Pharmacognocy Notes (ASCP) - 2

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PHARMACOGNOSY-1
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NOTES
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PREPARED BY : FATIMA SALEEM
(2022-2026)
ASCP
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CONTENTS
1. GENERAL INTRODUCTION AND SCOPE OF PHARMACOGNOSY 3
2. CRUDE DRUGS 10
3. EVALUATION AND ADULTERATION OF CRUDE DRUGS 19
5. DRUGS OF ANIMAL ORIGIN 38
6. BIOLOGICS 50
7. SURGICAL DRESSINGS 70
8. PESTICIDES 77
9. GROWTH REGULATORS 98
10. POISONOUS PLANTS INCLUDING ALLERGANS AND 108
ALLERGIC PREPARATIONS
11. ENZYMES 129
2
UNIT : 1
GENERAL INTRODUCTION AND SCOPE
OF PHARMACOGNOSY
Pharmacognosy :
• Derived from two Latin words “pharmakon” meaning drug and “gignoso” meaning to acquire
knowledge.
• It means knowledge or science of drugs.
“Pharmacognosy is the study of crude drugs obtained from plant, animal and mineral kingdom, as well
as their constituents.”
• According to the American Society of Pharmacognosy,
“Pharmacognosy is the study of the physical, chemical, biochemical and biological properties of drugs,
drug substances, or potential drugs or drug substances of natural origin as well as the search for new
drugs from natural sources.”
Origin of Pharmacognosy :
• Initially known as materia medica.
• Physician, J.A Schmitt was the first person to use the term materia medica to explain the study
of medicinal plants and their properties.
• The concept of pharmacognosy is as old as the existence of man.
• Plants were the only curative agents available at that time .
• Curative properties were associated with plants after trial and error.
• If something caused diarrhoea, it was used as a purgative.
• Plants were used as decoctions or infusions
History of Pharmacognosy :
• Ancient China: Shen Nung, Chinese emperor, investigated the medicinal value of herbs by
testing on himself and wrote a book recording 365 herbs (2700 B.C).
• Podophyllum, rhubarb, ginseng are his recorded drugs that are still being used.
• Ancient Egypt: The most well documented compilations were put together in Egypt at that time.
• Ebers Papyrus (1550 B.C) contained 800 prescriptions containing 700 drugs.
• Edwin Smith Papyrus (1600 B.C) contained surgical instructions and cosmetic formulations.
• Kahun Medical Papyrus (1900 B.C) contained details of women heath including birthing
instructions.
• Commonly used herbs were senna, honey, pomegranate roots, etc.
• Ancient India: Ayurveda is the term used for ancient Indian medicine.
• It means the study of life.
• Out of all the writings, Charaka Samhita is assumed to be the most important writing on
Ayurveda.
• Ricinus, black pepper, valerian, etc. are a few of the plants mentioned.
• Ancient Greece and Rome: most advancements made by Greek scientists.

• Isolation, structural elucidation and study of constituents took place.
Scope of Pharmacognosy :
Crude drugs of natural origin that is obtained from plants, animals and mineral sources and their active
chemical constituents are the core subject matter of pharmacognosy.
• These are also used for the treatment of various diseases besides being used in cosmetic, textile
and food industries.
• During the first half of the nineteenth century apothecaries stocked the crude drugs for the
preparation of herbal tea mixtures, all kinds of tinctures, extracts and juices which in turn were
employed in preparing medicinal drops, syrups, infusions, ointments and liniments.
• The second half of the nineteenth century brought with it a number of important discoveries in
the newly developing fields of chemistry and witnessed the rapid progress of this science.
• Medicinal plants became one of its major objects of interest and in time, phytochemists
succeeded in isolating the pure active constituents.
• These active constituents replaced the crude drugs, with the development of semisynthetic and
synthetic medicine, they became predominant and gradually pushed the herbal drugs, which
had formerly been used, into the background.
• It was a belief that the medicinal plants are of no importance and can be replaced by man-made
synthetic drugs, which in today’s scenario is no longer tenable.The drug plants, which were
rapidly falling into disuse a century ago, are regaining their rightful place in medicine.
• Today applied science of pharmacognosy has a far better knowledge of the active constituents
and their prominent therapeutic activity on the human beings.
• Researchers are exploiting not only the classical plants but also related species all over the world
that may contain similar types of constituents. Just like terrestrial germplasm, investigators had
also diverted their attention to marine flora and fauna, and wonderful marine natural products
and their activities have been studied.
4
• Genetic engineering and tissue culture biotechnology have already been successful for the
production of genetically engineered molecules and biotransformed natural products,
respectively.
• Lastly, crude drugs and their products are of economical importance and profitable commercial
products. When these were collected from wild sources, the amount collected could only be
small, and the price commanded was exorbitantly high. All this has now changed.
• Many of the industrially important species which produced equally large economic profits are
cultivated for large-scale crop production.
• Drug plants, standardized extracts and the therapeutically active pure constituents have become
a significant market commodity in the international trade.
• In the light of these glorious facts, scope of pharmacognosy seems to be enormous in the field
of medicine, bulk drugs, food supplements, pharmaceutical necessities, pesticides, dyes, tissue
culture biotechnology, engineering and so on.
• Scope for doctoral graduates in pharmacognosy is going to increase in the coming years.
The pharmacognosist would serve in various aspects as follows:
• Academics: Teaching in colleges, universities, museums and botanical gardens.

• Private industry: Pharmaceutical companies, consumer products testing laboratories and
private commercial testing laboratories, the herbal product industries, the cosmetic and
perfume industries, etc.
• Government: Placement in federal agencies, such as the Drug Enforcement Agency, the Food
and Drug Admin-istration, the U.S. Department of Agriculture, Medicinal plant research
laboratories, state agencies like forensic laboratories, environmental laboratories, etc.
Undoubtedly, the plant kingdom still holds large number of species with medicinal value which have yet
to be discovered. Lots of plants were screened for their pharmacological values like, hypoglycaemic,
hepatoprotective, hypotensive, antiinflammatory, antifertility, etc. pharmacognosists with a
multidisciplinary background are able to make valuable contributions in the field of phytomedicines.
COMMON TERMINOLOGY USED IN PHARMACOGNOSY :

Crude Drugs: Plant or animal drugs that have only undergone collection and drying or cut into
transverse or longitudinal sections or peeled in some cases.
Organized Drugs: Direct parts of plants and consist of cellular tissues.
Unorganized Drugs: They’re prepared from plants or animals but not a direct part of plants and
prepared by some intermediary physical process like incision, drying or extraction.
Extraction: The process of isolation of soluble material from insoluble residue , using a solvent.
Pharmacopoeia: Official document containing medicinal drugs along with their effects and direction of
use.
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Herbs: Short plants with delicate stems and die down to the ground after production of fruit and seeds.
Shrub: A woody plant shorter than a tree.
Root: Underground organ of plant that transports minerals and water to the plant and acts as an anchor
for the plant.
Stem: The structure that holds the leaves and transports food and water to the leaves via vascular
bundles.
Leaves: The organs of the plant that synthesize food for the entire plant.
Rhizome: Horizontal underground plant stem capable of producing the root and shoot systems of a new
plant.
Adulteration: Substitution of original crude drug with similar impurity.
PHARMACOGNOSTIC SCHEME :
Biological Source: The official names of the plant or animals (biological names).For example: Acacia
arabica.
Family and part used.
Geographical Source: The area of cultivation and collection. For example: Papaver somniferum is grown
in Northern Pakistan.
Cultivation, Collection and Preparation: How and when the plant is cultivated, how and when the plant
is collected and how the plant is prepared for use.
Morphological Characteristics: The length, breadth, thickness, colour, odour, taste, shape, etc.
Microscopic Characteristics: Explains how the plant features look under a microscope.
Chemical Constituents: The drugs that contain medicinal chemical constituents are physiologically
active.
Uses: the pharmaceutical, pharmacological and biological activity.
Substituents: the alternate drug that can be used in case of non-availability.
Adulterants: impurities that can be added to the pure plant material.
Chemical Tests: which chemical tests should be performed for identification. Very important for
unorganized drugs because their morphology is not well defined.
6
INTRODUCTION TO TRADITIONAL MEDICINE SYSTEMS :
Earlier civilizations developed their own medicine systems based on their beliefs and philosophies. Some
are still in use today. These medicine systems are called traditional medicine systems or alternative
medicine systems.
This is also known as complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) The traditional medicine systems
to be discussed are:
• Unani Sytem of Medicine

