#1 4.

Growth - living organisms are able to grow and

Plants – useful in cleaning the air we breathe. develop
Algae - part of plant kingdom
Cactus - plant • Grow and development
- has 127 genra/genera - allows the organisms to replace the old and dying
- more than a thousand species cells in the body and perform the different function
- not appear that have leaves but they have modified of different process of cellular differentiations.
leaves - reproduce another linking cells or another plant
Fungi - not a plant
- were listed in the plant kingdom 5. Reproduce
- part of plant kingdom but they are not plants - plants have the different reproduction the: Sexual
- scientist discovered it closer and Asexual Reproduction
relation/characteristics to animals
- unique separate life • Sexual Reproduction
- plant they can make another plant by their own
Part of the plants - new plants are obtained from seeds
- the roots, stems, leaves and flowers
- we can get oils like essential oil and collatil oil to • Asexual Reproduction
make drugs - plants can give rise to new plants without seeds.

conifers 6. Genetic Information - DNA, RNA

- cones instead of flowers from pine trees - biological organization that starts from the cell
- it is a flower but called "cones" because it's shape
- it is also a "cone bearing" (the seeds inside of the 7. Evolved
cones) - change of a population and also adaptation of the
survival of the changes in the environment.
7 Characteristics of living things •Native Plants
•Local Plants
Living things - biological organization
3 Sub Disciplines
1. Complex Organization
- living things are composed of cells  Plant Molecular Biology
- the most and the basic characteristic and shared by - study of molecular basis of plant life
all cell organisms  Plant Cell Biology
- the discovery of the cell was fundamental - focus on structure, the function, the life
understanding of the complex process organisms. processes of the plant cells.
- study of all aspects of plant cells particularly
2. Metabolism concern with the structure, grow, division, death
- part of living organization or living organisms use of the plants.
energy  Plant Physiology
- that is the energy that is primarily in the form of - to understand the mechanism of living things.
ATP - to study the normal functions of living creatures.
 Human Anatomy & Physiology
• 2 types of Metabolism - study the structure of the body and normal
function of the body.
a. Catabolism Ex. Photosynthesis – input & output of Carbon
- releases energy (ATP/ Adenosine Triphosphate) Dioxide and the Oxygen.
- building up - the changes or the union both compound
Plant – consume carbon dioxide, release oxygen.
b. Anabolism - break down  Plant Genetics
- transmission of DNA, RNA, part of heredity &
• Parts of Metabolism variation of the plant.
1. Carbohydrates - more on the hereditary part of the plants and the
2. Protein mechanism and transmission of the plants.
3. Lipids  Plant Ecology
- interrelationship among plants and between
3. Responsive - a living organisms respond to their plants and the environment.
environment - how plants survived/adapt on the weather or in
the environment.
• stimulus - anything in the environment that causes  Ecosystem
a change. - composes/study of abiotic and biotic.
- Living things or nonliving things.
#2 Brief history of botany o scientific classification follows a system of rules
 Early human cultures were hunter/gatherers. that groups successive categories into a
 One of the first professions was botany (plant hierarchy.
taxonomy)
Plants for food/medicine: Kingdom Taxonomy Level
In preliterate societies: Division
 knowledge of what was good or bad was passed Class
on in oral traditions, usually through religious Order
leaders – the ‘medicine man’ or shaman among Family
certain North America Indians and their Genus
counterparts in other societies (e.g. priests, Species – important, scientific name
rabbis, teachers).
Shaman – healer, physician, pharmacist before Biology – 5 Kingdoms
In literate societies: Animal Mammals arthropods sponges 1.3
fish million
- exist scientist, discoverer.
Fungi Mushrooms yeasts molds 72, 000
 information was transmitted by means of the Monera Prokaryotic cells 4,000
written word. Early examples include: Plant Mosses, liverworts, flowering 270,000
 Shen Nung, born 2737 B.C., founder of plants
Chinese agriculture wrote books on drugs and Protista Protozoans Amoebae, brown 80,000
algae, diatoms,
medicines from plants.
 about 300 B.C., the Greek Theophrastus
(father of botany) collected information about Taxonomy of Sego Lily
plants. Books: the “History of Plants” and Kingdom – Plantae – Plants
“Causes of Plants” Subkingdom – Tracheobionta – vascular plants
 Carolus Linnaeus in the 18th century A.D, Superdivision – Spermatophyta – seed plants
referred to Theophrastus as the “Father of Division – Magnoliophyta – flowering plants
Botany”. Class – Liliopsida – monocotyledons
 Dioscorides wrote the “Materia Medica” in the Subclass – liliidae
2nd century A.D., Order – Liliales
 Anton Van Leeuwenhoek (1632-1723) was the Family – Liliaceae – Lily family
first to adapt lenses to the study of living Genus - Calochortus – mariposa lily
organisms. Species – Calochortus nuttallii – sego lily
 In 1665, Robert Hooke discovered that plant
tissues were composed of cells.  Ecology – deals with the mutual relationships
- cork of wine use to see plant tissue composed of and interactions between organisms and their
cells physical environment.
