GENERAL BOTANY

LABORATORY
EXERCISES
PREFACE
This guide is a short index to the most typical exercises that plant biology students have to
perform. It includes the introduction and the procedure. Line drawings, sketches and diagrams
should appear in the results. These will be done by the students as part of the observation. This
will make the work personal and therefore more interesting to the students. The conclusion and
references should also be included. The results, conclusion and references are to be written and
submitted at the end of the activity.

The students should read the subject matter before doing the activity. The following
instructions may help:

1. Read the activity before coming to class.

2. Follow the general instructions.
3. The instructor will determine the plant materials that will be used in the exercise.
4. Fill up the blanks and the table/s.
5. Write the complete caption for each figure (the common name should be followed
by scientific name enclosed by parenthesis.
6. Photographs/draw/sketch and enlarge the part (object of interest) by drawing using
grid. Measure the size of the image and calculate the magnification of the drawing
or of the microscope.
7. Label the parts that are underlined.
8. Fill up the table or write the conclusion based on the objectives.

Doing the preparatory work we will make the activity more personal, meaningful and
understandable.

~The Authors
 Exercise No. 1
PLANT CELL TYPES BASED ON WALL THICKENING
Introduction
Plant morphology is enormously diverse. Despite the diversity of types of roots and shoots
(leaves, flowers, fruits, seeds and stem), they are fundamentally composed of cells which are
basically grouped base on thickening of the cell wall: parenchyma, collenchyma and
sclerenchyma.
The plant’s cell wall is an inert secretion providing strength and protection to the
protoplasm. There are two types of cell walls: primary cell walls and secondary cell walls.
Polysaccharide cellulose and hemicelluloses may make up the primary cell wall. New celluloses
impregnated with lignin that can be added only on the inner side of the primary wall, adjacent to
the plasma membrane make up the secondary cell wall. Secondary cell walls are usually much
thicker and stronger than the primary cell wall. The wall of one cell is glued to the walls of adjacent
cells by an adhesive layer, constituted with peptic substances called the middle lamella.
Objective
This activity aims to identify the type of parenchyma, collenchyma and sclerenchyma cells
based on the primary and secondary wall thickening and some metabolic products that maybe
visible when different plant materials are observed under the compound microscope.
Materials
Compound microscope
Dissecting needles, glass slides, cover slips
Leafy shoots of:
Muntingia calabura (Datiles) Solanum melongena (Eggplant)
Rhoeo discolour (Boat lily) Canna indica (Bandera Espanola)
Hydrilla verticillata (Digman) Apium graveolens (Celery)
Allium cepa (Onion bulb) Cocos nucifera (Coconut shell)
Prepared slide of Cucurbita (squash) stem cross section
Chemical: IKI solution
Procedure
A. Draw and label cells (at least 6 to 12 cells) from the plant. The drawing should be numbered as
fig. 1.1 onion bulb scale lower epidermis mounted with iodine-potassium-iodide; fig 1.2 various
crystals (raphides, rosette, and druse); fig. 1.3 stinging and glandular trichomes in A. Datiles; and
scale in B. eggplant; fig 1.4 parenchyma cells in Bandera espanola midrib cross section; fig. 1.5
Digman leaf cells observed using length microscope (indicate direction of chloroplasts movement
with arrow); fig. 1.6 prepared slide of squash stem cross section and fig. 1.7 coconut endocarp
sclerenchyma sclereid cells. Write the scientific name inside the parenthesis after the common
name.
B. Examine parts of the mounted cells under the microscope.
1. Observe the parenchyma cells. They are isodiametric, polyhedral to satellate living cells, with
protoplast. They have even and thin primary wall, with 10-14 sides. Young cells are characterized
by many small vacuoles while the mature cells with few big vacuoles that often occupy most part
of the cell. The nucleus can be found off center. After examining the cell in its living condition,
add iodine-potassium-iodide solution for better definition of the nuclei. The iodine will kill the
cells and stain the nuclei.
a. Examine the parenchyma cells found in the epidermis of Allium cepa bulb. Peel the inner
epidermis of the onion scale. Make a 2x2 cm2 strip and mount on a slide. Wipe out the water at the
side of the cover slip with a tissue at one side and then drop iodine-potassium iodide solution on
the opposite side. Draw and label the cell wall, vacuole, cytoplasm, cell membrane and nucleus.
b. From the prepared slides observe crystals and inclusions. Crystals can be a rhapide, druse,