• Ayurvedic System of Medicine
• Homeopathic System of Medicine
UNANI SYSTEM OF MEDICINE :

• Originated in Greece, by Greek philosopher and physician, Hippocrates as he gave medicine the
status of science.
• After him, other Greek scholars followed him and Galen stabilized this foundation.
• Arab physicians, including Raazes and Avicenna played a huge role in building upon this
foundation.
• The Arabs brought this system to India (sub-continent) and was firmly rooted by Muslim
scientists/physicians.
• The basic principles of Unani medicine state that the body is made up of 4 elements.
• These elements have 4 temperaments: ▪Hot ▪Cold ▪Dry ▪Wet
• The organs are simple or compound which get their nourishment through 4 humours: ▪Blood
▪Phlegm ▪Yellow Bile ▪Black Bile
“Health is a state of body in which there is equilibrium in the humours and functions of the body are
normal in accordance to its own temperament and the environment.”
AYURVEDIC SYSTEM OF MEDICINE :

• One of the medicine systems of India and the oldest medicine system.
• Charaka Samhita was the first recorded book on Ayurveda and mentioned 341 plants.
• The principle of the Ayurvedic system of medicine is that the universe is composed of 5
elements or pancha bhutas, which are: ▪Earth ▪Water ▪Fire ▪Air ▪Space.
• Everything in the universe is made up of these 5 elements so a fundamental harmony exists
between the universe and the individual.
• The human body is in state of continuous flux or dynamic equilibrium.
• The pancha bhutas are represented in the body as doshas (humours), dhatus (tissues) and malas
(by-products of dhatus).
• Disease in Ayurveda is the reaction between body humours and tissues which is influenced by
the environment.
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HOMEOPATHIC SYSTEM OF MEDICINE :
• Specialized system of therapeutics developed by German physician, chemist and pharmacist, Dr.
Samuel Christian Friedrich Hahnemann.
• Based on the principle “likes are cured by likes”.
• “Homois” means similar and “pathos” means treatment.
• Homeopathy is the system of treating disease or suffering by the administration of drugs that
have the capability of producing similar disease or suffering in healthy humans.
• It is believed that symptoms are the reflection of the inner fight of the body towards the disease
and not the manifestation of the disease.
FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF HOMEOPATHY:

• Law of Similia
• Law of Simplex
• Law of Minimum
• Drug proving
• Drug dynamization or drug potentization
• Vital force
• Acute and chronic disease
• Individualization
• Direction of cure
Introduction to Herbal Pharmacopoeias :

A pharmacopoeia is a reference book for the preparation of quality medicines published by the
authority of a government or a concerned society.
A herbal pharmacopoeia represents qualitative and therapeutic details on botanicals.
May also contain the description of preparation of a plant.
Herbal Monograph :
Defines the botanical drug and provides information regarding its proper identification.
Contains the basic description including: Nomenclature, Part used, Constituents, Range of application,
Contraindications and side effects, Incompatibilities with other medication, Dosage, Uses, Action of the
herb.
Herbal pharmacopoeias intend to promote the responsible use of herbal medicines with high efficacy
through development of standards of identity, purity and analysis of botanicals .
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Examples of Herbal Pharmacopoias :
• The American Herbal Pharmacopoeia (AHP)
• The British Pharmacopoeia
• The European Pharmacopoeia
• The Indian Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia
Modern Concepts of Pharmacognosy :

• According to the American Society of Pharmacognosy,
“Pharmacognosy is the study of the physical, chemical, biochemical and biological properties of drugs,
drug substances, or potential drugs or drug substances of natural origin as well as the search for new
drugs from natural sources.”
• In modern domain, animals, bacteria, fungi, marine organisms and minerals are also promising
sources of medicines.
• The advancements in analytical techniques, phytochemistry, pharmacology, drug discovery and
biotechnology have been very beneficial to pharmacognostic research.
• The development in advancements in analytical techniques for isolation and purification and
advanced technologies for bioassays and molecular techniques are of great importance in the
field of pharmacognosy .
• There has been an increase in the research and development of natural medicines and natural
products worldwide.
• This has emphasized the isolation and structural elucidation of active constituents of natural
resources.
• Biochemistry, pharmacology and molecular biology are an essential part of modern
pharmacognosy.
• Pharmacognosy has become one of the core streams of pharmaceutical research and
education.
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UNIT : 2
CRUDE DRUGS
CRUDE DRUGS :
Crude drugs are vegetable or animal drugs that consist of natural substances that have undergone only
the processes of collection and drying.
PREPARATION OF CRUDE DRUGS :

It has the following steps
• Collection
• Harvesting
• Drying
• Garbling
• Packaging, Storage and Preservation
COLLECTION:
• Collection of drugs from cultivated plants always ensures a true natural source and a reliable
product. This may or may not be the case when drugs are collected from wild plants.
• Carelessness or ignorance on the part of the collector can result in complete or partial
substitution.
• This is especially true when drugs are difficult to collect or the natural source is scarce.
• Many drugs are collected from wild plants, sometimes on a fairly extensive scale (tragacanth,
senna) when collection is the vocation of the gatherer, and sometimes on a limited scale when
collection is an avocation (podophyllum, hydrastis).
• Because drugs come from all over the world, collection areas are almost universal, and
collectors may vary from uneducated natives to highly skilled botanists.
• Certain areas of the United States are particularly noteworthy as collection areas.
• Whit pine, podophyllum, ginseng, and many other native American drugs are collected in the
Blue Ridge Mountain region, of which Asheville, North Carolina, is one of the important
collection areas.
• Native American drugs are usually collected by individuals, such as farm children and part time
agricultural laborers.
• The proper time of harvesting or collecting is particularly important because the nature and
quantity of constituents vary greatly in some species according to the season.
• The most advantageous collecton time is when the part of the plant that constitutes the drug is
highest in its content of active principles and when the material will dry to give the maximum
quality and apearance.
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HARVESTING:
• The mode of harvesting varies with each drug produced and with the pharmaceutic
requirements of each drug.
• Some drugs may be collected by hand labor; however, when the cost of labor is an important
factor, the use of mechanical devices is often more successful in economic production of the
drug.
• With some drugs, where the skillful selection of plant parts is an important factor (digitalis),
mechanical means cannot replace hand labor.
DRYING:
• By drying the plant material, one removes sufficient moisture to ensure good keeping qualities
and to prevent molding, the action of enzymes, the action of bacteria, and chemical or other
possible changes.
• Drying fixes the constituents, facilitates grinding and milling, and converts the drug into a more
convenient form for commercial handling.
• Proper and successful drying involves two main principles: control of temperature and
regulation of air flow.
• Control of the drying operation is determined by the nature of the material to be dried and by
the desired appearance of the finished product.
• The plant material can be dried either by the sun or by the use of artificial heat.
• With some natural products, such as vanilla, processes of fermentation or sweating are
necessary to bring about changes in the constituents.
• Such drugs require special drying processes, usually called "curing."
GARBLING:
• Garbling is the final step in the preparation of a crude drug.

• Garbling consists of the removal of extraneous matter, such as other parts of the plant, dirt, and
added adulterants.
• This step is done to some extent during collection, but should he carried out after the drug is
dried and before it is baled or packaged.
• Although garbling may be done by mechanical means in some cases, it is usually a semiskilled
operation.
PACKAGING, STORAGE AND PREVENTION:

• The packaging of drugs depends on their final disposition.
• In commerce, if transportation, storage, and ultimate use for manufacturing purposes are
involved, it is customary to choose the type of packaging that provides ample protection to the
drug and gives economy of space.
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Examples:
• Leaf and herb material is usually baled with power balers into a solid compact mass that is then
sewn into a burlap cover.
• Bales that are shipped overseas weigh from 100 to 250 lb.
• Senna leaves from India come in bales of 400 lb; stramonium from Argentina in bales of 700 lb.
• Drugs that are likely to deteriorate from absorbed moisture (digitalis, ergot) are packed in
moisture proof cans.
• Gums, resins, and extracts are shipped in barrels, boxes, or casks.
Packaging of Drugs:
• Packaging is often characteristic for certain drugs.