 Carolus Linnaeus often called the Father of - Ecology or oekologie = Ernst Haeckel 1866
Taxonomy and father of modern botany. He - The physical environment of an organism
created(invented/book) a uniform system includes: biotic and abiotic factors.
naming of plant known as: binomial - the word “ecologic” or “ecological”
nomenclature. environmentally friendly.
 Plants being organized into groups and named  Genetics – how genes operate
by taxonomists. (classified) - the way in which they are transmitted from
parents to offspring.
Branches of Botanical Studies - it is the study of heredity in general and of genes
in particular.
Pure Botany  Physiology (Plant) – study of the functioning of
 Plant Taxonomy - is the science that classifies, living organisms, such as plants, and of the
identifies, and names plants. functioning of their constituent tissues or cell.
- sets up arrangements of the kinds of plants in *fundamental process such as:
hierarchies = superior and subordinate groups. -Photosynthesis (chlorophyll – green pigment)
 Plant Identification -Respiration – input and output (plants release
o determination of identity oxygen – human release carbon)
o comparison with previously collected specimens -Plant nutrition – sexual & asexual reproduction
or with the aid of book or identification -Plant hormone functions
manuals. -Photoperiodism
o identification connects the specimen with a -Environmental stress physiology
published name. -Seed germination
o placing of known plants into groups or -Stomata function (opening part of the plants where
categories. the food stored).
-Transpiration – part of physiology

Phytochemistry
Environmental Interactions Plant Physiology
Plant Morphology (Pure Botany)
Molecular & Cell Biology
Cellular Interactions
 Paleobotany – study of fossil plants
- Greek words “paleon” = old and “botany”,
study of plants
- The branch of paleontology or paleobiology
dealing with:
*recovery and identification of plant remains from
geological contexts, biological reconstruction of
past environments, and the evolution of both the
plant kingdom and life in general.
- Paleobotany includes the study of: terrestrial
plant fossils, prehistoric marine algae and
seaweeds.
- a closely-related field is palynology, which is the
study of fossilized and extant spores and pollen.
Importance
*reconstruction of ancient ecological systems and
climate
*study of green plant development and evolution
Plant fossils – any preserved part of a plant that has
long since died.
Prehistoric = many millions of years old bits of
charcoal that are only a few hundred years old.
Prehistoric plants - are various groups of plants
that lived before recorded history (before 3500 BC)
Common kinds of fossil plants
compression fossil
*fossil pollen and spores from ancient lake beds
*less common, but economically more important, is
coal from the plants of Carboniferous swamps.
 Morphology – the study of size, shape, and
structure of plants and of the relationships of the
parts comprising them.
A. Gross Morphology – study of the large/gross
structure of plants and the relationships of the
parts comprising them.
B. Anatomy – field concerned with the
identification and description of the body
structures of living things (plants). It is also the
study of the organization of plant tissues.
C. Cytology
Cell Biology – (Cellular Biology) or formerly
cytology, from Greek kytos, “container” studies:
*cells – their physiological properties, their
structure, the organelles they contain, interactions
with their environment, their life cycle, division and
death.
* this is done both on a microscopic and molecular
level.
Other cellular process:
-Cell division (PMAT) – prophase, metaphase,
anaphase, telophase
-Cell signaling
-Active transport and Passive transport
-reproduction of the plants is against concentration
gradient (against the gravity need energy). Passive
(align).
-Adhesion
-Transcription and mRNA splicing
-Cell movement: Chemotaxis, Contraction, cilia and
flagella
-DNA repair and cell death
-Metabolism: Glycolysis, respiration,
photosynthesis
Autophagy
Mitochondia – powerhouse of the cell.
D. Histology – the study of the microscopic
anatomy of tissues of plants and animals.
- it is performed by examining a thin slice of
tissue under a light microscope.
- An essential tool of biology and medicine
Specialized Botany
 Phycology – or algology
- Phykos, “seaweed”, and logos, “knowledge”
- Scientific study of algae
- Primary producers in aquatic ecosystems
- Most are eukaryotic
- Photosynthetic organisms that live in a wet
environment.
- Also includes the study of prokaryotic forms
known as blue-green algae
- Phycologist is a person who studies algae as
described.
 Mycology – study of fungi, their genetic and
biochemical properties, their taxonomy, and
their use to humans as a source of:
Medicinals (penincillin)
Food (beer, wine, edible, mushrooms)
As well as their dangers, such poisoning or
infection.
*Most Comprehensively studied and understood
fungi are the: yeast and eukaryotic model
organisms
Saccharomyces cerevisiae and
Schizosaccharomyces pombe.
 Pteridology – study of ferns and related plants
 Agrostology - study of grasses and their
classification
Importance: maintenance of wild and grazed
-grasslands
-agriculture (crop plants such rice, maize, sugarcane
-management of turf grasses
 Dendrology – study of Woody plants = may be
trees, shrub, and lianas.