and rosette. Raphide –long, narrow, needle-like crystals, occurring in clusters, druse- few
rhomboid-like crystals and rosette –many rhomboid-like crystals in cluster. Prepare a cross section
of boat lily (Rhoeo discolor) observe under the microscope. Crystals and inclusions that may be
found inside the vacuoles. The membrane around the vacuole is called, tonoplast.
c. Parenchyma cells have numerous subtypes. They are specialized as they perform particular
functions: photosynthetic (chloroplast containing- chlorenchyma in the layer of cells found next
to the upper epidermis in boat lily leaf cross section), metabolic storage centers (containing
leucoplasts in onion bulb scale epidermis or chromoplast- anthocyanin pigment in the vacuoles of
the cells composing the layer next to the lower epidermis in boat lily leaf cross section), protective
epidermal cells and those that appear as appendages trichomes-stinging and grandular in datiles
(prepared slide) and boat lily, and scale in eggplant (Solanum melangona) leaf epidermis and guard
cells or with extensions (root hairs) to increase surface area for absorption, transfer cells (ex.
companion cells), and glandular cells (that secrete nectar, fragances, mucilage, resin, latex and
oils). Mature parenchyma cells maybe packed and without intercellular spaces or they may have
well developed system of intercellular spaces or they may have well developed system of
intercellular spaces (in which case they are called parenchyma cells). Observe parenchyma cells
in freshly prepared slide Bandera espanola (Candida indica) midrib cross section.
d. Parenchyma cells are active metabolically and remain as such even when they mature. The
cytoplasm especially when exposed to sunlight will show active streaming (cyclosis), carrying
both the chloroplasts and the microbodies with it. This rapid flowing of the cytoplasm when
exposed to light is a dramatic indication of its plasticity which can be observed among aquatic
plant leaf and boat lily under a light microscope. This flow has direction as compared to the jiggling
back and forth motion of granules resulting from their collisions with water molecules (Brownian
movement- occurs in aqueous medium, living and non-living). Observe cytoplasmic movement in
Digman plant (Hydrilla verticillata).
Fill a 250mL beaker with 220 mL clean tap water and put healthy sprig of Digman plant
inside. Expose the beaker with the plant inside to light for five hours. The light source can be the
sun or the lights fixed on the table: two 40 watts fluorescent lamps and three 50 watts incandescent
bulbs, approximately equivalent to photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) from sunlight. Note
the path and the direction of the movement within the cells and the parts of the cell the move.
Observe under a light microscope. The light from the microscope may also allow the movement
inside the cell to continue. If Digman plant is not available, this cytoplasmic movement may also
be observed in Boat lily (Rhoeo discolor). Staminal trichomes. Mount Boat lily staminal trichomes
in a drop of water on a glass slide. Observe under a light microscope.
2. Observe the collenchyma cells, they are also isodiametric to polygonal living cells with
protoplast. They also have primary wall. However they may remain thin in some areas but become
thickened in other areas. This permits adjustments to elongation of organs without loss of strength
(plasticity). They retain the protoplast even at maturity. Numerous subtypes can be distinguished
based on the type of their wall thickening: angular (thickening at the corner), lamellar or plate
(deposition at the tangential wall), lacunar (thickening around the intercellular spaces) and annular
(continued thickening of wall). Examine prepared slide of squash (Cucurbita maxima) stem cross
section and freshly prepared slide of celery (Apium graveolens) petiole.
3. Observe the sclerechyma cells, They are variable in size and shape. Generally they have
no protoplast at maturity and dead when functional. The lumen where the protoplast is contained
is reduced in size. Their secondary wall are thickened, with pits and impregnated, with lignin
making the cells hard and elastic. There are two types: non-conducting cells (fibers and sclereids)
and conducting cells (vessels and tracheids). The conducting cells will be examined in the exercise
on tissues. Examine the sclerenchyma cells in coconut (Cocos nucifera) endocarp. Hone a small
piece of coconut endocarp on a grinding stone, an emery board or sand paper until it is very thin.
Mount on a slide. Observe under the microscope.
B. Give your conclusion.
 Exercise No. 1
PLANT CELL TYPES BASED ON WALL THICKENING
Name: ______________________________________ Score: __________________
Section: _____________________________________ Date Performed: _________________