• The standard package for all grades of aloe is a 55-gallon steel drum, and this type of container
is also employed for balsam of Peru.
• Matting-covered packages of cinnamon from the Far East, seroons (bales covered with cowhide)
containing sarsaparilla from South America, lead flasks with oil of rose from Bulgaria, and many
other odd forms of packaging are noted in the drug trade.
Storage and Prevention:
• Proper storage and preservation are important factors in maintaining a high degree of quality, of
the drug.
• Hard-packed bales, barks, and resinous drugs usually reabsorb little moisture.
• But leaf, herb, and root drugs that are not well packed tend to absorb amounts of moisture that
reach 10,15, or even 30% of the weight of the drug.
• Excessive moisture not only increases the weight of the drug, thus reducing the percentage of
active constituents, but also favors enzymatic activity and facilitates fungal growth.
Prevention from light on Drugs:
• Light adversely affects drugs that are highly colored, rendering them unattractive and
possiblcrsing undesirable changes in constituents.
• The oxygen of the air increases oxidation of the constituents of drugs, especially when oxidases
are present.
• Therefore, the warehouse should be cool, dark, and well ventilated with dry air.
• The protection of drugs against attacks by insects must not be overlooked.
• The insects that infest vegetable drugs belong chiefly to the orders Lepidoptera, Coleoptera, and
Dip tera.
Prevention from Insects:
• For destruction of insects and prevention of theirttcks, a number of methods have been
employed.
• The simplest method is to expose the drug to a temperature of 65°C.
• This method is probably the most efficient not only in preventing insect attacks but also in
prventing many other forms of dedeterioration.
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• For the fumigation of large lots of crude drugs, such as those stored in warehouses and
manufacturing plants, the use of methyl bromide has met with considerable success.
Storage of small lots of Drugs:
• Small lots of drugs may readily be stored in tight, light-resistant containers.

• Tin cans, covered metal bins, or amber glass containers are the most satisfactory.
• Drugs should not be stored in wooden boxes or in drawers and never in paper bags.
• Not only is deterioration hastened, but odors are communicated from one drug to another,
attacks by insects are facilitated, and destruction by mice and rats may occur.
• If drugs in small quantities are stored in tight containers, insect attack can be controled by
adding to the container a few drops of chloroform or carbon tetrachloride from time to time.
Prevention of Drugs from Moisture:
• In the case of digitalis and ergot, whose low moisture content must be maintained at all times, a
suitable Catridge or device containing a nonliquefing, inert, dehydrating substance may be
introduced into the tight container. Because high temperatures accelerate all chemical
reactions, including those involved in deterioration, drugs must always be stored at cool
temperature as possible. The ideal temperature is just above freezing, but since this is
impractical in most cases, the warehouse or other storage place should be cool as possible.
Prevention of Drugs from Temperature:
• Temperatre also effects the drugs.

• Certain drugs, such as the biologics, must be stored at a temperature between 20 and 8°C.
CLASSIFICATION OF CRUDE DRUGS:

• Higher plants, microbes and animals are the main sources of crude drugs.
• However, enzymes and antibiotics used in modern medicine are obtained from animals and
microbes.
• For the study of crude drugs, they may be classified according to morphological, taxonomical,
chemical and pharmacological characters.
• Each of these systems has its own merits and demerits.
• Morphological classification is more helpful to identify and detect adulteration.
• For studying evaluationaiy developments, the drugs are classified according to taxonomical
classification.
• The activity of a drug is due to its chemical constituents and, therefore, the drugs are divided
according to the presence of chemical components.
• Pharmacological classificatinn of drugs is more relevant to study therapeutic utility of the drugs.
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MORPHOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION:
Under morphological classification the drugs are arranged according to the part of the plant used such
as leaves, stems, roots, barks, flowers, seeds. etc.
Organized Drugs:
The drugs obtained from the direct parts of the plants and containing cellular tissues are called as
organized drug.
Example: Rhizomes, barks, leaves, fruits, entire plants, hair and fibres.
Unorganized Drugs:
The drugs which are prepared from plants by some intermediate physical processes such as incision,
drying, or extraction with a solvent and not containing any cellular plant tissues are called as
unorganized drugs.
Example: Aloe juice. Opium latex.
Drawback of Morphological Classification:

• The main drawback of morphological classification is that there is no co-relation of chemical
constituents with the therapeutic actions.
• Usually this classification is adopted in the practical classes.
Gross Classification of Drugs on the Basis of Morphological

Characteristics
Organized Drugs:
PLANT PARTS DRUGS

Wood Quassia, Sandalwood, Red Sandalwood
Leaves Digitalis. Eucalyptus. Gurmar.
Pudina, Selina, Spearmint. Squill.
Tulsi. Vasaka. Coca. Buchu.
Hamamelis, Hyoscyamus,
Belladonna. Tea.
Barks Arjuna. Ashoka. Cascara. Cassia.
Cinchona, Cinnamon, Kurchi,
Quillaia. Wild Cherry.
Flowering Parts Clove. Pyrethrum. Saffron,
Santonica, Chamomile
Fruits Amla, Anise, Bael, Bahera. Bitter
Orange peel, Capsicum, Caraway,
Cardamom, Cassia, Colocynth,
Coriander, Cumin, Dill, Fennel,
Gokhru, Hirda, Lemon peel.
Psoralea. Senna pod. Star anise.
Tamarind, Vidang.
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Seeds Bitter Almond, Black Mustard,
Cardamom, Colchicum, lspaghula,
Kaladana, Linseed. Neem, Nutmeg,
Nux vomica, Physostigma. Psyllium.
Strophanthus, White Mustard.
Roots and Rhizomes Aconite, Ashwagandha, Calamus,
Calumba, Colchicum corm.
Dioscorea, Galanga, Garlic, Gentian,
Ginger, Ginseng. Glycyrrhiza.
Podophyllum. Ipecac. Ipumoea.
,Jalap. Jatamansi , Male fern
Picrorhiza, Piplamul. Rauwolfia.
Plants and Herbs Andrographis, Bacopa, Banafsha,
Belladonna. Cannabis, Centella,
Chirata, Chondrus, Datura,
Ephedra, Ergot. Hyoscyamus,
Kalmegh, Lobelia. Punarnava,
Shankhpushpl, Stramonlurn, Vinca,
Yeast.
Hairs and Fibers Cotton, Hemp, Jute, Silk, Flax.
Unorganized Drugs:
PLANT PARTS DRUGS

Dried Latex Opium, Papain
Dried Juice Aloe, Kino
Dried Extracts Agar, Alginate, Black Catechu, Pale Catechu,
Pectin
Gums Acacia, Guar gum, Indian gum, Sterculia,
Tragacanth
Resins Asafoetida, Benzoin, Colophony,
Copaiba, Guaiacum, Guggal, Mastic,
Myrrh, Peru Balsam, Sandarac, Storax, Tolu Balsam,
Tar, Coal Tar.
Fixed Oils and Fats Arachis. Castor, Chaulmoogra.
Coconut, Cottonseed, Linseed, Olive,
Sesame, Almond, Theobroma, Lard, Cod-liver. Halibut
liver. Kokum butter.
Waxes Beeswax, Spermaceti
Volatile Oil Turpentine. Anise. Coriander.Peppermint, Rosemary,
Sandalwood,Cinnamon, Lemon. Caraway, Dill,Clove,
Eucalyptus,Nutmeg,Camphor.
Animal Products Beeswax, Cantharides. Cod liver oil,
Gelatin, Halibut liver oil. Honey,
Shark-liver oil, Shellac, Spermaceti
wax, Wool fat, Musk, Mylabris,Lactose.
Fossil Organisms and Minerals Bentonite, Kaolin. Kicsselguhr, Talc.
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TAXANOMICAL CLASSIFICATION:
• Taxonomical classification is based on the principles of natural relationship and evolutionary
development.
• They are grouped in phyllum order, family, genus and species.
• As all the entire plants are not used as drugs, therefore, it is of no significance of this division
from identification point of view.
• This system also does not co-relate in between the chemical constituents and biological activity
of the drugs.
PHYLUM ORDER FAMILY DRUGS