*tends to focus on economically useful woody
plants, their identification and horticultural or
silvicultural properties.
 Bryology – the branch of botany concerned
with the scientific study of bryophytes (mosses,
liverworts, and hornworts)
*Mosses are small, soft plants that are typically 1-
10 cm tall.
-commonly grow close together in clumps or mats
in damp or shady locations
-do not have flowers or seeds, simple leaves cover
the thin wiry stems
-produce spore
 Lichenology – study of lichens
- Lichens are living entities
- Single lichen = result of two or more separate
organisms living permanently together
- All lichens are made up of a fungal partner and
either/or an algal partner or a cyanobacterium
partner, or both
- Useful as food, medicine, for making dyes,
perfume manufacture, decorations and in
science
- In Japan Umbilicaria esculenta
- Lecanora esculenta was the original Biblical Manna
as it has the habit of coming loose from its substrate
and being blown around in the wind.
 Palynology
Applied Botany
 Pomology
 Agronomy
 Horticulture
 Floriculture
 Pharmaceutical Botany
 Forestry
 Agriculture
#3
Compound Microscope - is a very powerful
magnifying glass.
- helps you see things like cells up close
- one of the most important rules of due to micrometer,
order, magnitude, microorganisms, cell structure
-high power compound
- is to achieve higher levels of magnification done as
stereo or local microscope
Kinds of microscope
The law stereotype
Height power compound microscope - used to view
cell structure, and other microorganisms which cannot
be seen at lower levels of magnification/lens
Part of the Compound Microscope
Eyepiece - view the specimen through the eyepiece.
- by number 10x, 40x
Stage clips - hold the slide in place
Low power objective - (the shorter one) is used to focus
the microscope at lower level (oil immersion)
- hold sa sample (glass slide)
Ex. Magnification 100x = (multiply eyepiece to
objective) 10x use low power objective 10x
High power objective - used to view fine details of a
specimen.
Coarse adjustment - focuses first
Fine adjustment - fine tunes & gives detailed focus
(usually smaller than coarse adjustment knob)
- used to clearer image
Base - is where the microscope rests
Stage - is part where the slide rests
- stage composes the mirror
Mirror - (or light source) directs light upwards onto the
slide
Diaphragm - the rotating disk located below the stage
- use to control the amount of light reaching to specimen
- allow light in
Nosepiece - is the rotating device that holds the
objectives (lenses)
Arm - is the part where you carry the microscope
How a light microscope works
1. Use lenses to make small objects appear larger
2. Compound light microscope: two lenses separated by
a tube
3. Lenses magnify an object by bending the light that
passes through the lens
4. Magnification: ability to make things appear larger
than they are
5. Resolution: fineness of detail that can be seen in an
image
How to prepare a slide
1. Place side on a flat surface
2. Place a drop of water on the slide. Add the specimen
to the drop of water (at times, you may want to have the
specimen already on the slide before adding the water.)
3. Hold the coverslip by it sides and lay it's bottom edge
on the side close to the specimen. Holding the coverslip
at 45⁰ angle helps.
4. Slowly lower the coverslip so that it spreads the water
out. If you get air bubbles (looking like little black
doughnuts), gently press ok the coverslip to move them
to the edge. If there are dry areas under the coverslip,
add a little more water at the edge of the coverslip. Too
much water can be dabbed off with a piece or paper
towel.
Has 3 structure component
Head-body
Base
Arm
Type of microscope
Simple microscope - consist one lens system
Compound Microscope - consist series of lenses use to
magnify smaller specimen
Oil immersion - it is applied inaminate or dead subject
matter ex. Tissue
Prof. Murry gans (eastfield college in mesquite, Texas)
Microscope
- uses a series of lenses that magnify an object.
hands lens will magnify up 20 to 30 times.
- microscope magnify 400 times
Eyepiece (ocular lenses) - magnify specimen 10x
- are adjustable
Objective lenses - mounted on the revolving nosepiece
which let's you change them easily
Low (4x)
Medium (10x)
High (40x)
3 different adjustments for light (light adjustment)
*power Switch - which turns the light on
*Diaphragm - ring mounted of by moving the ring of
the diaphragm, it control the amount of light that reaches
the specimen
*Dimmer adjustment
Stage (mechanical stage) - this going to hold the slide
and let us move it around.
* To put slide on the microscope, simply pull this arm
back, slide the slide into the angle and let go of the arm.