Figure 1.1. ____________________________________________________________________

Figure 1.2. ___________________________________________________________________

Figure 1.3. ____________________________________________________________________

Figure 1.4. ____________________________________________________________________

Figure 1.5. ____________________________________________________________________

Figure 1.6. ____________________________________________________________________

Figure 1.7. ___________________________________________________________________
Conclusion
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 Exercise No. 2
KINDS OF PLANT TISSUES
Introduction
Plant cells are classified based in the nature of its wall. Parenchyma, collenchyma and
sclerenchyma cell types are identifies and described in the first exercise. Each cell type is modified
suited to perform one or more specific functions. A group of cells performing essentially the same
function and of similar structure and origin is called a tissue. There are two principal types of
tissues: undifferentiated or embryonic and differentiated. Each category can be described base on
the cells composing them, their origin, location, and function.
The plant is composed of primary and secondary tissues based on origin. The apical
meristem gives rise to the primary meristematic tissues such as: protoderm, ground meristem and
procambium which in turn differentiate into three primary tissues: epidermis, ground tissues and
vascular tissues, respectively. The apical meristem activity explains the increase in the length of
the plant. The lateral meristem (cambium) gives rise to the secondary tissues causing the increase
in girth of the plant body.
The cells are organized into three regions: the vascular cylinder, which appears as the
central portion, in some roots and stem the pith; the epidermis; and the cortex, the zone between
the epidermis and the vascular cylinder. Sometimes the pith and the cortex are connected by pith
rays.
The epidermis is the special primary tissue composed of parenchyma cells that covers and
protects all underlying primary tissues. It prevents excessive water loss and yet allows for
exchange of gases necessary for respiration and photosynthesis.
The cortex and the pith are composed of ground tissue such as parenchyma, collenchyma
and sclerenchyma. The innermost layer of the cortex is a single row of cells, the endodermis. In
the root layer is followed by a special layer of parenchyma cells, the pericycle, which may revert
back to dividing activity giving rise to the lateral roots.
The vascular cylinder is composed of the phloem and the xylem tissues which may be
separated or not by the vascular cambium.
The microscopic structure of the plant shows the arrangement of tissues in an efficient
design which integrates the following different functions: growth, protection, storage,
photosynthesis, transport of materials and reproduction. Based on functions of the following are
types of tissues:
1. Undiffferentiated tissue- Meristematic tissue composed of apical, intercalary and lateral
meristems; Growth played by the parenchyma cells that revert back to mitotic division,
meristematic tissues.
2. Differentiated tissue- a. Protective tissues composed of epidermis and periderm
(Absorption and protection); b. fundamental/ground tissues composed of (i) parenchyma tissues:
Storage- done by parenchyma cells that make up the pith, rays and cortex; Photosynthesis-
accomplished by parenchyma and collenchyma cells that contain chlorophyll, (ii) collenchyma
tissues plasticity suited for forming ridges, may also contain chloroplast for photosynthesis and
(iii) sclerenchyma tissues: strength and support- sclereids and fiber cells forming gritty portions of
the plant or arranged like cylinders.
3. Vascular tissue: Transport of materials (absorption, osmosis, conduction)- achieved by
the epidermis, endodermis and the xylem and the phloem tissues making up the vascular bundle,
respectively.
4. Sporogenous tissues: Reproduction- achieved by parenchyma cells that undergo meiotic
division giving rise to the pollen and the egg.
Objective
This activity aims to identify the d meristematic (apical and lateral meristems), epidermis
(epidermal cells, trichomes, guard cells and etc.); periderm (phellem, phelloderm and phellogen);
fundamental (parenchyma, collenchymas and sclerenchyma); and conductive (phloem and xylem)
tissues and to determine the regions where they are located.
Materials
Prepared slides of:
Coleus blumei (mayana) shoot tip Ficus elastica leaf c.s.
Pinus sp. (pine) stem c.s. Zea mays leaf c.s.
Sambucus (sauco) stem c.s. Pinus sp. needle c.s.
Commelina benghalensis (alikbangon) root c.s.

