ATENEO DE DAVAO UNIVERSITY BY: MOHAMIDIN K

MAMALAPAT
BS MEDICAL BIOLOGY DATE: SEPTEMBER 16,
2022
SUBJECT: GENERAL BOTANY LECTURE

Learn the functions, where it originated, what it gives

LESSON 6. THE ROOT rise to, what is it made of, defining characteristics and
location in the cross section of a root
 Epidermis
ROOT SYSTEM  Cortex
o Hypodermis
o Storage parenchyma cells
Taproot system
o Endodermis
▪ Casparian strip
Fibrous root system
Vascular cylinder
o Pericycle
o Vascular bundles
FUNCTIONS OF THE ROOT o Pith

SECONDARY GROWTH IN ROOTS

MODIFIIED ROOTS
Vascular cambium
Storage roots o Fascicular cambium
o Carrots, raddish, o Interfascicular cambium
turnip, etc.. o Ray initials
Aerial roots for water o Fusiform initials
retention Cork cambium
o Orchid o bark
Aerial roots for support
o Banyan tree
Buttress roots or prop
root LESSON 7: THE STEM
o Silk cotton tree
Pneumatophore roots
o Mangroves
Hausteria WHAT IS STEM
Mycorrhizae
o Ectomycorrhizal roots
o Endomycorrhizal roots  Stem is a collection of integrated tissues arranged
Root nodules as nodes and internodes.
Strangler fig roots  Stems are either herbaceous (consisting of soft,
nonwoody tissues) or woody (with extensive hard
tissues of wood and bark)
LONGITUDINAL SECTION OF THE ROOT PRIMARY FUNCTIONS

Root cap
o Function  Support the aerial part of the plant
o Columella cells
o Peripheral cells  Advantage of elevated stem and leaves?
o What is Musigel o Elevated stem helps the plants leaves to
▪ Function perform photosynthesis
Zone of cell division  Advantage of elevated fruits and flowers?
o Function o For flowers, dispersal of pollen
o Quiescent center o Exposed more in cross pollination
Zone of cell elongation o For fruits, dispersal of the seeds
o Function
 Vascular plants evolved?
o How do they elongate
o Rise above, adapt
o What becomes evident here
Zone of cell differentiation  Reproductive structures (flowers and fruits) are
o Function located on stems in areas accessible for insects,
o Root hairs birds, and air currents, which transfer pollen
from flower to flower and help disperse seeds
PRIMARY GROWTH IN ROOTS and fruits
 ATENEO DE DAVAO UNIVERSITY
BS MEDICAL BIOLOGY
SUBJECT: GENERAL BOTANY LECTURE
 The upright position of most stems and the
arrangement of leaves on them enable each
leaf to absorb maximum light for use in
photosynthesis.
 
 Stems transport water and solutes between
roots and leaves
 The vascular system of stems maintains an
aquatic environment in leaves and transports
sugars and other solutes between leaves and
roots. Stems link leaves with the water and
dissolved nutrients of the soil.
OTHER FUNCTIONS
Together, nodes and internodes perform several
functions:
 Stems support leaves
 The solar collector of plants. Turgor pressure in
stems provides a hydrostatic skeleton that
support the young plant. Leaves are also
supported by a stem’s internal skeleton of
collenchyma and sclerenchyma.
 
 Produce carbohydrates
 Cactus
 Asparagus
o Have you seen white
asparagus? Why are they
white?
o Not exposed to sunlight thus the
chlorophyll will not developed
 Stems of plants such as
Salicornia are green and
photosynthetic. Although
photosynthesis in stems is
usually insignificant compared
to that in leaves, in plants such
as cacti it accounts for most of
the plant’s carbon fixation.
 Halophyte – salt-tolerant
plant that grows in soil or
waters of high salinity.
 Asexual reproduction
 Stem cuttings
 Marcotting
 Grafting
 Stems produce new living tissue, as roots do.
They continue to grow throughout a plant’s life,
forming buds that develop into stems with new
leaves and/or reproductive structures.
 Storage materials
 Cactus
 Potato
 Parenchyma cells in stems store large amounts
of starch and water. For example, water
accounts for as much as 98% of the weight of
many cactus stems.
BY: MOHAMIDIN K
MAMALAPAT
DATE: SEPTEMBER 16,
2022
 They conduct water and dissolved minerals
(inorganic nutrients) from the roots, where
they were absorbed from the soil, to the leaves
and other plant parts.
Stems also conduct the carbohydrates
produced in the leaves by photosynthesis to
the roots and other parts of the plant.
CONTROL OF STEM GROWTH
 Leaf primordia control the differentiation of
procambium in stems. As a result, there is no
procambium above the youngest primordium, and
vascular tissues in developing leaves align and
connect with mature vascular tissues of the stem.
Light also controls stem growth: the stems of
seedlings growing in darkness elongate much faster
than those growing in light.
 Stems elongate in subapical regions in response
to auxin and gibberellins, which are made in young
leaves. These hormones elongate stems by
stimulating cellular elongation and division. In many
plants, elongation occurs throughout the internode;
in others, it proceeds as awave originating at the
base of the internode.
 Grasses such as bamboo elongate at meristems
intercalated between mature tissues at the base and
leaf sheets. These meristems are called intercalary
meristems and remain merismatic long after
tissues in the rest of the internode are fully
differentiated.
MODIFIED STEMS
Above Ground
Runners or stolon

Cladodes and
cladophylls

 ATENEO DE DAVAO UNIVERSITY BY: MOHAMIDIN K
MAMALAPAT
BS MEDICAL BIOLOGY DATE: SEPTEMBER 16,
2022
SUBJECT: GENERAL BOTANY LECTURE

Succulent stems EXTERNAL FEATURES


 Stems exhibit great variation in structure and
growth, they all have buds.

Thorns


 Do roses have thorns?