Magnoliopsida Solanales Solanaceae Belladonna,
(dicotyledons) Hyoscyamus leaf,
Stramonium, Capsicum
Liliopsida Zingiberales Zingiberaceae Ginger, Curcuma
CHEMICAL CLASSIFICATION:
• The biological activity of a drug is due to the presence of certain chemical constituents In the
drug. Plants and animals synthesize chemical compounds such as fats, carbohydrates, proteins,
volatile oils, alkaloids, resins,etc. and some of these are pharmacologically active constituents.
• A single active constituent may be isolated from the crude drug and used as a medicinal agent.
• More than 75 pure compounds derived from higher plants find their place In modern medicine.
• For example, the important traditional active plant principles are codeine, atropine, ephedrine,
hyoscyamine, digoxin, hyoscine, digitoxin, pilocarpine, theobromine, theophylline, quinidine,
quinine, emetine, caffeine, papaverine and colchicine.
• These active constituents are differentiated from the inert compounds like starch, cellulose,
lignin, cutin, etc.
• The active constituent may be present in a very low concentration in the drug.
CHEMICAL CONSTITEUNTS DRUGS

Carbohydrates Acacia, Tragacanth, Honey, Starch, Agar, Pectin
Glycosides Aloe, Cascara, Rhubarb, Senna, Glycyrrhiza
Tannins Amla, Pale Catechu, Black Cathechu
Volatile Oils Cinnamon, Nutmeg, Fennel, Caraway, Coriander,
Mint
Lipids Castor, Almond, Theobroma, Cottonseed
Proteins Gelatin, Papain
Vitamins Yeast
Triterpenes Rasna, Colocynth
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PHARMACOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION:
• In Pharmacological classification the drugs are grouped according to their therapeutic uses.
• Thus cardiotonic drugs include Digitalis, Squill and Strophanthus.
• Senna leaves and Castor oil are termed as purgative drugs.
• A particular drug containing known chemical constituents can be grouped according to its
therapeutic use.
• The main drawback of this classification is that a drug can be placed in various classes according
to its therapeutic use.
• Thus Cinchona can be grouped in antimalarial and antlarrhythmic catagories.
PHARMACOLOGICAL ACTIONS DRUGS

Anticancer Vinca, Podophyllum. Taxus
Anti-inflammatory Colchicum corm and seed, Turmeric
Antiamoebic Ipecac root. Kurchi bark
Anthelmintic Artemisia. Male Fern, Quassia wood.
Vidang. Chenopodium oil
Antiasthmatic Ephedra, Lobelia. Vasaka, Tylophora
Astringent Catechu. Tannic acid. Myrrh.
Myrobalan, Ashoka bark
Analgesic Opium, Cannabis
Bitter Tonics Quassia wood, Nux-vomica, Gentian,
Picrorhiza, Chirata, Kalmegh
Carminatives Cinnamon bark. Cardamom seed,
Flavours Nutmeg fruit, Clove. Umbelliferous
fruits. Peppermint. Saffron,
Asafoetida, Oleo-gum resin, Mint.
Tulsi, Ginger, Vanilla
Purgatives Cascara bark. Senna, Rhubarb,
Aloe. Castor oil, Plantago seed husk
Expectorant Benzoin. Balsam of Tolu,
Glycyrrhiza, Vasaka
Cardiotonic Digitalis, Squill, Strophanthus
CNS Action Ergot, Belladonna, Stramonium.
Hyoscyamus, Ephedra, Physostigma
Hallucinogens Cocaine, Cannabis.
Tranquillizer Rauwolfia roots.
COMMERCE IN DRUGS:
“The commercial origin of a drug refers to its production and its channels of trade.”
• Drugs frequently bear a geographic name indicating the country or region in which they are
collected, the country or city from which they are shipped, or their variety.
• These names do not necessarily reflect the area where the plant grows.
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• English hyoscyamus leaves are gathered from plants growing in England and are principally
consumed in that country; Indian rhubarb is the product of plants growing in various parts of
India; Spanish licorice is a botanic variety of Glycyrrhiza glabra, originally produced in Spain but
now produced elsewhere; and Oregon grape root is a species of Mahonia and may or may not
come from Oregon. The commercial origin may change in the course of time, as with cinchona,
vanilla, and coca previously mentioned.
• Since World War II, most of the drug items have been shipped directly from the producing areas
to New York City.
• Although many drug collectors and dealers conducted their business through a governmental
agency in the past, little drug commerce now passes through such an agency.
• The exceptions are the communist countries and their European satellites, where governmental
agencies control all commerce.
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UNIT 4
EVALUATION AND ADULTERATION OF
CRUDE DRUGS
EVALUATION OF CRUDE DRUGS

• Evaluation of drugs deals with the correct identification of the plant and determination of
quality and purity of the crude drugs.
• Actual collection of the drug is done from the identified plant or animal.
• For this purpose research gardens have been maintained.
• The characters of an unknown sample are compared with the authentic monographs written In
the pharmacopoeia.
• The high quality of the drug is maintained by collection of the drug from the correct natural
source at
• proper time: preparation of samples of the collected drugs by proper cleaning, drying and to
free from dirt, and proper preservation of the cleaned, dried and pure drug.
• The evaluation of a drug Is done by studying Its organoleptic, microscopic, biological, chemical,
and physical properties.
ORGANOLEPTIC EVALUATION:
Organoleptic evaluation means study of a drug with the help of organs of sense which Includes Its
external morphology, colour, odour, taste, sound of its fracture, etc.
Morphological Characters : To study morphology of a drug, its shape and size, colour and external
markings, fracture and internal colour, odour and taste are examined.
The organized drugs are classified into;
1. Barks: Which are tissues In a woody stem outside the inner fascicular cambium, e.g., Cinnamon,
Cinchona, Quillaia, Ashoka and Kurchi.
2. Underground Structures : Which may be rhizomes, roots, bulbs, corm, and tubers: they are
often swollen due to storage of carbohydrates and other chemicals, e.g., roots (Podophyllum.
Liquorice, Jatamansi, Rauwolfia), rhizomes and stolons which are underground stems and have
buds, scale leaves and scars. (Ginger, Turmeric, Dioscorea).
3. Leaves : These are photosynthetic organs arising from node on a stem. The shape, margin, base,
apex and venation of leaves help In the Identification of the drugs. Senna, Tulsi, Vasaka and
Digitalis leaves can be easily identified.
4. Flowers These are reproductive organs of a plant and possess different shapes, size and colour,
e.g.. Saffron. Banafsha. Pyrethrum.
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5. Fruits : Fruits arise from the ovary and contain seeds, e.g. Cardamom, Colocynth, Almond,
Vidang, Bahera, Arnia and Bael.
6. Seeds : Seeds are developed from the ovules in carpets of the flowers and characterized by the
hilum, micropyle and sometimes raphe. The seed drugs are Ispaghula, Linseed, Nux-vomica,
Psoralia.
7. Herbs : The whole aerial part is sometimes used as a drug, e.g. Brahmi, Chirata, Kalmegh.
Pudina, Shankhpushpi. etc.
The shape of a drug may be cylindrical (Sarsaparilla), sub-cylindrical (Podophyllum). conical (Aconite):
fusiform, ovoid or pyriform (Jalap), and terete or disk-shaped (Nuxvomica).
The drug may be simple, branched, curved or twisted. The length, breadth and diameter are measured
in millimeters or centimeters.
In case of conical drugs the size of both parts is mentioned.
External markings are mentioned as

• furrows, ridges, etc.,
• wrinkles,
• annulations,
• fissures,
• nodules,
• projections,
• scars of leaf, stem-base, root, bud, bud-scale, etc.
The fractures may be complete, Incomplete, short. fibrous, splintery (breaking irregularly), brittle (easily
broken), tough and weak.
Sensory Characters :
• Colour, texture, odour and taste are useful in the evaluation of drugs.
• This method is especially applicable to drugs containing volatile oils or pungent principles (e.g.
Capsicum), and to the detection of the effects of inadequate drying or damp storage.
• The external colour varies from white to yellowish grey, brown, orange or brownish black.
• The colour of some drugs changes if they are dried in sunlight In place of shade.
Odour of a a Drug:
• The odour of a drug may be either distinct (characterisic) or indistinct.