We're going to move the slide around by moving these 2
knobs. (Knob moves the slide up and down, left and
right)
To focus the image, 2 focusing knobs
Coarse focus knob - outside
- the stage moves a lot
Fine focus knob - inside
- it moves in very small increments
Mount things in water
Wet mount slide (mounting in Water) - use a technique
*Microscope slide
(Specimen) cut piece of paper out, use little bit of water
(distilled water) Drop of water, use cover slips ( o make
a good slide not have air bubbles)
* Take you cover slips and move it toward the water,
then the water spreads just drop the cover slips
*Getting ready focus image
Start with low power - because it has the largest Field of
view (we can see more you can find what you're looking
for). Bring the stage all the way up, it will stop, look in
the eyepieces and turn the coarse adjustment knob away
from me until image into focus. Use fine adjustment
knob to get sharp focus. Use diaphragm to adjust the
light (turning the light down just a little bit will let you
see a lot more details
*we want to do is center the specimen and go to medium
power (to go medium power simply click the medium
power lenses into place) look through eyepiece use
coarse adjustment, fine focus, and use diaphragm (to get
good details)
*Mechanical stage going to center again go to high
power (the focal length, the distance between the lenses
and the slide very short with high power. Thinking your
going to hit the slide, watch from the side and it should
click into place. (It focus on low power and medium
power, the high power objective should actually clear
the slide just fine.)
Focus and center - important you center the specimen
before you increase the magnification
Remember:
*Remove slide and lower stage - take off your slide (the
cover slip is disposable) the slide should be washed and
return to the side box. Turn the light off on scope.
Unplug and wrap, cover, get back to place)
Grab with the arm support from the base.
You should know:
* Parts
*Carry
* Set it up
* How make a wet mount slide
*How to focus your specimen (low power>medium
power>high power)
*Magnification
(All the lenses) eyepiece and all 3 objectives
Read the chapter before class
Read the lab procedure before lab
Making wet mount slides of elodea
(Intro of plant cells) Melanie link-Perez, pH.D
Materials Tissues
Mountant Work surface
Cover slips Forceps
Slides Dissecting needles
Elodea - easiest of the west mounts to make you want
slide ready. (Select a leaf from too of elodea plant.
- elodea leaves are 2 cell layers thick
- often purchased at pet stores in the aquarium section,
were commonly sold under the synonym Anacharis.
100x (image)
Trichome
Midrib
400x (image)
Nuclei
Cell wall of trichome
*Cell wall
*Vacuole occupies most volume of cell
*Chloroplast
*Cytoplasmic bridge
*Cytoplasmic steaming
Prokaryotic Vs. Eukaryotic
The first cells to appear on Earth were prokaryotic cells.
A prokaryote is an organism made of a single
prokaryotic cell. The earliest prokaryotes may have
arisen more than 2.5 billion years ago. Bacteria are
prokaryotes. They are very small cells with a simple
structure. Prokaryotes do not have a nucleus. This
means that their DNA is not enclosed in a membrane
inside the cell. Instead, prokaryotes have a single loop of
DNA that floats in the cell’s cytoplasm. Protein-making
bodies called ribosomes also form part of the cytoplasm.
Like all cells, prokaryotes have a cell membrane. All
prokaryotes also have a cell wall surrounding the cell
membrane. The cell wall helps provide support and
protection for the cell. Some prokaryotes are enclosed by
an additional layer. This layer is called the capsule. The
capsule has a sticky surface area, so it allows
prokaryotes to cling to surfaces, such as your skin and
your teeth.
Eukaryotic cells are more complex than prokaryotic
cells. They all have a cell membrane, ribosomes, and
DNA as prokaryotic cells do. However, the DNA of
eukaryotic cells does not float freely in the cytoplasm.
Instead, it is found in the nucleus, an internal
compartment bound by a cell membrane. The nucleus is
one kind of organelle found in eukaryotic cells.
Organelles are structures that perform specific
functions. Most organelles are surrounded by a
membrane. Some organelles have membranes that form
channels which help transport substances from one part
of the cell to another part of the cell.
Eukaryotes are organisms made of one or more
eukaryotic cells. The earliest eukaryotes, like the first
prokaryotes, were single-celled organisms. They arose
about 1 billion years later than the earliest prokaryotes.
Later, multicellular eukaryotes arose. Every type of
multicellular organism that exists is made up of
eukaryotic cells.