 No  Node
 What you see on the rose stem is not thorn  Nodes are regions where leaves attach to
but a prickle. Prickles are small, sharp stems.
outgrowth of the plant’s outer layers. o Phyllotaxy
Underground 
Spiral
Bulb

Distichous
Rhizome

Opposite
Corm

Tuber
 ATENEO DE DAVAO UNIVERSITY BY: MOHAMIDIN K
MAMALAPAT
BS MEDICAL BIOLOGY DATE: SEPTEMBER 16,
2022
SUBJECT: GENERAL BOTANY LECTURE

Decussate  These plants have short internodes with

tightly packed leaves.
 The stems of rosette plants are short and
made almost entirely of overlapping bases.
These structures can reach impressive
proportions.
 For example, although the large,
overlapping leaf bases of banana tree form
Whorled a “trunk” that can raise leaves more than
10m, its pyramid-shaped stem barely
reaches the ground.
 Most rosettes fail to elongate because they
do not make enough physiologically active
gibberellins. Thus, treating rosettes with
gibberellins typically causes internodal
elongation.
o Intercalary meristem
 Leaf Axil

Figure
 Axillary Bud or Lateral
3:
Buds
 Also called lateral
buds, are found in the
axils—the upper angles
between leaves and the
stem to which they are
attached. When
Structure of intercalary meristem. The picture terminal and axillary
focuses on the position of the intercalary meristem buds grow, they form
which is located at the zone of elongation.  stems that bear leaves
 Intercalary meristems are important because and/or flowers.
they re-form the stem of leaf of a grass when its
tips is torn off by a grazing animal or lawn  Terminal Buds
mower.  tip of a stem
 A terminal bud is
 Produce phenomenal rates of growth in many
dormant (that is,
plants. For example, bamboo stems can
unopened and not
elongate almost a meter per day (that’s more
actively growing), it
than an average child grows between birth and is covered and
its tenth birthday and can grow to be over 35 m protected by an
tall. outer protective
 Also have direct impact on us: no matter how layer of bud
many afternoons we spend vibrating behind our scales, which are
lawn mowers, we can be sure that the grass modified leaves
blades will soon grow back, thanks to intercalary 
meristems.  Leaf Scars
 Shows where a leaf
 Internode was attached on
 Internodes are the parts of stems between the stem, and the
nodes vascular (conducting) tissue that extends from
 Region of a stem between two successive nodes the stem out into the leaf forms bundle scars
 What do you call a plants with short interlodes within the leaf scar.
and are usually packed with leaves?  Lenticels
 The Lenticels Allow Gas Exchange through the
Periderm

 Bud scale
 When the bud resumes growth, the bud scales
fall off, leaving bud scale scars on the stem
o Rosette plants where they were attached.
 Plants whose stems do not elongate
 ATENEO DE DAVAO UNIVERSITY
BS MEDICAL BIOLOGY
SUBJECT: GENERAL BOTANY LECTURE
o What is apical dominance?
 The inhibition of axillary bud growth by the
shoot apical meristem
 Ex: shrubs
 Lateral branches from axillary buds are
prevented from being formed by the shoot
apex.
 There are a lot of auxin (hormone) in shoot
apex
 When the apical meristem is pinched off, the
auxin source is removed, and axillary buds grow
to form branches. Apical dominance is often
quickly reestablished, however, as one branch
begins to inhibit the growth of others.
 Other hormones (ethylene and cytokinin, both
discussed later) are also involved in apical
dominance. As with many physiological
processes, the interactions of these hormones,
rather than the action of one hormone alone,
may be responsible for apical dominance.
DID YOU KNOW?
 The banana plant has an above protrusion –
often referred to as the trunk
 This is pseudostem, not a true stem. They are
overlapping leave sheets.
 Botanically, it is an herb
 Herbaceous plants – those without woody
tissues ( do not undergo secondary growth)
 Culinary herbs like sweet basil, rosemary, and
mint are actually woody plants
o Are palms (Aracaceae) trees?
 Monocot stems do not possess lateral meristems
(vascular cambium and cork cambium) that give
rise to secondary growth.
BY: MOHAMIDIN K
MAMALAPAT
DATE: SEPTEMBER 16,
2022
Monocots have primary growth only and do not
produce the secondary tissues wood and bark.
Although some treelike monocots such as palms
attain considerable size, they do so by a
modified form of primary growth rather than by
secondary growth.
 Botanically, trees are woody perennials with a
single trunk that supports the branches…and
usually grows taller than shrubs.
 Although most monocots lack secondary growth,
some, such as the palms, may develop thick
stems by primary growth alone (pages 583 and
584). Some palms undergo a type of secondary
growth called diffuse secondary growth, which
takes place in older parts of the stem a
considerable distance from the shoot apex.
There the parenchyma cells of the ground tissue
continue to divide and expand for a long period,
accompanied by a proportional increase in the
size of the intercellular spaces.
o Is the coconut tree, a tree?
o Is the coco woo, wood?
o Is the coconut nut, a nut?
 The stems of monocots such as bamboo and
palms contain a great deal of sclerenchyma
tissue, which makes them hard and wood like in
appearance.
PRIMARY GROWTH TAKES PLACE AT APICAL
Axillary bud
MERISTEMS
that formed
into a branch
 Primary tissues formed
 Apical meristem, an
area of cell division at
the tip of a stem or root
in a plant; produces
primary tissues.
 Primary growth
occurs as a result of
the activity of apical
meristems, areas at
the tips of roots and
shoots
 Primary growth, an
increase in a plant’s
length, which occurs at
 ATENEO DE DAVAO UNIVERSITY
BS MEDICAL BIOLOGY
SUBJECT: GENERAL BOTANY LECTURE
the tips of stems and roots due to the activity of
apical meristem
 Shoot apical meristem
 protoderm, ground meristem and procambium
 Three primary meristems (immature tissues) are
found in the area of cell elongation: protoderm,
procambium, and ground meristem.
 The protoderm is young, undifferentiated
tissue of a root or stem that eventually develops
into epidermis. Procambium is meristematic
tissue that eventually develops into xylem and
phloem. Ground meristem is meristematic
tissue that gives rise to cortex, pith, and ground
tissue.
 The primary meristems continue to develop and
differentiate into primary tissues (epidermis,
xylem, phloem, and ground tissues) of the adult
plant. Farther back from the tip, in the area of
cell maturation, the
BY: MOHAMIDIN K
MAMALAPAT
DATE: SEPTEMBER 16,
2022
 cells have completely differentiated and are fully
mature. Root hairs are evident in this area.
 A shoot apex—a terminal bud, for example—
is quite different in appearance from a root tip
(•Figure 5-12). Within every bud is a dome of
tiny, regularly arranged meristematic cells, the
shoot apical meristem. Leaf primordia
(developing leaves) and bud primordia
(developing buds) emerge from the shoot apical
meristem. The leaf primordia cover and protect
the shoot apical meristem. As the cells formed
by the shoot apical meristem elongate, the
shoot apical meristem is pushed upward.
Subsequent cell divisions produce additional
stem tissue and new leaf and bud primordia.
Farther back from the tip of the stem, the
immature cells enlarge and differentiate into the
three tissue systems of the mature plant body
(•Figure 5-13).
 Bud, a dormant embryonic shoot that
eventually develops into an apical meristem
INTERNAL ORGANIZATION
 Epidermis/ Epidermal Tissues
 Stems are surrounded by a transparent
epidermis that is usually one cell thick and often
bears trichomes.
 The epidermis, an outer covering, provides
protection in herbaceous stems as it does in
leaves and herbaceous roots.
o Cuticle
 A waxy layer that reduces water loss from
the stem surface, usually covers the
epidermis
o Stomata
 (Singular, stoma), which allow exchange of CO2
and O2 between the surrounding air and the
photosynthetic cells inside the leaf. In addition
to regulating CO2 uptake for photosynthesis,
stomata are major avenues for the evaporative
loss of water.
o Trichomes
 The trichomes of tomato plants secrete an
irritating juice that deters hungry insects, while
 ATENEO DE DAVAO UNIVERSITY BY: MOHAMIDIN K
MAMALAPAT
BS MEDICAL BIOLOGY DATE: SEPTEMBER 16,
2022
SUBJECT: GENERAL BOTANY LECTURE