• The terms used to define odour are aromatic, balsamic, spicy, alliaceous (garlic-like),
camphoraceous
• (camphor-like), terebinthinate (turpentine-like) and others.
• Leaves of different species of Mentha can be distinguished by smell.
• Clove and exhausted clove are differentiated by odour.
• Deteriorated Cantharides have ammonical smell while spoiled Ergot has rancid and ammonical
smell.
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Taste of a Drug:
• Taste is a particular sensation production by certain substances when these come Into contact
with taste buds present in epithelial layer of the mouth.
• The taste may be sour (acidic), salty (saline), sweet (saccharine), bitter, alkaline and metallic.
• Substances possessing no taste are mentioned as tasteless.
• The tastes due to a characteristic odour are grouped as aromatic, balsamic, spicy, alliaceous,
camphoraceous and terebinthinate.
• The taste produced by distinctive sensations to the tongue are classified as mucilaginous, oily,
astringent (producing a contraction of the tissues of the mouth), pungent (warm biting
sensation), acrid (unpleasant, irritating sensation) and nauseous (causing vomiting).
• The drugs like Ginger and Capsicum have pungent taste; Gentian, Chirata and Kalmegh have
bitter taste: Glycyrrhiza and Honey are sweet in taste.
• Linseed and Isphagula are mucilaginous: fixed oils have bland taste; calcium oxide is astringent;
Podophyllum, Kaladana, Jalap and lpomoea are acrid; while Ipecac, Acorus, and Tylophora indica
contain nauseous taste.
• Glycyrrhiza has hard and fibrous fracture due to the presence of fibrous and woody tissues.
• Aconite has a horny fracture due to gelatinization of starch.
Standardization and Determination of colour of drugs:
Colour of drugs are standardized and determined by the Inter-Society Colour Council-National Bureau of
Standard method.
For example, reserpine is described as a "white or pale buff to slightly yellowish, odourless crystalline
powder”.
MICROSCOPICAL AND ANATOMICAL

EVALUATION
• Schleiden (1847) used microscope for the examination of drugs.
• Microscopic examination of section and powder drugs, aided by stains, helps in distinction of
anatomy in adulterants.
• Further, microscopical examination of epidermal trichomes and calcium oxalate crystals is
extremely valuable, especially in powdered drugs.
• In the powdered drugs the cells are mostly broken, except lignified cells.
• The cell contents such as starch, calcium oxalate crystals, aleurone, etc. are scattered in the
powder. Some fragments are specific for each powder which may consist of parts of cells or
groups of cells.
• Plant parts are made up of specific arranged tissues, spores (Lycopodlum) or hairs (Lupulin).
• Histological characters are studied from very thin transverse, or longitudinal sections properly
mounted in suitable stains, reagents or mounting media.
• The size, shape and relative positions of the different cells and tissues, chemical nature of the
cell walls and of the cell contents are determined.
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• The basic arrangement of tissues in each drug is fairly constant.
• Fibres, sclereids. tracheids, vessels and cork are least affected by drying.
• Starch, calcium oxalate, epidermal trichomes and lignin are examined carefully.
• Microscope is also used for a quantitative evaluation of drugs and adulterated powders.
• This is done by counting a specific histological feature such as stomatal index, veinislets and vein
termination numbers, palisade ratio. etc.
• These features are compared with the standard samples.
Palisade Ratio :
• The average number of palisade cells beneath each epidermal cell Is called as palisade ratio.
• It is determined from powdered drugs with the help of camera lucida.
Stomatal Number :
• The average number of stomata per square millimeter of the epidermis Is known as stomatal
number.
• The range and average value for each surface are recorded.
Stomatal Index :
• The percentage proportion of the number of stomata form to the total number of epidermal
cells of a leaf is termed the stomatal index
S.I. = S/E+S x 100
• where S = number of stomata per unit area, E = number of ordinary epidermal cells In the same
• unit area. Stomatal number varies considerably with the age of the leaf but the stomatal index is
highly constant for a given species.
Vein-Islet Number:
• The word 'Vein-islet' is used for the minute area of photosynthetic tissue encircled by the
ultimate divisions of the conducting strands. Vein-islet number is defined as the number of vein-
islets per square mm calculated from four contiguous square mm In the central part of the
lamina, midway between the midrib and the margin. The average range of vein-islet numbers,
for Senna are : Cassia senna (26), C. angustifolta (21): for Coca: Erythroxylum coca (11), E.
truxillense (20); for Digitalis.
• Digitalis purpurea (3.5) D. lanata (2.7); D. Lutea (4.4), D. thapsi (1.2).
Veinlet Termination Number :

• It is defined as the number of veinlet terminations per mm2 of leaf surface.
• A vein termination is the ultimate free termination of a veinlet or branch of a veinlet.
• By this character different Coca leaves and Senna leaflets are differentiated.
LYCOPODIUM SPORE METHOD:

Lycopodium Spores
Biological Source: Lycopodium clavatum

Family: Lycopodiaceae
Part Used: spores of the clubmoss.
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Synonym: Club-moss spores, Lycopodium seeds, vegetable sulphur
Habitat: Grows in the North America, Russia, Poland. India and Pakistan.
Collection: The sporangial spikes are cut and dried and the spores are separated by shaking.
Physical Characterictics: Lycopodium is a light yellow, extremely mobile and flammable powder without
odour or taste.
Constiteunts: It contains about 50% fixed oil, which consists mainly of glycosides of lycopodiumoleic
acid: sugars (3%), phytosterin and alkaloids of the annotine type.
Lycopodium spores are exceptionally uniform in size (about 25 pm) and 1 mg of lycopodium contains
an average of 94,000 spores.
Evaluation of Drugs by Lycopodium Spore Method:
• The number of spores per milligram is determined by direct counting and by calculation based
on specific gravity and dimensions of the spores.
• It is possible to evaluate many powdered drugs if well-defined particles may be counted as in
case of pollen grains or starch grains; or if single layered tissues or cells of the area of which may
be traced at a definite magnification and the actual area calculated; or if characteristic particles
of a uniform thickness, the length of which can be measured at a definite magnification and the
actual length calculated. Mounts containing a definite proportion of the powder and lycopodium
are used and the lycopodium spores counted in each of the fields in which the number or area
of the particles in the powder is determined.
Procedure:
• In this method the moisture content of the powdered material is determined.

• A mixture of weighed quantity of the powder and lycopodlum spores is suspended In a suitable
viscous liquid.
• A drop of this suspension is mounted and examined with a 4 mm objective.
• The number of lycopoclium spores and the number of characteristic particles are counted in 25
various fields.
• The same experiment is repeated with a second similar suspension.
• From the mean of these results and a knowledge of the weights of lycopodlum and powder in
the mixture, the number of characteristic particles in 1 mg of the powder may be determined.
Examples:
By employing lycopodium spore method the number of pollen grains in,

• pyrethrum powder (1000 2000/mg),
• starch granules in wheat powder (400 granules/mg)
• starch grain in Ginger (261400 grains/mg) have been determined.
Determination of Size by Lycopodium Spore Method:
Lycopodium spore method is also used to determine size of a particular type of particle in powders such
as epidermal fragments of leaves, single layer of scalerenchyma, or isolated fibres.
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Procedure:
• The procedure is almost the same as used for counting of particles.

