begins at specific locations, or origins of replication, in the genome.[4]
Unwinding of DNA at the origin and synthesis of new strands, accommodated by an enzyme
known as helicase, results in replication forks growing bi-directionally from the origin. A
number of proteins are associated with the replication fork to help in the initiation and
continuation of DNA synthesis. Most prominently, DNA polymerase synthesizes the new strands
by adding nucleotides that complement each (template) strand. DNA replication occurs during
the S-stage of interphase.

DNA replication (DNA amplification) can also be performed in vitro (artificially, outside a cell).
DNA polymerases isolated from cells and artificial DNA primers can be used to initiate DNA
synthesis at known sequences in a template DNA molecule. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR),
ligase chain reaction (LCR), and transcription-mediated amplification (TMA) are examples.

Transcription is the first step of gene expression, in which a particular segment of DNA is
copied into RNA (especially mRNA) by the enzyme RNA polymerase. Both DNA and RNA are
nucleic acids, which use base pairs of nucleotides as a complementary language. During
transcription, a DNA sequence is read by an RNA polymerase, which produces a
complementary, antiparallel RNA strand called a primary transcript.

Mutation

In biology, a mutation is the permanent alteration of the nucleotide sequence of the genome of
an organism, virus, or extrachromosomal DNA or other genetic elements.[1]

Mutations result from errors during DNA replication (especially during meiosis) or other types
of damage to DNA (such as may be caused by exposure to radiation or carcinogens), which then
may undergo error-prone repair (especially microhomology-mediated end joining[2]), or cause an
error during other forms of repair,[3][4] or else may cause an error during replication (translesion
synthesis). Mutations may also result from insertion or deletion of segments of DNA due to

34
mobile genetic elements.[5][6][7] Mutations may or may not produce discernible changes in the
observable characteristics (phenotype) of an organism. Mutations play a part in both normal and
abnormal biological processes including: evolution, cancer, and the development of the immune
system, including junctional diversity.

The genomes of RNA viruses are based on RNA rather than DNA. The RNA viral genome can
be double stranded (as in DNA) or single stranded. In some of these viruses (such as the single
stranded human immunodeficiency virus) replication occurs quickly and there are no
mechanisms to check the genome for accuracy. This error-prone process often results in
mutations.

Significance

Mutation can result in many different types of change in sequences. Mutations in genes can
either have no effect, alter the product of a gene, or prevent the gene from functioning properly
or completely. Mutations can also occur in nongenic regions. One study on genetic variations
between different species of Drosophila suggests that, if a mutation changes a protein produced
by a gene, the result is likely to be harmful, with an estimated 70 percent of amino acid
polymorphisms that have damaging effects, and the remainder being either neutral or marginally
beneficial.[8] Due to the damaging effects that mutations can have on genes, organisms have
mechanisms such as DNA repair to prevent or correct mutations by reverting the mutated
sequence back to its original state.[5]

Chromosomal crossover

(or crossing over) is the exchange of genetic material between 2 homologous chromosomes
non-sister chromatids that results in recombinant chromosomes during sexual reproduction. It is
one of the final phases of genetic recombination, which occurs in the pachytene stage of
prophase I of meiosis during a process called synapsis. Synapsis begins before the synaptonemal
complex develops and is not completed until near the end of prophase I. Crossover usually
occurs when matching regions on matching chromosomes break and then reconnect to the other
chromosome.

Genome

It is the genetic material of an organism. It consists of DNA (or RNA in RNA viruses). The
genome includes both the genes (the coding regions) and the noncoding DNA,[1] as well as
mitochondrial DNA[2] and chloroplast DNA. The study of the genome is called genomics.

Topic:

Plant breeding is the science of changing the traits of plants in order to produce desired
characteristics.[1] It has been used to improve the quality of nutrition in products for humans and
animals.[2] Plant breeding can be accomplished through many different techniques ranging from
simply selecting plants with desirable characteristics for propagation, to methods that make use
of knowledge of genetics and chromosomes, to more complex molecular techniques (see cultigen

35
and cultivar). Genes in a plant are what determine what type of qualitative or quantitative traits it
will have. Plant breeders strive to create a specific outcome of plants and potentially new plant
varieties.[2]

Plant breeding has been practiced for thousands of years, since near the beginning of human
civilization. It is practiced worldwide by individuals such as gardeners and farmers, and by
professional plant breeders employed by organizations such as government institutions,
universities, crop-specific industry associations or research centers.

Objective of plant breeding:

Traits that breeders have tried to incorporate into crop plants include:

1. Improved quality, such as increased nutrition, improved flavor, or greater beauty

2. Increased yield of the crop
3. Increased tolerance of environmental pressures (salinity, extreme temperature, drought)
4. Resistance to viruses, fungi and bacteria
5. Increased tolerance to insect pests
6. Increased tolerance of herbicides

A. Early techniques

Plant breeding started with sedentary agriculture and particularly the domestication of the first
agricultural plants, a practice which is estimated to date back 9,000 to 11,000 years.[3] Initially
early farmers simply selected food plants with particular desirable characteristics, and employed
these as progenitors for subsequent generations, resulting in an accumulation of valuable traits
over time.