Move list: Antibiotic
Reproduction Destruction
Cell wall demolition
Protein Production Sabotage
Prokaryotes – bacteria, archaea
- Unicellular (single – celled)
- Bacterium
Eukaryotes – (eukarya) protists, plants, animals, fungi
- Unicellular or multi cells
- Made up many cells
Different
Prokaryotes
- Rhymes w/ “no”
- cell wall (most)
- no nucleus (no nucleus) free floating DNA 1. Prokaryotic - do not have structures surrounded by
- no membrane-bound organelles membranes
- chloroplast - few internal structures
Eukaryotes - one-celled organism, bacteria
- Rhymes w/ “do” - no true nucleus
- Cell wall (some) plant cell and fungal cell - lack of organelles
- Don’t have animal cells - have flagella (locomotion) tail movement
- More complex - no mitochondria
- have 70S ribosomes
- Have nucleus (DNA has nucleus) to contain DNA
- development on how replicate prokaryotic cells (cell
- Membrane-bound organelles (Nucleus,
wall composed of Peptidoglycan)
Mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi
- how reproduce prokaryotic by binary fission
apparatus)
- has single organisms/chromosomes (haploid) half
- Not have chloroplast chromosomes
Common Amoxicillin (antibacterial) antibiotic - Inhibit/kill cell
DNA – genetic material wall synthesis (slow the replication of bacteria another to
Ribosomes – an organelle (tiny organ) the cell wall)
- Important job making proteins - takes 3 times a day
Cytoplasm
Cell membrane/ plasma membrane - controls in and *2 types of bacteria
out of the cell, maintains homeostasis. Bacteriostatic - Inhibit only grows of bacteria
Pasaka - exert force or (ATP) active carrier/energy Bactericidal - kill the bacteria
Unit of Measurements Does virus are prokaryotic/eukaryotic? - no both, virus
Length (Si) international system known as metric system not cell at all
Other countries - miles 2. Eukaryotic - contain organelles surrounded by
Philippines - kilometers measure distance membranes
Bonifacio - oroquita 100km - complete set of organelles
1 mile = 1.6km - most living organisms
1km = 100m - has nucleus
1m = 100cm - reproduce/reproduction/divided (mitosis/meiosis)
1 cm = 10 inch - has ATS ribosomes (80S)
2.54cm - composed cell wall "sterol"
1kg = 1200g - ex. Algae, protozoa, fungi, bacteria
8 oz = 214 ml 1 glass - hard to treat/cure (creams/ointment)
1 oz = 29.57 ml
1 gallon = 3785 ml or 3.7ml Cell Parts (Organelles)
Temp Surrounding of the Cell
other countries Fahrenheit 1. Cell Membrane - outer membrane of cell that
Ph- Celsius controls movement in and out of the cell
37c - double layer semi-permeable (channel and carrier
Room 25 -20 proteins are responsible for active and passive transport.
Cool temp *Plant - hexa
Col 8c *Animal - circular
Aircon 17c ex. Protein, carbohydrates absorb in and out
Active Transport - carrier mediated (carry
#4 PARTS OF THE CELL carbohydrates, proteins need ATP able them to go inside
Cell theory the cell membrane the course that exert to the active
*All living things are made up of cells. transport is against gravitational gradient (energy) ATP
(slcheiden&schwann 1838-39) Passive Transport - passing along (Travel inside cell
*Cells are the smallest working units of all living thing. membrane no energy needed)
(slcheiden&schwann 1838-39) - enable plants or animals cell keep toxic substance out
*All cells come from preexisting cells through cell the cells
division (Virchow1858) - provides protection of a cell
Cell - is the smallest unit that is capable of performing
life functions. 2. Cell Wall - most commonly found in plant cells &
- basic structural functional and biological unit of all bacteria
known organisms - supports & protects cells
Ex. *Cell wall components between adjacent plant cells
Amoeba Proteus(water) Bacteria Plasmodesma - intercellular channel
Plant Stem Nerve Cell Secondary wall - cellulose and lignin
Red blood cell Primary wall - cellulose (hemicellulos, pectin)
Robert Hooke - scientist saw dead cell wall of the Middle lamella – pectin
plants saw in cork - prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells has cell wall but
Anton Van Leeuwenhoek - Observe the bacteria and prokaryotic no cell membrane
protozoa in the microscope - protection
- father of microbiology DNA (adenine, guanine, thymine, cytosine)
Two types of cells RNA (Uracil, Guanine, piratine)
3. Plasmodesma - (singular), Plasmodesmata (plural)
- holes in the wall that act as channels for protoplasm
movement between cells.
*Inside the cell
4. Nucleus - directs cell activities
- separated from cytoplasm by nuclear membrane
- countians genetic material (DNA)
5. Nuclear membrane - surrounds nucleus
- made of two layers
- opening allow material to enter and leave nucleus
6. Chromosomes - in nucleus
- made of DNA
- contain instructions for traits & characteristics
-passed from the parents to the offspring
The DNA - contains the specific instruction that make
each type of living diff DNA
- 23 pairs 46 chromosomes
Male - (xy) chromosomes
Female - (xx) chromosomes
7. Nucleolus - inside nucleus
- contains RNA to build proteins
8. Cytoplasm/Protoplasm - gel-like structure
- surrounded by cell membrane the site where most
cellular activities are done = cell expansion, growth and
replication fluid matrix that organelles are embedded in
largely made of water and dissolved substances
(proteins, sugars, salts, etc...)
- also contains the cytoskeleton
9. Endoplasmic Reticulum - moves materials around in
cell
- Smooth type: lacks ribosomes
- where the synthesis of lipids, fats, detoxification
- Rough type: ribosomes embedded in surface channels
of membranes involved as site of protein and lipid
synthesis and movement of protein products.