hooked-shaped trichomes often entangle insects Cortex Pith

and prevent them from feeding while they
struggle to free themselves. Dicot  Inside the  At the center
epidermis is the of the
cortex, a cylinder herbaceous
 Ground Tissues several cells thick eudicot stem
that is part of a is pith, a
plant’s ground ground
tissue system tissue
 Is a complex tissue composed of
that may contain large, thin-
parenchyma, walled
collenchyma, and parenchyma
sclerenchyma cells cells that
 Cortex in an function
herbaceous eudicot primarily for
stem can have storage. Due
several functions, to the
such as arrangement
photosynthesis, of the
storage, and vascular
support. tissues in
 The stem is green, bundles,
photosynthesis there is no
occurs within distinct
chloroplast- separation of
containing cortex and
parenchyma cells in pith between
the cortex. the vascular
Parenchyma cells in bundles. The
the cortex also areas of
store starch grains parenchyma
and crystals. between the
Collenchyma and vascular
sclerenchyma in the bundles are
cortex confer often
strength and referred to
structural support as pith
for the stem. rays.
Dicot
Monoco  The monocot stem
t does not have
distinct areas of
cortex and pith.
 Vascular Tissues

 provide conduction and support

Monocot
 ATENEO DE DAVAO UNIVERSITY BY: MOHAMIDIN K
MAMALAPAT
BS MEDICAL BIOLOGY DATE: SEPTEMBER 16,
2022
SUBJECT: GENERAL BOTANY LECTURE

with the dissolved not

vascular carbohydr found in
tissues of ates all
both roots (sucrose), herbace
and leaves often from ous
- Central the leaves eudicot
cylinder of to the stems.
a stem, roots.
which - The
includes xylem is
xylem, usually on
phloem, the inner
and often side of the
pith, is vascular
called a bundle,
stele. and the
- eustele phloem is
Dicot found
toward the
outside.
-
Sandwiche
d between
the xylem
and the
phloem is
a single
layer of
cells, the
vascular
cambium,
a lateral
meristem
that is
responsibl
e for
secondary
Monocot growth.
Vascular Xylem Phloem Bundle Mon -the - Each
bundles and fiber sheath ocot vascular vascular
Phloem cap bundles, bundle
which is
contain usually
Dico - vascular -Each - The xylem enclose
t tissues vascular phloem toward the d in a
appear as bundle contains inside and bundle
vascular contains a cluster phloem sheath
bundles both of fibers toward the of
arranged in xylem, called a outside, are sclerenc
a circle which phloem not hyma
- These transports fiber arranged in cells for
vascular water and cap, a circle, as support.
bundles dissolved which they are in - The
extend as minerals helps herbaceous ground
long from the strength eudicot tissue in
strands roots to en the stems, but which
throughout the leaves, stem. are the
the length and The scattered vascular
of the stem phloem, phloem throughout tissues
and are which fiber the stem are
continuous transports cap is - embedd
actacostel ed
 ATENEO DE DAVAO UNIVERSITY BY: MOHAMIDIN K
MAMALAPAT
BS MEDICAL BIOLOGY DATE: SEPTEMBER 16,
2022
SUBJECT: GENERAL BOTANY LECTURE

e perform  Lateral Meristem, an area of cell division on the

s the side of a vascular plant; the two lateral meristems
same (vascular cambium and cork cambium) give rise to
function secondary tissues
s as  Two lateral meristems are responsible for secondary
cortex growth: the vascular cambium and the cork
and pith
cambium. Secondary growth forms secondary
in
tissues—that is, secondary xylem, secondary
herbace
phloem, and periderm.
ous
eudicot  Among flowering plants, only woody eudicots (such
stems as apple, hickory, and maple) have secondary
growth.
Type of Stele  Gymnosperms (such as the conifers pine, juniper,
and spruce) also have secondary growth.

 Vascular Cambium
dictyostele eustele actacostele  Vascular cambium gives rise to secondary xylem
and secondary phloem
SECONDARY GROWTH TAKES PLACE AT LATER  Vascular cambium is a thin layer of cells
MERISTEMS sandwiched between the xylem and the phloem
in the vascular bundles.

 The vascular cambium is a layer of

meristematic cells that forms a thin, continuous
cylinder within the stem and root. It is located
between the wood and bark of a woody plant.
Cells of the vascular cambium divide, adding
more cells to the wood (secondary xylem) to
replace primary xylem and to the inner bark
(secondary phloem) to replace primary phloem.
 Primary xylem and primary phloem cannot
transport materials indefinitely and are replaced
in plants that have extended life spans
 Merismatic cells of vascular cambium: ray
initials and fusiform initials.