1.Grafting technology had been practiced in China before 2000 BCE.[4]

By 500 BCE grafting was well established and practiced. [5]

Gregor Mendel (1822–84) is considered the "father of modern genetics". His experiments with
plant hybridization led to his establishing laws of inheritance. Genetics stimulated research to
improve crop production through plant breeding.

Modern plant breeding is applied genetics, but its scientific basis is broader, covering molecular
biology, cytology, systematics, physiology, pathology, entomology, chemistry, and statistics
(biometrics). It has also developed its own technology.

36
2. Selection One major technique of plant breeding is selection, the process of selectively
propagating plants with desirable characteristics and eliminating or "culling" those with less
desirable characteristics.[6]

3. Interbreeding: Another technique is the deliberate interbreeding (crossing) of closely or

distantly related individuals to produce new crop varieties or lines with desirable properties.
Plants are crossbred to introduce traits/genes from one variety or line into a new genetic
background. For example, a mildew-resistant pea may be crossed with a high-yielding but
susceptible pea, the goal of the cross being to introduce mildew resistance without losing the
high-yield characteristics. Progeny from the cross would then be crossed with the high-yielding
parent to ensure that the progeny were most like the high-yielding parent, (backcrossing). The
progeny from that cross would then be tested for yield (selection, as described above) and
mildew resistance and high-yielding resistant plants would be further developed. Plants may also
be crossed with themselves to produce inbred varieties for breeding. Pollinators may be
excluded through the use of pollination bags.

Classical breeding relies largely on homologous recombination between chromosomes to

generate genetic diversity. The classical plant breeder may also make use of a number of in vitro
techniques such as protoplast fusion, embryo rescue or mutagenesis (see below) to generate
diversity and produce hybrid plants that would not exist in nature.

Modern plant breeding

Modern plant breeding may use techniques of molecular biology to select, or in the case of
genetic modification, to insert, desirable traits into plants. Application of biotechnology or
molecular biology is also known as molecular breeding.

Modern facilities in molecular biology are now used in plant breeding.

1. Marker assisted selection

Sometimes many different genes can influence a desirable trait in plant breeding. The use of
tools such as molecular markers or DNA fingerprinting can map thousands of genes. This allows
plant breeders to screen large populations of plants for those that possess the trait of interest. The
screening is based on the presence or absence of a certain gene as determined by laboratory
procedures, rather than on the visual identification of the expressed trait in the plant. The purpose
of marker assisted selection, or plant genomes analysis, is to identify the location and function
(phenotype) of various genes within the genome. If all of the genes are identified it leads to
Genome sequence. All plants have varying sizes and lengths of genomes with genes that code for
different proteins, but many are also the same. If a gene's location and function is identified in
one plant species, a very similar gene likely can also be found in a similar location in another
species genome.[10]

Reverse breeding and doubled haploids (DH)

37
]
Homozygous plants with desirable traits can be produced from heterozygous starting plants, if a
haploid cell with the alleles for those traits can be produced, and then used to make a doubled
haploid. The doubled haploid will be homozygous for the desired traits. Furthermore, two
different homozygous plants created in that way can be used to produce a generation of F1
hybrid plants which have the advantages of heterozygosity and a greater range of possible traits.
Thus, an individual heterozygous plant chosen for its desirable characteristics can be converted
into a heterozygous variety (F1 hybrid) without the necessity of vegetative reproduction but as
the result of the cross of two homozygous/doubled haploid lines derived from the originally
selected plant.[11] Using plant tissue culturing can produce haploid or double haploid plant lines
and generations. This minimizes the amount of genetic diversity among that plant species in
order to select for desirable traits that will increase the fitness of the individuals. Using this
method decreases the need for breeding multiple generations of plants to get a generation that is
homologous for the desired traits, therefore save much time in the process. There are many plant
tissue culturing techniques that can be used to achieve the haploid plants, but microspore
culturing is currently the most promising for producing the largest numbers of them.[10]

Genetic modification Transgenic plants

Genetic modification of plants is achieved by adding a specific gene or genes to a plant, or by

knocking down a gene with RNAi, to produce a desirable phenotype. The plants resulting from
adding a gene are often referred to as transgenic plants. If for genetic modification genes of the
species or of a crossable plant are used under control of their native promoter, then they are
called cisgenic plants. Sometimes genetic modification can produce a plant with the desired trait
or traits faster than classical breeding because the majority of the plant's genome is not altered.

1. What is monohybrid cross? Explain it and state law derived from this crosss.10

2. Explain Mendel’ law of independent assortment with help of dihybrid cross10

3.What are non-Mendelian inheritance? Describe10

4. What is plant breeding? Describe different tecniques10

5. Compare and contrast DNA and RNA.5

6 .What is mutation and crossing over? Write their significances.5

7 .Write Note on 5+5

1. DNA replication
2. Genome and GENE

38
39