10. Ribosomes - each cell contains thousands
- make proteins
- found on ER & floating throughout the cell
- site protein synthesis happens
- where macromolecular stored in the ribosomes
- factory of making the proteins
11. Mitochondria - produces energy through chemical
reactions - breaking down fats & carbohydrates
- Aerobic respiration
- controls level of water and other materials in cell
- recycles and decomposes proteins, fats, and
carbohydrates
- powerhouse of the cell
- generate the most of the cell supply of ATP
- source of the energy or chemical energy part of the cell
- where glucose and oxygen to make ATP or cellular
energy/ aerobic respiration
12. Golgi Body/Apparatus - dictyosomes storage of
proteins, lipids, and carbohydrates.
- move materials within the cell
- move materials out of the cell
13. Vacuoles - membrane-bound sacs for storage,
digestion, and waste removal
- contains water solution
- helps plants maintain shape
- bounded by a membrane, the tonoplast,
- and often contain crystals and soluble pigments
- empty space help in the storage and disposal or
removal of the various substances
- store waste product and prevent the entire cell can
contamination.
14. Plastids - vitamin A good in the eyes
Why not green leaves some are orange, red, yellow
leaves because of plastids (carotenoid) present in carrots
vitamin A. Orange depends type of the plants, depends
on season
Green plants present chlorophyll
Chloroplast - associated with photosynthesis
- usually found in plant cells
- contain green chlorophyll
- where photosynthesis takes place
Leucoplast - starch (amyloplasts) or oil storage
(elaioplasts)
Chromoplast - carotenoid-containing
15. Peroxisomes - membrane-bound vesicles which
contain enzymes for the breakdown of organic
compounds
- have enzymes that rid the cell of toxic peroxides
16. Cytoskeleton - helps maintain the cell shape the
eternal organization provides the mechanical support
that enable cells to carry out the essential function like
division or the movement of the Cell.
(Mitosis/meiosis/locomotion)
- Microtubules
- Microfilaments
- network of protein fibers that help anchor organelles
and help give the cell it's shape.
#5 CELL THEORY
Some Random Cell Facts
 The average human being is composed of around
100 Trillion individual cells
 It would take as many as 50 cells to cover the area of
a dot on the letter “i”
Discovery of Cells
 1665 – English Scientist, Robert Hooke, discovered
cells while looking at a thin slice of cork.
- He described the cells as tiny boxes or a honeycomb
- He thought that cells only existed in plants and fungi
 1838 – German Botanist, Matthias Schleiden,
concluded that all parts are made of cells.
 1839 – German physiologist, Theodor Schwann,
who was a close friend of Schleiden, stated that all
animal tissues are composed of cells.
 1858 – Rudolf Virchow, German physician, after
extensive study of cellular pathology, concluded that
cells must arise from preexisting cells.
Modern Cell Theory (4)
 The cell contains hereditary information (DNA)
which is passed on from cell to cell during cell
division.
 All cells are basically the same in chemical
composition and metabolic activities.
 All basic chemical and physiological functions are
carries out inside the cells. (movement, digestion,
etc.)
 Cell activity depends on the activities of sub-
cellular structures within the cell (organelles,
nucleus, plasma membrane)
How has the Cell Theory been used?
 The basic discovered truths about cells, listed in the
Cell Theory, are basis for things such as:
Disease/Health/Medical Research and Cures (AIDS,
cancer, vaccines, cloning, stem cell research, etc.)
Mitosis and Cell Cycle = USC COP
Plant cells - development into tissues to perform a
complex function when this happen, new characteristics
arise called emergent properties.
In order for cells to become tissue they need to undergo
a cellular reproduction - processes that all organisms
undergo a locomotion, respiration, reproduction, cycle of
cell. Like meiosis and mitosis because that their cellular
level all Characteristics of life are manifested.
*important growth cell employed which made them in
doored the eon.
Life Cycle = Cell Cycle (Initiation, Growth, Death)
Why Cells must divide?
 In multi-celled organism (like humans) cell
specialized for specific functions thus the original cells
must divide to produce different kind of cells.
Mitosis vs Meiosis
1. Mitosis (M phase) – is normal cell division in all
parts of the body
- where cytokinesis and karyokinesis happened
Karyokinesis - cell nucleus divides (PMAT)
Cytokinesis - cell itself divides into daughters’ cells.
Aims Mitosis: chromosomes must be precisely divided
so that each daughter cell gets the exactly the same
DNA.
Humans = 46 chromosomes (every cell has)
 Each species has a characteristic number of
chromosomes: corn has 20, house flies have 10,
chimpanzees have 48.
 Chromosomes – (Telomere, Centromere)
2. Meiosis – is the special cell division that creates the
sperm and eggs, the gametes
Chromosomes
 Before replication, chromosomes have one
chromatid.
 After replication chromosomes have 2 sister
chromatids, held together at the centromere.
 Each chromatid is one piece of DNA with its
supporting proteins.
 In mitosis, the two chromatids of each chromosomes
separate, with each chromatid going into a daughter
cell.
Cell Cycle
 Some cells divide constantly: cells in the embryo,
skin cells, gut lining cells, etc.
 Other cells divide rarely or never
 Actively dividing cells go through a cycle of events
that results in mitosis.