 Secondary tissues formed

 Secondary growth is due to cell divisions that occur
in lateral meristems, areas that extend along the
entire lengths of stems and roots, except at the tips.
 Secondary Growth, an increase in a plant’s girth
due to the activity of lateral meristems (the vascular
cambium and cork cambium).
 ATENEO DE DAVAO UNIVERSITY BY: MOHAMIDIN K
MAMALAPAT
BS MEDICAL BIOLOGY DATE: SEPTEMBER 16,
2022
SUBJECT: GENERAL BOTANY LECTURE

cells, the vascular rays are variable in length. They

serve as pathways for the movement of food
substances from the secondary phloem to the
secondary xylem, and the movement of water from
the secondary xylem to the secondary phloem.
Vascular rays also serve as storage centers for such
substances as starch, proteins, and lipids and may
also synthesize some secondary metabolites.
 In temperate regions, the vascular cambium is
dormant during winter and becomes reactivated in
the spring. During reactivation, the cambial cells
take up water, expand radially, and begin to divide
periclinally. During expansion, the radial walls of the
cambial cells and their derivatives become thinner,
and as a result, the bark (all tissues to the outside of
the vascular cambium) may be easily peeled or
“slipped” off the stem. New growth layers, or
increments, of secondary xylem and secondary
phloem are laid down during the growing season.
Reactivation of the vascular cambium is triggered by
expansion of the buds and resumption of their
growth. The hormone auxin, produced by the
developing shoots, moves downward in the stems
and stimulates the resumption of cambial activity.
Other factors are also involved in cambial
reactivation and in continued normal growth of the
cambium (see Chapter 27).

 Secondary xylem and secondary phloem are

produced through periclinal divisions of the fusiform
and ray initials and their immediate derivatives. In
other words, the cell plate that forms between these
dividing cambial initials is parallel to the surface of
the root or stem (Figure 26–4a). If the derivative of
a cambial initial is produced toward the outside of
the root or stem, it eventually becomes a phloem
cell; if it is produced toward the inside, it becomes a
xylem cell. In this manner, a long, continuous radial
file, or row, of cells is formed, extending from the
cambial initial outward into the phloem and inward
into the xylem (Figure 26–5).
 The xylem and phloem cells produced by the
fusiform initials have their long axes oriented
vertically and make up what is known as the axial
system of the secondary vascular tissues. The ray
initials produce horizontally oriented ray cells,
which form the vascular rays or radial system
(Figure 26–5). Composed largely of parenchyma
 ATENEO DE DAVAO UNIVERSITY BY: MOHAMIDIN K
MAMALAPAT
BS MEDICAL BIOLOGY DATE: SEPTEMBER 16,
2022
SUBJECT: GENERAL BOTANY LECTURE

sieve-tube elements, companion cells, parenchyma

cells, and fibers. There are usually more fibers in
secondary phloem than in primary phloem, however.
o Fascicular cambium
 Fascicular cambium in roots and stem
differentiate in procambium
 That portion of the cambium arising within the
vascular bundles is known as fascicular
cambium
o Interfascicular Cambium
 Interfascicular cambium in stem differentiate in
the cortical cells separating the vascular
cambium
 In roots it differentiate in the pericycle
 that arising in the interfascicular regions, or
pith rays, is called interfascicular cambium
o Secondary Xylem (Wood)

Softwood Hardwood
o Softwood is the wood o Botanically speaking,
of conifers (cone- hardwood is the wood
bearing of flowering plants—
gymnosperms). that is, woody
eudicots
o

o Ray initials
 as horizontally oriented ray initials, which
are slightly elongated or squarish
o Fusiform initials
 which are several to many times longer
than they are wide
 The fusiform initials appear flattened or
brick-shaped in transverse section.
 The xylem and phloem cells produced by
the fusiform initials have their long axes
oriented vertically and make up what is
known as the axial system of the
secondary vascular tissues.
Additional info about vascular cambium

 Secondary tissues replace the primary tissues in

function. In the woody plant, secondary xylem
conducts water and dissolved minerals from roots to
leaves and contains the same types of cells found in
primary xylem: water-conducting tracheids, water-
conducting vessel elements, parenchyma cells, and fi
bers. The arrangement of the different cell types in
secondary xylem results in distinctive wood Sapwood Heartwood
o The functional o Heartwood, the older
characteristics for each species (see Plants and
secondary xylem—that wood in the center of
People: The Importance of Wood for some of the
is, the part that the trunk, is typically a
uses of wood derived from these distinctive
conducts water and brownish red.
characteristics). dissolved minerals—is o A microscopic
 Secondary phloem conducts dissolved carbohydrates the sapwood, the examination of
(sucrose)—for example, from the place of younger, lighter heartwood reveals that
manufacture in the leaves to a place of storage in colored wood closest its vessels and
the stem or roots. The same types of cells found in to the bark. tracheids are plugged
primary phloem are also found in secondary phloem: o with pigments,
 ATENEO DE DAVAO UNIVERSITY BY: MOHAMIDIN K
MAMALAPAT
BS MEDICAL BIOLOGY DATE: SEPTEMBER 16,
2022
SUBJECT: GENERAL BOTANY LECTURE

tannins, gums, resins,

and other materials.
Therefore, heartwood
no longer functions in
conduction.
o Heartwood is denser
than sapwood and
provides structural
support for trees.
o There is some
evidence that
heartwood is also
more resistant to
decay.