Procedure
Draw the plant materials specified in figs, 2.1-2.6 and label the tissues and the regions
(underlined words). The drawing should be numbered as fig. 2.1 mayana, fig. 2.2 pine, fig. 2.3
Indian rubber tree, fig. 2.4 corn, fig. 2.5 alikbangon and fig. 2.6 sauco. Write the scientific name
inside the parenthesis after the common name.
A. Examine the embryonic, generative or meristematic tissues- they are composed of parenchyma
cells capabale of cell division, found at the tip of the roots and shoots (apical), between
differentiated or mature cells forming a ring across the axis (intercalary) and laterally forming
bundles parallel to the axis (lateral- the cambium). These bearing about growth in length and in
diameter.
1. Observe the prepared slides of the following:
a. Mayana (Coleus blumei) shoot tip longitudinal section: note the tissue composing the tip
of the shoot. Observe under the nicroscope using the scanner, then view under LPO and HPO to
examine closely the cells. Draw the structure and label the apical meristem.
b. Pine (Pinus sp.) stem cross section: note the tissue that composed the vascular cambium
and cork cambium. Observe under the microscope using the scanner. Then view under the LPO,
and shift to the HPO to examine closely the individual cells. Draw and label the vascular and cork
cambium.
B. Examine the differentiated mature tissues (composed of cells which are products of the
meristematic activity and had assumed particular function). Observe the:
1. Protective tissue- this is composed of parenchyma and sclerenchyma cells forming the
outer covering of the plant body.
a. Epidermis- outemost layer of the primary plant body composed of parenchyma
cells; epidermal cells may contain crystals. Calcium carbonate called cystolith in the prepared slide
of the Indian rubber tree leaf cross section and calcium oxalates (raphisde, druse, rossete, etc.).
Include also are the following: trichomes in prepared slides of mayana shoot longitudinal section,
guard cells, in pine needle cross section and bulliform cells, known to be responsible for the rolling
and folding of leaves, in the prepared slide leaf cross section of corn. The root epidermal cells may
also form extensions called root hairs. The epidermis originates from the protoderm.
b. Periderm- this is composed of parenchyma and sclerenchyma cells which replace
the epidermis that grows for more than a single season. It is composed of three layers: phellem
(outermost), phelooderm (innermost) and phellogen or cork cambium (a layer of cells between the
phellem and the phelloderm). Locate this tissue in the prepared slides of pine and sauco stems
cross section. In the sauco old stem cross section, lenticels (venue for gas exchange in plants with
secondary growth) are formed of mass of phellem cells. The phellogen and the phelloderm layers
can be seen next to the phellem layer. Draw and label the phellem, phellodern and phellogen.
2. Fundamental- these are the parenchyma, collenchyma and sclerenchyma tissues, originating
from the ground meristem. The parenchyma and collenchyma tissues may form the bulk of the
softer plant parts such as the pith, the cortex, leaf, fruit and other massive plant parts. The
sclerenchyma may form the greter portion of seeds, nut shells and gritty masses in pulp. The
sclerenchyma tissue may also be fiber or sclereid cells that form the greater portion of the plant
that needs mechanical support. O bserve the parenchyma cells forming layers of cells below the
epidermis of Indian rubber tree leaf cross section. Observe the sclerified parenchyma cells next to
the epidermis and the endodermal cells in the pine needle. Observe also the layers of cells below
the epidermis (perivascular cells) of sauco stem and that (pericycle) next to the innermost layer of
the cortex (endodermis) of alikbangon root cross sections. They are composed of collenchyma
tissue, lending support to the shoot and parenchyma cells that revert back to cell division giving
rise to the lateral root, respectively. Observe also the mass of cells that connects the veins to the
epidermis in corn leaf cross section. This mass of cells is composed of fiber sclerenchyma cells
that support the leaf.
3. Conductive- vascular tissues such as phloeam and xylem. Both are composed of parenchyma
and sclerenchyma cells originating from the procambium (primary tissues) or cambium (secondary
tissues). Observe them in indian rubber tree leaf, pine stem and needle, corn leaf, alikbangon root
and sauco stem cross sections.
a. Phloem- food conducting tissue usually found outside the xylem, (sclerenchyma and
parenchyma cells that may include sieve cells, sieve tube and companion cells).
b. Xylem- water conducting tissue found towards the center (parenchyma and
sclerenchyma cells that may include tracheary elements, vessels and fibers).
4. Reproductive- parenchyma cells that give rise to the pollen in the anther and the egg in the
ovary.
C. Give your conclusion.
 Exercise No. 2
KINDS OF PLANT TISSUES
Name: ______________________________________ Score: __________________
Section: _____________________________________ Date Performed: _________________