G1  S  G2  M  G1…
G0 (Gap 0) – the resting phase/stage (quotients)
- The cells are not divided yet
Interphase (G1&G2)
- The none dividing stage of the cell cycle
 During interphase the cell increases in size, but the
chromosomes are invisible.
 The 3 stages of interphase are called G1, S and G2
G1 (Gap) - synthesis of amino acids and other
biochemical needed for S phase.
- is the period when each chromosome has 1
chromatid.
- Control of cell division occurs in G1: a cell that isn’t
destined to divide stays in G1, while a cell that is to
divide enters the S phase.
S phase (Synthesis) – is the time when the DNA is
replicated.
- The chromosomes goes from having one chromatid
to having 2 chromatids held together at the
centromere.
G2 – is the period between S and mitosis. The
chromosome have 2 chromatids, and the cell is getting
ready to divide.
- Chemicals are needed for the production of
microtubules.
Mitosis = P, M, A, T
 The chromosomes are pulled apart by the Spindle,
Which is made of microtubules.
 The spindle fibers are attached to each centromere
(which is part of the chromosomes), and anchored on the
other end to a centrosome (which is the organizing
center
for the spindle).
 There are two centromeres
 The chromosomes are lined up between the poles
of the spindle.
 When the spindle fibers contract, the chromosomes
are pulled to the opposing poles,
 The cell then divides to separate the two poles.
Prophase
1. The chromosomes condense. The proteins = cause the
chromosomes to go from long thin structures to short fat
one.
2. The nuclear envelope disappears. The double
membrane that surround the nucleus dissolves freeing
the chromosomes to use the whole cell for division.
3. In prophase the pair of centrosomes separate and
move to opposite ends of the cell.
4. The spindle starts to form, growing out of the
centrosomes towards the chromosomes.
Metaphase
- Is a short resting period where the chromosomes ate
lined up on the equator of the cell
- Centrosomes are the opposite ends and the spindle
fibers attached to the centromeres.
- center of the cell
- chromosomes appear as a sister chromatid.
- Spindle fiber appear and attached to the kenito
course
So, the chromosomes align at the center of the cell.
Anaphase
- Centromeres divide
- Each individual chromosome goes from:
1. Chromosome with 2 chromatids to
2. Chromosomes with one chromatid each
- Then the spindle fibers contract, and the
chromosomes are pulled to opposite poles, towards
the centrosomes.
Telophase
- Cell actually divides
- The chromosomes are at the poles of the spindle.
- The spindle disintegrates
- The nuclear envelope reforms around the two sets of
chromosomes.
- The cytoplasm is divided into 2 separate cells, the
process of cytokinesis.
Cytokinesis
- The organelles (other than the chromosomes) get
divided up into the 2 daughter cells passively.
- Plant and animal cells divide the cytoplasm in
different ways
- In plant cells, a new cell wall made of cellulose
forms between the 2 new nuclei.
- Cell membranes form
DNA - composed of 20 amino acids found in the body
- 2 types Essential and Non-essential amino acids. (11
essential acid and 9 non-essential acid)
- No uracil
- Thymine- only nucleic acid present on the DNA
- Uracil - nucleic acid only present on RNA
- Purine – nucleic acid
- Adenine
- Guanine
- Each nucleic acid present on DNA convert into
amino acid
- Protein building block for amino acid.
#6 Classification of Plants
Plant
- a living organism that grows in the ground, usually has
leaves or flowers that need sun and water to survive.
- a eukaryotic cell, eukaryotes
- are multicellular
- plants cells are surrounded by cell wall
- plants cells contain green chloroplast which contain
chlorophyll
Key Concept
Plants can be classified into nine phyla/divisions.
9 Division of Plants
*Land Plants are classified by the presence or absence
of vascular tissue and how they reproduce (with or
without seeds)
“Classification of Plants”
True Plants Divide in Two
1. Vascular - transport system
- have Xylem and Phloem, plant that has a tube
- transporting the nutrient in the plants
- tube like structure that carries the water the nutrients
and other substances throughout the plant
- have leaves and true roots, can grow tall, live in dry
places, has no hole
Ex.
People: relating to vessels, especially those that carry
blood.
Plants: relating to plant tissues that conduct water, sap,
and nutrients.
Part of the Structure of the Plant
- are useful in transporting the nutrients in the plants
that’s why the plant grows.
 Xylem
- carries the water and minerals from the roots to the
rest of the plant.
- usually composed of dead cells but it’s still alive
because of transportation of the minerals all over the
structure of the plants
 Phloem
- composed of living cell that moves the
carbohydrates
from the production site to where they are either used or
stored
EX. VASCULAR PLANTS (seedless vs with seeds)
 Seedless
Club mosses and Ferns are seedless vascular plants.
Club mosses belongs to phylum Lycophyta
- not true mosses
- oldest living group of vascular plants
Ferns and their relatives belong to phylum Pterophyta
- whisk ferns and horsetails are close relatives of ferns
that have large leaves called fronds.