Growth rings
 The periodic activity of the vascular cambium, which
is seasonally related in temperate zones, produces
growth increments, or growth rings, in both
secondary xylem and secondary phloem (in the
phloem the increments are not always readily  Cork cambium
discernible).  The cork cambium is a thin cylinder or
Springwood Summer wood Annual ring irregular arrangement of meristematic cells in
 In the  As summer  If a growth the outer bark region. Cells of the cork cambium
spring, when progresses layer divide to form the cork cells toward the
water is and water represents outside and one or more underlying layers of
plentiful, becomes one cork parenchyma cells that function in
wood less plentiful, season’s storage. Collectively, cork cells, cork cambium,
formed by the wood growth, it is
and cork parenchyma make up the periderm.
the vascular that forms, called an
 Periderm
cambium known as annual ring
has late  The cork cambium and the tissues it produces
thinwalled, summerwoo are collectively called periderm (outer bark).
large- d, has  Periderm functions as a replacement for the
diameter thicker- epidermis, which splits apart as the stem
conducting walled, increases in girth.
cells narrower
(tracheids conducting Tissues
and vessel cells and Phellogen Phellem Phelloderm
elements) many fibers  Cork  Outer  Inner
and few fi  Late wood cambium -> derivatives of derivatives of
bers and is periderm phellogen phellogen
appropriatel - Cork cells  Cork cells  Living cells
y called + - Dead  Large
springwood. phelloder - Waterpro intercellular
 Early wood m of spaces
o Secondary phloem  From cortex (suberin  a tissue that
and ) resembles
parenchyma - Insulate cortical
DID YOU KNOW? of 2o phloem - Protect parenchyma,
 the meristem - Lenticels formed to
 The science of studying growth ring is called that produces  the protective the inside by
dendrochronology. the periderm tissue formed the meristem
 Ring patterns can indicate climate change to the outside
o Thick ring – warm or wet year by the cork
cambium;
o Thin ring – cold or dry year
o
ATENEO DE DAVAO UNIVERSITY BY: MOHAMIDIN K
MAMALAPAT
BS MEDICAL BIOLOGY DATE: SEPTEMBER 16,
2022
SUBJECT: GENERAL BOTANY LECTURE

LESSON 8. THE LEAVES

WHAT ARE LEAVES

Define
- Leaves are thin, flattened plant appendages that are
attached to stem and
develops laterally at the node
Functions
- To manufacture food, which is glucose via
photosynthesis
- Carry out respiration in plants through tiny pores called
stomata
- Regulate water through transpiration
- Support
- Dissipates heat
- Traps insects
- Protection (cataphylls)
LEAF FORM AND STRUCTURE

A. Blade
- also called the lamina, that is usually broad, large, and
flat surface in where
photosynthesis occur
B. Margin
- the edge of the leaf
C. Apex
- the tip of the leaf
D. Midrib
- the central vein of the leaf
E. Veins
- small lines that run along the leaf
- helps in transporting water and mineral through the leaf
- vein density reflects photosynthetic performance, while
distance between
veins shows how well the veins are supplying nutrients
- also helps the leaf move to face the light source
F. Petiole
- the stalk that connects the blade with the leaf base
 ATENEO DE DAVAO UNIVERSITY BY: MOHAMIDIN K
MAMALAPAT
BS MEDICAL BIOLOGY DATE: SEPTEMBER 16,
2022
SUBJECT: GENERAL BOTANY LECTURE

- attached to the stem - a small ear-like projection from the base of a leaf or
G. Stipule petal
- an outgrowth appendage, usually paired located on - for angle of the leaf to capture more sunlight
each side of the leaf INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF THE LEAF
base A. Epidermis
- protection of leaf bud and emerging young leaves - cuticle - outer covering of the leaf
- retention of moisture - stomata
H. Leaf Sheath - guard cells to regulate water
- an extended, cylindrical structure that houses the - stomatal distribution
shoot's early growth. Its B. Vascular Tissue
primary purpose is to support the entire plant and to - veins
safeguard the developing - upper side - xylem
shoots inside of it. - lower side - phloem
LEAF DEVELOPMENT - Major vein is supported by fibers to discourage insects
A. How are leaves formed? from eating it
- leaf arises from the stem cell niche at the shoot apical - Enclosed in parenchymatous bundle sheath
meristem C. Ground Tissue
B. Leaf primordia Mesophyll tissue - between two epidermal cell layers of
- group of cells that will form into new leaves leaf
C. Adaxial vs abaxial - Sclerenchyma
- adaxial is the upper surface of the leaf - Chlorenchyma (specialized parenchyma for
- abaxial is the lower surface of the leaf photosynthesis)
D. Marginal meristem - Palisade mesophyll - more elongated cells for light
- meristematic zone along the margins of the leaf absorption
primordium - Spongy mesophyll - spherical cells for gas exchange
- allows lateral expansion of the laminaIV. ENVIRONMENT CONTROL OF LEAF VARIATION
BASIC KINDS OF LEAVES A. Light
A. Simple Leaves - presence and absence of light
- obtuse - absence means plant will not be big
- palmate - affects chlorophyll
- cordate - daylength
- round - affects flowering and morphology of leaf
- reniform - light intensity
B. Compound Leaves - how much light receiving
- Compound Leaves - sun leaves exposed while shade leaves aren't exposed
- Pinnately compound B. Moisture
- Odd / Even, Once - Mesophytes are plants that have no special adaptations
- Twice/double, bippinate for water or for
- Thrice, trippinate extreme cold and what; usually grows in sunny and
- Palmately Compound shady areas
C. Peltate leaves - petiole attached to the middle of the - Xerophytes are plants that are adapted to survive very
lamina dry environments- Hydrophytes are plants that live and
D. Perfoliate leaves - pierced leavesV. have specialized adaptations
MODIFIED LEAVES
OTHER TERMINOLOGIES RELATING TO THE A. Tendrils
EXTERNAL FEATURES OF THE LEAF - specialized threadlike structured leaves that are used to
A. Prophylls anchor and support
- first few leaves of a node vining stems
B. Abscission zone - Squash and melon family (Cucurbitaceae)
- found at the base of the petiole B. Spines
- also called separation zone for shedding - sharp and pointy leaves that are specialized for
C. Frond protection against
- a large leave, specifically a fern, with many divisions herbivores, also functions to radiate heat
D. Leaf dimorphism - Cacti
- the ability of the developing leaves of certain C. Bracts
E. Ligule - specialized petal-like leaf to draw attraction from
- protecting the culm and leaves that it encloses from the pollinators via their bright
entry of water, dust color
and harmful spores - Poinsettia
F. Auricle D. Stipule
- may become modified into spines, thorns, or prickles
 ATENEO DE DAVAO UNIVERSITY BY: MOHAMIDIN K
MAMALAPAT
BS MEDICAL BIOLOGY DATE: SEPTEMBER 16,
2022
SUBJECT: GENERAL BOTANY LECTURE