Fig. 2.1. ________________________________________________________________

Fig. 2.2. ________________________________________________________________

Fig. 2.3. ________________________________________________________________

Fig. 2.4. ________________________________________________________________

Fig. 2.5. ________________________________________________________________

Fig. 2.6. ________________________________________________________________

Conclusion
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 Exercise No. 3
TYPES OF ROOT AND ROOT SYSTEM
Introduction
The root usually constitutes the underground part of the plant axis. However, some roots
maybe found also exposed to the air. They are classified according to origin. The natural
aggregation or assemblage of the roots of a plant is called the root system.
Objective
This activity aims to identify the type of root that may develop in germinating seeds and
parts of the plant other than the root or starting as a radical; determine their root systems, and
classify them according to functions.
Materials
Germinating seeds of Phaseolus radiates (mongo) Pandanus sp. (pandan)
Germinating seeds of Zea mays (corn) Sweitenia mahogany (mahogany)
Leaves of Kalanchoe pinnata (katakataka) Ipamomoea batatas (Sweet potato)
Daucus carota (Carrot) Roots of Coleus blumei (mayana)
Procedure
Draw the plant materials and write below the drawing the type of root and root systems.
The drawing should be numbered as fig. 3.1. mongo, fig. 3.2. corn, fig 3.3. mayana, fig. 3.4.
katakataka, fig. 3.5. carrot, fig. 3.6 sweet potato, fig. 3.7. pandan, and fig. 3.8. mahogany. Write
the scientific name inside the parenthesis after the common name.
A. Observe the origin of the roots in the following: germinating mongo and corn seeds,
mayana stem, katakataka leaf (appendix), carrot, sweet potato, pandan and mahogany. Determine
whether, the roots are derived from the main trunk (primary); roots arise from the primary root
(secondary); or the roots grow out from the main stem and stem cuttings, leaves and parts of the
plant other than the hypocotyls or primary root (adventitious). Identify the type of root in each
plant.
B. Determine the type of root systems: taproot- when the primary roots continuous to grow
and send out lateral branches; and fibrous or diffuse- when the primary root stops growing or
disappears, and numerous adventitious roots grow and develop from the base of the stem and take
the place of the primary root. The extent for depth and other features of the root system vary in
different conditions of growth: temperature and available moisture; soil type (sands, clays, loams
and silts); competition with other plants; and cultural practices (plowing and root pruning).
C. The major functions of the root are absorption of water and minerals and anchorage of
the plant. Specialized performs other function which are classified according to the following:
photosynthesis (leaf function- epiphytic roots that have chlorophyll); support (stem function- large
root that grow out from the main stem- brace roots; roots that grow down from the branches and
prop the up- prop roots; plate like extensions growing from the upper portions of the large root-
buttress roots; and adhesive roots of climbing plants); reproduction (seed function- roots that
produce adventitious buds which grow into new plants; storage (much thickened underground
roots that store water and food); protection (roots with spiny roots) and aeration knee-like roots
(pneumatophores) that grow upward to the surface of the water to absorb moisture from the
atmosphere found in plants submerged in water. Classify all these plants root based on functions.
D. Fill out the tables.
E. Give your conclusion.
 Exercise No. 3
TYPES OF ROOT AND ROOT SYSTEM
Name: ______________________________________ Score: __________________
Section: _____________________________________ Date Performed: _________________

Fig. 3.1. ____________________________________________________________________

Fig 3.2. ____________________________________________________________________

Fig. 3.3. ____________________________________________________________________

Fig 3.4. ____________________________________________________________________

Fig. 3.5. ____________________________________________________________________

Fig 3.6. ____________________________________________________________________

Fig. 3.7. ____________________________________________________________________

Fig 3.8. ____________________________________________________________________

D. Fill in the table below.

Plant Type of root system Classification of plant roots

based on functions
Phaseolus radiates
Zea mays
Kalanchoe pinnata
Daucus carota
Pandanus sp.
Sweitenia mahogany
Ipamomoea batatas
Coleus blumei
Conclusion
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