• The particle size is traced with the help of camera lucida and the spores are counted.
• The tracings are cut out and weighed and their area calculated by weighing a sheet of known
area of the paper used.
• This area divided by the magnification used (420)2 gives the actual area of the particles in a
certain weight of the powdered drug, which is calculated from the number of spores counted
and the weight of spores and powder in the suspension.
Examples:
By this method epidermal area of Indian Senna stalk (100 cm2), sclerenchyma layer in Linseed, fibres In
the Cinnamon bark and number of beaker cells In testa of Cinnamon seed have been measured.
CHEMICAL EVALUATION
Chemical evaluation involves the determination of active constituents by a chemical process.
Chemical Test:
Chemical tests are used to identify certain crude drugs to determine purity.
Chemical tests for alkaloids, carbohydrates, steroids, Phenolic compounds, saponins, proteins, amino
acids, fixed oils and volatile oils are performed.
Titrimetric assay, iodine value, saponification value, acid value, acetyl value, ester value, peroxide value,
hydroxyl value and ash value are determined.
• Tropane alkaloids in Datura, Belladonna and Stramonium are determined by Vitali-Morin

reaction. Potassium chlorate and hydrochloric acid are used to estimate emetine in Ipecac.
• Strychnine in Nux-vomica is detected with ammonium vanadate and sulphuric acid.
• Borntragers test is useful for detecting anthraquinone glycosides, present in Senna, Rhubarb,
Cascara and Aloe.
• Alkaloid contents can be evaluated by determining total alkaloidal contents by acidbase
titration.
Qualitative analysis:
• Qualitative analysis is useful in the detection of adulteration.

• It is used in estimation as Iodine value, saponification value, acid value, ester value, peroxide
value, hydroxyl value.
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Borntrager’s Test:
• Anthraquinone glycosides are detected in Senna, Rhubarb, Cascara and Aloe are identified via
this drug. Powdered drug is macerated with ether or chloroform and it is filtered.
• Add ammonia and Shake.
• Pink, red or violet colour indicates positive for anthraquinone derivatives
Vitali-Morin’s Test:
• Tropane alkaloids in Datura, Belladonna, and Hyoscyamous are determined by Vitali- Morin
Reaction. Add Crude Extract + HNO3 and Evaporate it to dryness.
• Dissolve residue in acetone, add methanolic solution of KOH
• Violet color will give positive test.
Protein Station - Biuret test:
• Put a drug containing protein into a test tubes (i.e. milk or tofu).
• If it is not a liquid, add some water and mash it well.
• Also set up a control, a test tube containing a liquid that does not contain protein (i.e. water).
• Add about 2ml of Biuret reagent to the test tube.
• Show students the positive - purple or pink - test result indicating the presence of protein.
Lipid Station:
Testing for the presence of lipids: Sudan red test

• Add 2ml of any oil and 2ml of water to a test tube.
• Then add 2-5 drops of Sudan red to the mix.
• Shake.
• Then repeat with a test tube containing only water.
• Sudan red with stain the fat molecules.
• The more fat it contains, the more particles the Sudan red will stain.
Testing for the presence of lipids: Grease spot test

• Draw four squares onto their brown paper bag, and then use a cotton swab to put samples of
three lipids of their choice and water as a control into the squares.
• Wipe off excess oil/fat and let sit for few minutes to dry.
• Once dry, the fats will leave a translucent spot behind.
• This can best be seen when you hold the paper up to a light source.
• Put some sesame or sunflower seeds between two pieces of brown paper and press hard.
• The seeds are loaded with oil and will leave behind grease spots.
Carbohydrate station:
Test for monosaccharides: Benedict reagent

• Put 2-3 ml of corn syrup in a test tube.
• Add 1ml of the Benedict Reagent, the solution will look blue.
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• Put the tube in a gently boiling water bath. Wait a few minutes.
• The glucose present in the solution reacts with the copper sulfate in the Benedict reagent and
makes copper oxide that is an orange to red-brick precipitate.
• The intensity of the color depends on the concentration of glucose present in the sample.
Test for Starch (Polysaccharide): Iodine solution

• Put 2-3 ml of starch solution in a test tube
• Add 3-4 drops of iodine
• A bluish black color indicates a positive test for starch.
Trimetric Assay:
These are titrimetric Assays in which the potency of the chief constituent is determined.
In chemical assays chief constituent of drugs are extracted by suitable solvent, and then purified.
These chief constituents are assayed, purified and its potential values such as,
• Iodine Value
• Saponification value
• Acid Value
• Peroxide value
• Acetyl value
Iodine Value:
A measure of the iodine absorbed in a given time by a chemically unsaturated material, such as oil;
used to measure the unsaturation of a compound or mixture.
Also known as iodine number (indicates the ease of oxidation or the drying capacity of the product).
Saponification Value:
Saponification is the hydrolysis of an ester under basic conditions to form an alcohol and the salt of a
carboxylic acid.
Saponification value represents “the number of milligrams of potassium hydroxide or sodium
hydroxide required to saponify 1g of fat under the conditions specified.”
Acid Value:
A measure of the amount of free acid present in a fat, equal to the number of milligrams of potassium
hydroxide needed to neutralize this.
Peroxide value:
The peroxide value is defined as the amount of peroxide oxygen per 1 kilogram of fat or oil.
Acetyl value:
The milligram of KOH required neutralizing the acetic acid produced by the hydrolysis of 1 g of
acetylated fat; (a measure of the hydroxy acids present in glycerides).
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Quantitative analysis
• Quantitative analysis is also the part of chemical evaluations.
• Purity of crude drug is determined by quantitative analysis.
• Chemical analysis also covers the phytochemical screening carried out to establish the chemical
profile. Sublimation, Fractional distillation, steam distillation
PHYSICAL EVALUATION
Introduction:
• It is rarely used for crude drugs.

• Physical contents such as elasticity in fibres, viscosity of drugs containing gums, selling factor for
mucilage containing materials, froth number of saponin drugs, congealing point of volatile and
fixed oils, melting and boiling points and water contents are some important parameters used in
the evaluation of drugs.
• Ultraviolet light is also used for determing the fluorescence of extracts, powdered or thin layer
of some drugs.
➢ Aconite-----light blue
➢ Emetine-----orange
➢ Berberine----yellow
• Froth number for saponins
• Congealing point for volatile/fixed oils
Physical Constant:
Physical constants are extensively applied to the active principles of drugs, such as alkaloids, volatile oils,
fixed oils etc.
A few of them are:
➢ Moisture Content
➢ Viscosity
➢ Melting point
➢ Optical Ratation
➢ Refractive Index
➢ Ash Content
➢ Extractive values
➢ Volatile oil Content
➢ Rf Values
➢ Solubility
➢ Foreign Organic Matter
➢ Swelling Factor
27
1.Solubility:
• We should determine solubility of a drug in different solvents.

• The presence of adulterant in a drug could be indicated by solubility studies.
• Usually it is expressed in the following form:
• 1g is soluble in ….ml of water, … ml of alcohol, etc.
• For example; Castor oil is soluble in 3vol of 90% alcohol while adulterated form show good
solubility in alcohol.
2.Specific Gravity:
• Specific gravity is determined particularly of the fats and volatile oils.

• Weight of a given volume of liquid compared with the weight of equal volume of water at
specific temperature and pressure in air is called as specific gravity.
• The specific gravity of anise oil is not less than 0.978 and not more than 0.988.
• Specific gravity of water =1
• Most of volatile oil is lighter than water, except V.O. of clove
• Cinnamon (heavier than water)
3.Optical Rotation:
• Optical activity is the ability of a chiral molecule to rotate the plane of planepolarized light.
• Dextro (+) rotary: rotate plane of polarized light to right (clock wise)
• Levo (-) rotary: Rotate plane of polarized light to left (anti-clock wise)
• Certain substances are found to have the property of rotating the plane of polarized light.
• Normally, it is determined at 25°C using Na-lamp as the source of light.
It is measured by polarimeter.
➢ Autonomic Digital Polarimeter: Its range is ±45◦ . Polarimeter cell is 100mm, 200 mm and has a
sodium lamp.
➢ Hand-Held Polarimeter: Wavelength of 589 mm, measurement range is - 35◦ to +35◦ .
Example:
No. Drugs Angles of Optical Rotation
1 Caraway Oil ₊75◦ to ₊80◦
2 Clove Oil 0◦ to ₊6.0◦
3 Honey ₊3◦ to ₋15◦
4 Atropine ₊0◦
4.Refractive Index:
• It is determined particularly for the fixed and volatile oils (crystals, liquids).
• It is a ratio of sign angle of incidence/sign angle of refraction of monochromatic beam.
• RI is measured by refractometer.
• It is constant for a liquid and can be considered as one of the criteria for its standardization.
• For example; the RI of peppermint oil is not less than 1.4590 and not more than 1.4650 at 20 ◦C.
28
5. Congealing Point:
• It is particularly of fixed and volatile oils.