E. Bud scales/Cataphylls
- scale-like modified leaves that protect the lateral and Simplest formula
terminal buds
- Common Oak (Quercus robur)
F. Prophyll
- first few leaves of a node or shoot
- Grass (Poaceae)
G. Storage leaves
- thick leaves specialized to store starch or water or both
- Onion (Allium cepa)
6 Water + 6 Carbon Dioxide — Glucose + 6
H. Swollen petiole
- specialized to enclose air and helps plant to float, Oxygen
development of
aerenchyma 6H2O + 6CO2 - Light/Chlorophyll - C6H12O6 +
- Water Hyacinths (Eichhornia) 6O2
I. Leaves for asexual reproduction
- these are leaves that allows new plants to grow from o Glucose is not the direct product of
the buds growing on photosynthesis. What is it?
the margin of these leaves  The product of photosynthesis moves to the
- plants in Bryophyllum such as Kalanchoe laetivirens other pathway to produce glucose
J. Traps STAGES OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS
- common in carnivorous plants, which are used to trap
insects and consume
Light Reaction
them
 Photochemical Reaction
- Nepenthes ventricosa (Tropical Pitcher plant)
 Oxidation of water happens
K. Window Leaves
 We need water for photosynthesis and oxygen
- specialized leaves that has a translucent area in which
released as byproduct that happens during this
light can enter,
first stage
thereby increasing absorption of light and rate of
Calvin Cycle/Photosynthetic Carbon Reactions
photosynthesis
 Biochemical Reaction
- Lithops salicola (Living Stones)
 Reduction of carbon dioxide
 Where carbon assimilation occurs also called the
LESSON 9. PHOTOSYTHESIS biochemical reactions
 Where and when the carbon dioxide is produced
DEFINITION AND EQUATION AND OTHER BASIC and then converted to carbohydrates (product)
CONCEPTS o Not dark reaction and light reaction also not
light dependent
Define, requirements and equation
ORGANELLE IS ESSENTIAL FOR PHOTOSYNTHESIS
 Photosynthesis
 the chemical process used by plants, algae and
certain bacteria to turn sunlight, carbon dioxide
(CO2) and water into food (sugars) and oxygen.
 conversion process that transforms the energy
of sunlight into chemical energy stored in sugars
and other organic
 molecules
 Light energy converts to chemical energy
 Byproduct of oxygen

REQUIREMENTS AND EQUATION
 Chlorophyll - to absorb light from the sun, in turn
triggers the photosynthesis reaction
 Sunlight - the light serves as the main energy to be
used in the process using photolysis
 Water - raw material used in the process, provides
the electrons lost in the process (oxidize)
 Carbon Dioxide - raw material used in carbon
reactions to become carbohydrates, becomes
reduced
 Chloroplast where we can find the chlorophylls, the
chlorophylls absorbed the lights we need this to
drive photosynthesis
 an organelle that contains the chlorophylls, or
the green photon catching pigment
 photosynthesis takes place inside the
chloroplasts that sit in the mesophyll of the
leaves
 Thylakoid – where Photochemical reaction
occur
 Grana is a stack of thylakoids
 ATENEO DE DAVAO UNIVERSITY BY: MOHAMIDIN K
MAMALAPAT
BS MEDICAL BIOLOGY DATE: SEPTEMBER 16,
2022
SUBJECT: GENERAL BOTANY LECTURE

 Stroma – where Biochemical reactions occur  Energy is directly proportional to frequency

 Liquid area

IS PHOTOSYNTHESIS EXCLUSIVE TO PLANTS?

WHAT OTHER LIVING ORGANISMS ARE CAPABLE
OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS?
 Plants, algae, protists and a group of bacteria called Electronic spectrum
cyanobacteria are the only organisms capable of  the range of all types of electromagnetic radiation
performing photosynthesis. Because they use light to frequency and wavelength are inversely proportional
manufacture their own food, they are called to each other
photoautotrophs (“self-feeders using light”)  the wave speed is equal to the product of its
frequency and wavelength.
HOW IS PHOTOSYNTHESIS IMPORTANT IN THE  visible spectrum is the part of the EM Spectrum
CONTINUITY OF LIFE? that human eyes can view
 Covert carbon dioxide to oxygen
 Heterotrophs depends on the Autotrophs are “self-
feeders” (auto- means “self,” and trophos means
“feeder”);

LIGHT IS BOTH A PARTICEL AND A WAVE

 Light, specifically its photon, is the energy utilized
by plants to energize electrons and start the
photosynthesis process.

Light travel as wave (Visible Light)

Characterized by:
 Wavelength - distance between two crests
 as a wave in the electromagnetic spectrum, light
has a spectrum that ranges from 635 nm (red)
to 400 nm (violet)
 Frequency - number of waves that pass in time
 light has a frequency of 480 THz (red) to 750
THz (violet)
 Speed of Light - 299,792,458 m/s or approximately
300,000,000 m/s or 186,000 m/s in a vacuum
 Radio wave has low energy while Gamma rays has
high energy
 Frequency is directly proportional to energy
 Wavelength is indirectly proportion to energy
Sunlight
 Has 4% ultraviolet radiation
 52% infrared radiation
 44% visible light
LIGHT ABSORBING PIGMENTS OF PLANTS -
CHLOROPLAST
 Chloroplasts contain the pigment chlorophyll that
has a specific job of capturing specific patterns of
wavelengths.

Light as a particle
 Light behaves like it is made of particle called
photon
 Photon contains energy called quantum
 the quantum particle of light, has zero mass but
an energy packet of electromagnetic radiation
 Plank’s law - electromagnetic radiation from
heated bodies is not emitted as a continuous flow
but is made up of discrete units or quanta of
energy, the size of which involves a fundamental
physical constant
 relates the energy of a photon to its frequency,
which determines its energy
 E = hv where v is frequency, h is Planck’s Chlorophyll structure
constant, and E is energy
 ATENEO DE DAVAO UNIVERSITY BY: MOHAMIDIN K
MAMALAPAT
BS MEDICAL BIOLOGY DATE: SEPTEMBER 16,
2022
SUBJECT: GENERAL BOTANY LECTURE

 In porphyrin ring there is magnesium at the center,

then nitrogen
 Magnesium and nitrogen will also affect the
photosynthesis because they are an important
structure of chlorophyll a and b
Chlorophyll a
 Primary pigment
 Absorbs light around color violet blue and red
 is the primary photosynthetic pigment that
captures sunlight, it also absorbs light within the
range of 430-660 nm, absorbing violet-blue
and orange-red light from the spectrum