Seed plants - include cone-bearing plants and flowering
plants
- have several advantages over their seedless
ancestors.
(can reproduce without free-standing water, via
Pollination - grow by their own because of seed that
falls)
- Seeds nourish and protect plant embryo
- Seeds allow plants to disperse to new places
PARTS OF THE SEED
1. Food Store/Storage- the center, food storage
2. Seed Coat
3. Embryo
TWO TYPES OF SEED
1. Monocotyledon - 1 surface of the seed
2. Dicotyledon- 2 surface of the seed
Gymnosperms do not have seen enclosed in fruit.
- most gymnosperms are cone-bearing.
- the cone is reproductive structure of most
gymnosperms
- Pollen is produced in male cones
- Eggs are produced in female cones
- seeds develop on scale of female cones
- ex. Pinetree
Cycads are gymnosperms in phylum Cycadophyta
- look like a palm tree with large cones
- grow in tropical areas
Ginkgos are gymnosperms in phylum Ginkgophyta
- only one species alive today, Ginkgo biloba grown
in
gardens and used in urban landscaping
Conifers are gymnosperms in phylum Coniferophyta
- most common gymnosperms alive today
- includes pines, spruce, cedar, fir, and juniper
Angiosperms, or flowering plants, belong in phylum
Anthophyta
- have seed enclosed in some type of fruit.
A flower is the reproductive structure of angiosperms.
A fruit is a mature ovary of a flower
2. Nonvascular Plants - Non-Transport System
- no roots (rhizoids)
- has no tube-like structure in the plant structures or the
structure there is used to move water and substances
- that’s why they're small
Ex. Lumot
- they rely on the food directly attached to the water,
usually live in a moist area. Grow close to the ground to
absorb water and nutrients
- they are smaller compare to vascular plants
- has no Xylem or Phloem
- still have photosynthesis (similarities of vascular
plants)
- presence of chloroplast (chlorophyll is the green
pigment)
NONVASCULAR PLANTS EXAMPLE
1. Mosses and their relatives are seedless nonvascular
plants Brophyta or Bryophyta
- belong to phylum Bryophyta
- most common seedless nonvascular plants
- sphagnum moss commonly used by humans as “peat”
2. Liverworts belong to phylum Hepatophyta
- often grow on wet rocks or in greenhouses
- can be thallose or leafy
3. Hornworts belong to phylum Anthocerophyta
- found in tropical forests and along streams
- flat, lobed body with the green “horns”
Seaweeds (color green, red, brown)
Plant Classification Lab
 Goal: Identify plants as either vascular or
nonvascular based on microscope analysis.
 This lab does not need to be a formal write up….
Only include the Title, Goal, and components listed
below:
- Draw image and label transport system components
- Record slide name and number
- Record as either vascular or nonvascular.
Vascular Plants vs Nonvascular Plants
Vascular
 Transport System
- Leaves, true roots, xylem, phloem, stems
 Can grow tall
 Live in dry areas
Nonvascular
 No Transport System (no roots) rhizoids
 Grow close to the ground to absorb water and
nutrients
 Live in moist areas
 Based on the water requirements of the plants
1. Mesophytes - those are the plants that need moderate
supply of water. Ex. Grasses, tulips
2. Xerophytes - those are the plants that live in dry
places, in dessert. Ex. cactus
3. Hydrophytes - those are the plants that needs a moist
and watery abundant supply of water. Ex. water lily
4. Halophytes - those are the plants that survive in a salt
tolerant or high salinity water, Ex. seaweeds
Based in their habitat
1. Aquatic plants - those are the plants that live in
water.
2. Terrestrial plants - those are the plants that live on
the land.
3. Aerial plants - those are the plants that live above the
ground and attach to other plants. Ex. orchids
 Based on their life duration
1. Annual plants - those are the plants that live for 1
year, only 1 growing session. Ex. rice, corns, beans,
watermelon
2. Biennial plants - those are the plants that live for two
years, 1st year is the main limited for vegetable growth
or growth, 2nd year is reproductive year. Ex. carrots,
onion
3. Perennial plants - those are the plants that leave year
to year or more than 2 years. Ex. apple, mango,
eggplant, banana, etc.
 Based on their habit on the body appearance
1. Trees - those are the woody plant with a single main
stem, which is commonly above 20ft. Ex. trees, banana,
mango.
2. Shrubs - those are woody plants in relatively short.
not lapas 20 ft.
3. Herbs - those are plants with soft or succulent stems,
can be putol through kamot. Ex. Sambong,
4. Vines - those are the climbing or twining plants with
stems with maybe tender or tough. Ex. Ampalaya
Autotrophs - are known as producers because they are
able to make their own food from raw materials and
energy. Examples include plants, algae, and some types
of bacteria.
Heterotrophs - are known as consumers because they
consume producers or other consumers. Dogs, birds,
fish, and humans are all examples of heterotrophs