Chlorophyll b
 Accessory pigments
 Absorbs light around color blue and orange red
 For resonance – it absorbs the light that Chlorophyll
a wasn’t able to, and pass it again on it
 is the accessory pigment that collects sunlight Absorption Spectrum of Chloroplast
and passes into chlorophyll a through a process
 Carotenoids is now included
called resonance, it also absorbs light within
 Carotenoids can’t absorb in the green part because
the range of450-650 nm, absorbing orange-
they reflect it that is why we usually see leaves
red light from the spectrum
green
 It is also important as its central role is to
 Green lights are not absorbed but reflected
expand the absorption spectrum of the
photosynthetic organism

Carotenoids
 Accessory pigment
 Ex: Carotene, xanthophyll
 Poor resonance
 Chloroplasts also contain carotenoids, which
are red, orange, and yellow pigments that
absorb blue-green light and act as
photoprotective elements of photosystems
 It absorbs the too much light and helps Action Spectrum
dissipate it or put it away  Ask the question which wavelength is most effective
in driving the photosynthesis
Absorption Spectrum of Chlorophyll  shows which wavelengths are used by plants to to
 Will tell you the light absorb by the chlorophyll power a photochemical process (effectivity)
(pigment)  violet blue and red color effective in driving the
 shows which wavelengths are most absorbed or photosynthesis
harvested by a chlorophyll (strongly captured)

 The higher the intensity the higher the rate of

photosynthesis

LIGHT REACTION STAGE

 Light absorption stage
 ATENEO DE DAVAO UNIVERSITY BY: MOHAMIDIN K
MAMALAPAT
BS MEDICAL BIOLOGY DATE: SEPTEMBER 16,
2022
SUBJECT: GENERAL BOTANY LECTURE

 Splitting of water  Inductive Resonance

 NADPH and ATP  You pass the energy to another one
 Because of splitting of water, we have the byproduct  Photochemistry
the oxygen  What happens in the reaction center
 It drives chemical reactions to happened

PHOTOSYSTEMS
 Light harvesting unit of thylakoid membrane
 First stage occurs in thylakoid
Excitation of energy by light
 two multi-protein complexes that contain the
pigments necessary to harvest photons and use light
energy to catalyze the primary photosynthetic
endergonic reactions producing high energy
compounds

Ground State
 When the chlorophyll molecule absorbs the energy,
it gets excited
 an atom at its lowest energy, most stable
arrangement
Excited State
 When the chlorophyll molecule absorbs the energy
or photon, the electron shoots up
 But being in excited stage is not stable you have to
go back to your ground state
 an atom at a higher energy arrangement, the
electrons absorb energy thus jumping to outer orbits
Thus, an electron at an excited state would be ready
to be used in photosynthesis and chemical reactions Components
Deactivation of Excited State  light harvesting complex (LHC)/ Antenna complex
 Reaction center
 Heat/Thermal Emission/Dissipation
o Special Chlorophyll a
 Release of heat then you calm down a bit
 molecules collide with one another. The excited o Primary electron acceptor
molecule can transfer its extra energy to one or
more molecules. This increases their kinetic PHOTOSYSTEM II AND I
energy.  Photosystem II go first because it was the one that
 Photoluminescence first discovered
 When energy absorb and emitted as light PHOTOSYSTEM II PHOTOSYSTEM I
 the loss of energy through the emission/losing
of a photon Reaction P680 P700
o Fluorescence center
 After absorption of energy it release it complex
immediately as light Primary Pheophytin A0
 emission is basically immediate after Electron
photoexcitation single state to ground state acceptor
o Phosphorescence LHC chl 1:1 4:1
 It persists longer (light emitted) the a: chl b
fluorescence, after glow Location Thylakoid Thylakoid
 emits the radiation for much longer time after membrane membrane
the radiation is removed Grand lamelle Stromata lamelle
 this is due to high energy levels of electron (unstacked region)
(more energy to spend and lose) triple state to
ground state
 ATENEO DE DAVAO UNIVERSITY BY: MOHAMIDIN K
MAMALAPAT
BS MEDICAL BIOLOGY DATE: SEPTEMBER 16,
2022
SUBJECT: GENERAL BOTANY LECTURE

of water to form your oxygen that will then be the

byproduct

Photosystem I
- also called P700 because it absorbs light at 700
nm
- Ao is the primary electron acceptor
- electron from PS II boosted to a very high energy
level and transferred to an acceptor molecule
- electron is passed to NADP+ (Nicotinamide
Adenine Dinucleotide Phosphate) to NADPH
(Reduced Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide
Phosphate)
- located at the stroma lamellae
Explantion …..
Photosystem II
- also called P680 which absorbs light at 680 nm
Cyclic Electron Flow
- light absorption, boosting an electron to a high
energy level  electrons sometimes break the cyclic pattern and
- pheophytin, the primary electron acceptor instead loop back to the first part of the electron
- water oxidation happens through photolysis transport chain, repeatedly cycling through PSI
here to replace electron to an acceptor molecule, instead of ending up in NADPH. This is called cyclic
oxygen becomes a byproduct photophosphorylation.
- ATP synthesis happens here through chemiosmosis  P700 accept electron then passes to A0 passes to Fd
- located at the grana lamellae (Ferredoxin), then Fd will return it to the
Cytochrome complex, then accept again the Pc the
NOTE: Photosystem II comes first because it is first pass again to P700
in in the path of electron flow, however  only makes ATP
Photosystem I is the one discovered first  It happened for photo protectiveness, for intensive
light
Electron Transport Chain
- electron is transferred to plastoquinone, to a
cytochrome complex, and to a plastocyanin
- proton pump hydrogen ions and produce ATP

LINEAR ELECTRON FLOW VS CYCLIC ELECTRON

FLOW

Linear Electron Flow/Non-cyclic Electron Flow

 linear photophosphorylation. That's because

Explanation …..
electrons travel in a line from water through PSII
and PSI to NADPH. (Photophosphorylation = light- LINEAR ELECTRON CYCLIC
driven synthesis of ATP.) FLOW ELECTRON
 we get ATP, O2 , and NADPH FLOW
 oxygen is formed ( if the special chlorophyll a passes Products O2, NADPH, ATP ATP only
one of its electron then it will be incomplete, donor Photosyste Photosystem II AND I Photosystem I
will be the water, water split the electron will be m
pass and you will release protons and also half of Photoprotective
you H20 (one O) therefore you need two molecules role
 ATENEO DE DAVAO UNIVERSITY BY: MOHAMIDIN K
MAMALAPAT
BS MEDICAL BIOLOGY DATE: SEPTEMBER 16,
2022
SUBJECT: GENERAL BOTANY LECTURE

Photophosphorylation

 Glyceraldehyde 3-phospate (G3P) is the direct

product of photosynthesis
 G3P will proceed to other pathway that will form
different carbohydrates

Ex. of Plant follows the C3 cycle

 Rice
 Where did ATP from first stage came from  Wheat
 ATP synthase is a proton pump, its driving active  Legumes (beans, peas)
transport, need difference in proton gradient ( water  Potatoes
is split proton is also release in the inside, also the  Temperate crops
Pq and cytochrome complex they can take protons
from the inside and take them in) Calvin Cycle
 If there is a difference in gradient in and out then ….
Will go out and pass to ATP synthase and in the
process, ATP will produce
 less protons outside

LIGHT REACTION SUMMARY

The light-dependent reactions convert light energy into
chemical energy. The goal of the light-dependent
reactions of photosynthesis is to collect energy from the
sun and break down water molecules to produce ATP
and NADPH. These two energy-storing molecules are
then used in the light-independent reactions. Final yields
6 Oxygen, 12 NADPH, and 18 ATP

PHOTOSYNTHETIC CARBON REACTIONS STAGE

OR CARBON ASSIMILATION PHASE

 Phase 1: Carbon Fixation

 Product: nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide

phosphate (NADPH) product

 Phase 2: Reduction of 3-GPA

 Product: G3P
C3 PATHWAY/CALVIN CYCLE
 Phase 3: Regeneration of RuBP
 the cycle of chemical reactions where the carbon
 Product: ATP
from the carbon cycle is fixed into sugars
 occurs in the chloroplast of the plant cell

Each turn of the cycle (Calvin cycle)

We produced:
 1 CO2: to produce: 3 ATP: 2 NADPH
 3 CO2: to produce: 6 NADPH
 Produced stage 1 to proceed to stage 2
 ATENEO DE DAVAO UNIVERSITY BY: MOHAMIDIN K
MAMALAPAT
BS MEDICAL BIOLOGY DATE: SEPTEMBER 16,
2022
SUBJECT: GENERAL BOTANY LECTURE

Photorespiration/ C2 Oxidative Photosynthetic

Carbon Cycle
 Rubisco (enzyme) acts as oxygenase instead of
carboxylase, it can catalyze carbon dioxide and also
can catalyzed oxygen
 Photorespiration when we catalyzed the oxygen
 Product: phosphoglycerate (2C compound)
 Equal amounts of CO2 and O2 -> more CO2
fixed
 Rubisco can still act as carboxylase proceeding
 First product we get is 4 carbon molecule instead
with the Calvin cycle
of 3PGA
 Factors favoring photorespiration:
 Leaf anatomy
o Low CO2
 CO2 becomes Oxaloacetate through the
o High irradiance – intense light catalyzation of Phosphoenolpyruvate
o High Temperature carboxylase, becomes Malate, splits to Pyruvate
and produces ATP, the other split to become RuBP
carboxylase and sugar
Ex. of Plant follows the C3 cycle
 Corn
 Sugar cane
 Sorghum
 Tropical plants

CAM PATHWAY/CRASSULACEAN ACID

METABOLISM
Features:
 Stomata closed during the day and open at night
 Leaves have low surface to area to volume ratio
 Large vacuoles, deep stomata, denser guard cells
 Form malate at night (disappears during the day)
 Succulent
 adapts to arid environments
Is photorespiration advantageous to plants or  Exhibit maximum water use efficiency (WUE)
not? Why?
 No
 Uses NADH and it uses ATP
 Uses ATP without photosynthetic output
 Release CO2 that plants can use (will turn to
waste)
 Reduce protectivity
What is the purpose of photorespiration
 Dissipate excess energy from light reaction
 Protects plants from various intense light
 Salinity and drought

 The C3 output get low when there is

photorespiration, C3 want their CO2 level to get
high, if it gets low it will go to photorespiration
instead of producing G3P
C4 PATHWAY Ex. of Plant follows the C3 cycle
 Mesophyll cell  Pineapple
 Aloe Vera
 Cactuses

C4 VS CAM
Similarities
 Minimize photorespiration
 Concentrate CO2 at site of rubisco
 ATENEO DE DAVAO UNIVERSITY BY: MOHAMIDIN K
MAMALAPAT
BS MEDICAL BIOLOGY DATE: SEPTEMBER 16,
2022
SUBJECT: GENERAL BOTANY LECTURE

 Even though low in CO2 it proceeds

Differences:
 CAM plants lack specialized leaf anatomy of C4
plants
 Formation of C4 acids is temporally separated in
CAM plants

Obligate CAM Plants

 CAM path way only
Facultative CAM plants
 Shift to other path way

FACTORS AFFECTING PHOTOSYNTHESIS

C3, C4, CAM DIFFERENCES

Light Irradiance

Light Saturation Point - point of light where

intensity does not increase the photosynthesis rate

Carbon Dioxide

CO2 Compensation Point - the point in where

rate of photosynthesis equal to rate of respiration
Water
- electron donor
Temperature
- colder lower the rate of photosynthesis
Nutrients

Nitrogen - structure of chlorophyll

Magnesium - structure of chlorophyll
Phosphorus - ATP
Iron - electron acceptors
Manganese, Chlorine, Calcium - important in
splitting of water
G3P - final product of photosynthesis
Sucrose - main form of translocated carbohydrates in
plants
Starch - main form of stored carbohydrates in
plants
 ATENEO DE DAVAO UNIVERSITY BY: MOHAMIDIN K
MAMALAPAT
BS MEDICAL BIOLOGY DATE: SEPTEMBER 16,
2022
SUBJECT: GENERAL BOTANY LECTURE

Define rate of CO2 assimilation/unit leaf area

Define potential rate of CO2 assimilation

What is limiting factor?

What is law of minimum?

Translocated carbohydrates?
- sucrose

Mained form stored?

- Starch

Rising CO2?
C3