• The solidification range of fatty acids in olive oil is between 17 and 26◦C.
6. Melting Point
• It is of extreme importance, there is a constant range of M.P. using specific solvent.

• In case of pure chemicals or phytochemicals M.P. are sharp and constant.
For example;
No. Drugs Melting Point (◦C)

1 Colophony 75-85
2 Bees Wax 62-65
3 Wool Fat 34-44
4 Cocaine 96-98
7.Moisture Content
• Presence of moisture in a crude drug can also lead to its deterioration due to either activation of
certain enzymes or growth of microbes.
• Moisture content can be determined by heating the drug at 150◦C in an oven to a constant
weight and calculating the loss of weight.
No. Drugs Moisture Content W/W

1 Aloe Not more than 10
2 Digitalis Not more than 5
3 Starch Not more than 15
8.Viscosity
• Viscosity of a liquid is constant at a given temperature and is an index of composition.

• Hence, it is used as a means of standardizing liquid drugs.
For example:
Liquid paraffin – kinematic viscosity not less than 64-centistokes at 37.8◦
Pyroxylin – kinematic viscosity, 1100-2450 centistokes.
29
9.Foreign Organic Material
• It is the part of organ or organs other than those named in the definition and description of the
drug are defined as foreign matter.
• The maximum limit is defined in monograph (a detailed written study of a single specialized
subject or an aspect of it).
• If it exceeds the limits, deterioration in quality of the drug takes place.
• The physical or chemical parameters useful in quality profile of a crude drug evaluation.
BIOLOGICAL EVALUATION
The drugs, which cannot be assayed satisfactorily by chemical or physical means, are evaluated by
biological methods.
Tests are carried out on intact animals, animal preparations, isolated living tissues or micro-organisms.
Since living organisms are used, the assays are called 'biological assays'.
Biological standardization procedures are generally less precise, more time consuming and more
expensive to conduct than chemical assays.
Therefore, they are generally used if the chemical identity of the active principle has not been fully
elucidated: if, no adequate chemical assay has been derived for the active principle as in case of insulin:
if the drug is composed of complex mixture and activity , e.g. Digitalis: if the purification of crude drug is
not possible, e.g. separation of vitamin D from irridiated oils: and if the chemical assay is not a valid
indication of biological activity.
Biological Assay:
• A biological assay measures the actual biological activity of a given sample. In any one test the
animals of only one strain are used.
• For some assays a specific sex must be used.
• The male rat has faster growth rate than the female.
• Therefore, use of both male and female in a growth test should be avoided.
• Bioassays are conducted by determining the amount of a solution of unknown potency required
to
• produce a definite effect on suitable test animals or organs under standard conditions.
• To minimize the source of errors resulting from animal variation, standard reference
preparations are used in certain bioassay procedures.
Organsims Used:
• In past living organisms like yeast, molds, bacteria and virus were used.
• Now most of the microbiological assays of vitamins except vit.B12 and calcium has replaced by:
30
Spectrophotometry assays (Spectrophotometer is a machine used to measure the amount of
light a substance's absorbs, to combine kinetic measurements and Beer's law by calculating the
appearance of product or disappearance of substrate concentrations).
Fluorometric assay (Fluorescence is when a molecule emits light of one wavelength after
absorbing light of a different wavelength. Fluorometric assays use a difference in the
fluorescence of substrate from product to measure the enzyme reaction).
• Antibiotic activity measurement

• Cylinder-plate(or cup plate) method
• Turbidity method
1.Bacteria:
For evaluation of phenol content(disinfectants) or antiseptic value e.g. S. typhi, S. aureus.
2.Mice:
It is used as a test animals in the safety for rabies vaccines, diptheria toxoid and other biologicals.
Rats are used in the assay of vassopressin.
3.Chicks:
Oxytocic injection is assayed on young domestic chickens by injecting into an exposed crural or brachial
vein and observing changes in blood pressure.
4.Pigeons:
Digitalis glycosides are assayed on pigeons by transfusing the drug through the alar vein into the blood
stream and noting the lethal effects.
5.Cats:
Drugs with depressor activity and glucagon are tested upon cats. And to find Mydriatic drugs e.g.
atropine.
6.Rabbits:
Ophthalmic preparations on rabbit eye are assayed.
7.Dogs:
For depressor activity test and to assay veratrum viride preparation.
8.Earth worms:
For Anthelmintic drugs
9.Human beings:
Only used at clinical trial.
Disadvantages of Bioassays:
• Less quantitative accuracy
• Human/technical variation
• Difference in effect from human data.
Bioassay utilizing brine shrimp:
• A simple bioassay utilizing brine shrimp (Artemia sauna) is available for determining new
biological activities in plant extracts.
31
• The eggs of this creature, which serve as food for tropical fish, are allowed to hatch in a brine
solution.
• Its shrimp are exposed to different conceptrations of the test material and an LC (median lethan
concentration) value in tg/ml is calculated.
• A broad range of compound show toxic effect to the shrimp.
• The procedure is rapid, reliable and cheap.
• Another procedure, called potato-disc assay, involved observation of the Inhibition of crown gall
tumors induced on, potato discs by Agrobacteriu.m tumefaciens by plant extracts or isolated
compounds.
• This method is used for detecting In preliminary fashion anticancer activity.
DRUG ADULTERATION
Definition:
The term adulteration is defined as substituting original crude drug partially or wholly with other similar-
looking substances. The substance, which is mixed, is free from or inferior in chemical and therapeutic
property.
Adulteration is the practice of substituting original crude drug partially or whole with other similar
looking substances but the later is either free from or inferior in chemical and therapeutic properties
Example:
- Loss of caffeine by over roasting of coffee beans.
- Hardening of powdered squill due to absorption of moisture.
- Ergot contaminated by mold or any drug infested by insects.
Adulterant:
A substance added to a product but not listed as an ingredient, or a substance that ends up in a
product by accident when the product is made. Adulterants may be in foods, drugs, and other
products.
Types of Adulterants:
Adulteration in simple terms is debasement of an article.
The motives for intentional adulteration are normally commercial and are originated mainly with the
intension of enhancement of profits.
Some of the reasons that can be cited here are scarcity of drug and its high price prevailing in market.
The adulteration is done deliberately, but it may occur accidentally in some cases. Adulteration involves
different conditions such as deterioration, admixture, sophistication, substitution, inferiority and
spoilage.
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Reasons for Adulterations:
• Scarcity of the drug
• The high price of the drug in the market
• It is very common with contraband drugs e.g; Opium, Mehtemphetamine .
Types of Adulteraion:
• Inferiority
• Spoilage
• Admixture
• Substitution
• Deteriotion
• Sophistication
• True Adulteration
1. Inferiority
• It refers to a substandard drug or any other substance regardless to the cost. Any
substandard drug produce naturally.
• Example: Dried seeds of Nux-vomica containing less than 1.15% strychnine would be of
inferior quality and substandard drug.
2. Spoilage
• It is a condition of a food or a drug (crude) in which quality of the usefulness of the materials
has been destroyed by fungus or bacteria or molds to such an extent that it is not fit for
human use such drugs are legally considered as adulterated drugs.
3. Admixture
• Addition of one material to another either accidently or carelessly or ignorance. If done
intentionally then considered adulteration and specifically admixture.
• Example: Addition of rodent feed matter into cardamom seeds.
4. Substitution
• It can be defined as complete replacement of one article with another article, is referred to
as substitution.
• Example: Replacement of fructose with glucose is a substitution adulteration.
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5. Deterioration
• It means any impairment of quality either by removing (abduction) or by destruction of valuable
constituents by different means e.g. distillation, fungus, insects, heat, moisture, aging etc.
6. Sophistication
• Addition of inferior material to another article with a definite intention of fraud, is referred to as
sophistication.
• Example: Addition of wheat flour to ginger powder.
Methods of Adulteration:
Unintentional Adulteration:
Unintentional adulteration may be due to the following reasons:
• confusion in vernacular names between indigenous systems of medicine and local dialects
• lack of knowledge about the authentic plant
• nonavailability of the authentic plant
• similarity in morphology and or aroma
• careless collection
• other unknown reasons
Name Confusion:
In ayurveda, ‘Parpatta’ refers to Fumaria parviflora. In siddha, ‘Parpadagam’ refers to Mollugo

pentaphylla. Owing to the similarity in the names in traditional systems of medicine, these two herbs are
often interchanged or adulterated or substituted. Because of the popularity of siddha medicine
in some parts of south India, traders in these regions supply M. pentaphylla as Parpatta/Parpadagam
and the north Indian suppliers supply F. parviflora.
Lack of knowledge about authentic source:

‘Nagakesar’ is one of the important drugs in ayurveda. The authentic source is Mesua ferrea. However,
market samples are adulterated with flowers of Calophyllum inophyllum. Though the authentic plant is
available in plenty throughout the Western Ghats and parts of the Himalayas, suppliers are
unaware of it. There may also be some restrictions in forest collection. Due to these reasons,
C. inophyllum (which is in the plains) is sold as Nagakesar. Authentic flowers can be easily identified by
the presence of two-celled ovary, whereas in case of spurious flowers they are single celled.
34
Similarity in morphology:
Mucuna pruriens is the best example for unknown authentic plant and similarity in morphology. It is
adulterated with other similar papilionaceae seeds. M. utilis (sold as white variety) and M. deeringiana
(sold as bigger variety) are popular adulterants.
Lack of authentic plant

Hypericum perforatum is cultivated and sold in European markets. In India, availability of this species is
very limited. However, the abundant Indo-Nepal species H. patulum is sold in the name of H.
perforatum. Market sample is a whole plant with flowers, and it is easy to identify them taxonomically.
Similarity in colour:
It is well known that in course of time, drug materials get changed to or substituted with other plant
species. Ratanjot is a recent-day example. On discussion with suppliers and nontimer forest product
(NTFP) contractors, it came to be known that in the past, roots of Ventilago madraspatana were
collected from Western Ghats, as the only source of ‘Ratanjot’. However, that is not the practice now. It
is clearly known that Arnebia euchroma var euchroma is the present source. Similarity in yielding a red
dye, A. euchroma substitutes V. madraspatana. The description to identify these two is unnecessary
because of the absence of V. madraspatana in market. Whatever is available in the market, in the name
of Ratanjot, was originated from A. euchroma.
Careless collections:
Some of the herbal adulterations are due to the carelessness of herbal collectors and suppliers. Parmelia
perlata is used in ayurveda, unani and siddha. It is also used as grocery. Market samples showed it to be
admixed with other species (P. perforata and P. cirrhata). Sometimes, Usnea sp. is also mixed with them.
Authentic plants can be identified by their thallus nature.
Unknown reasons:
‘Vidari’ is another example of unknown authentic plant. It is an important ayurvedic plant used
extensively. Its authentic source is Pueraria tuberosa, and its substitute is Ipomoea digitata. However,
market samples are not derived from these two. It is interesting to know that an endangered
gymnosperm Cycas circinalis is sold in plenty as Vidari. The adulterated materials originated from Kerala,
India. Although both the authentic plant and its substitute are available in plenty throughout India, how
C. circinalis became a major source for this drug is unknown. P. tuberosa can be easily identified by the
presence of papery flake-like tubers, I. digitata by the presence of its concentric rings of vascular
bundles and their adulterant C. circinalis by its leaf scars and absence of vessel elements.
Intentional Adulteration
Intentional adulteration may be due to the following reasons:
• adulteration using manufactured substances
• substitution using inferior commercial varieties
35
• substitution using exhausted drugs
• substitution of superficially similar inferior natural substances
• adulteration using the vegetative part of the same plant
• addition of toxic materials
• adulteration of powders
• addition of synthetic principles
Adulteration using manufactured substances

In this type of adulteration the original substances are adulterated by the materials that are artificially
manufactured. The materials are prepared in a way that their general form and appearance resemble
with various drugs. Few examples; are cargo of ergot from Portugal was adulterated with small masses
of flour dough moulded to the correct size and shape and coloured, first using red ink, and then into
writing ink. Bass-wood is cut exactly the required shape of nutmegs and used to adulterate nutmegs.
Compressed chicory is used in place of coffee berries. Paraffin wax is coloured yellow and is been
substituted for beeswax, and artificial invert sugar is used in place of honey.
Substitution using inferior commercial varieties

In this type, the original drugs are substituted using inferior quality drugs that may be similar in
morphological characters, chemical constituents or therapeutic activity. For example hog gum or hog
tragacanth for tragacanth gum, mangosteen fruits for bael fruits, Arabian senna, obovate senna and
Provence senna are used to adulterate senna, ginger being adulterated with Cochin, African and
Japanese ginger. Capsicum annuum fruits and Japanese chillies are used for fruits of C. minimum.
Substitution using exhausted drugs

In this type of substitution the active medicaments of the main drugs are extracted out and are used
again. This could be done for the commodities that would retain its shape and appearance even after
extraction, or the appearance and taste could be made to the required state by adding colouring or
flavouring agents. This technique is frequently adopted for the drugs containing volatile oils, such as:
clove, fennel etc. After extraction, saffron and red rose petals are recoloured by artificial dyes. Another
example is balsam of tolu that does not contain cinnamic acid. The bitterness of exhausted gentian is
restored by adding aloes.
Substitution of superficially similar inferior natural substances

The substituents used may be morphologically similar but will not be having any relation to the genuine
article in their constituents or therapeutic activity. Ailanthus leaves are substituted for belladona, senna,
etc. saffron admixed with saff flower; peach kernels and apricot kernels for almonds; clove stalks and
mother cloves with cloves; peach kernel oil used for olive oil; chestnut leaves for hamamelis leaves and
Japan wax for beeswax are few examples for this type of adulteration.
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Adulteration using the vegetative part of the same plant
The presence of vegetative parts of the same plant with the drug in excessive amount is also an
adulteration. For example, epiphytes, such as mosses, liverworts and lichens that grow over the barks
also may occur in unusual amounts with the drugs, e.g. cascara or cinchona. Excessive amount of stems
in drugs like lobelia, stramonium, hamamelis leaves, etc. are few example for this type of adulteration.
Addition of toxic materials

In this type of adulteration the materials used for adulteration would be toxic in nature. A big mass of
stone was found in the centre of a bale of liquorice root. Limestone pieces with asafetida, lead shot in
opium, amber-coloured glass pieces in colophony, barium sulphate to silvergrain cochineal and
manganese dioxide to blackgrain cochineal, are few examples in this adulteration.
Adulteration of powders
Powdered drugs are found to be adulterated very frequently. Adulterants used are generally powdered
waste products of a suitable colour and density. Powdered olive stones for powdered gentian, liquorice
or pepper; brick powder for barks; red sanders wood to chillies; dextrin for powdered ipecacuanha, are
few adulterants.
Addition of synthetic principles

Synthetic pharmaceutical principles are used for market and therapeutic value. Citral is added to lemon
oil, whereas benzyl benzoate is added to balsam of Peru. Apart from these, the herbal products labelled
to improve sexual performance in men, when analysed, contained sildenafil.
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UNIT : 5
DRUGS OF ANIMAL ORIGIN
1.SHELLAC
It is a resinous protective secretion of the tiny lac insect .
Common name: Lac
Zoological origin: Laccifer lacca
Family: Laccidae
Habitat: It is produced in Sri lanka, Thailand, China, Vietnam, Indonesia, Mayala, Pakistan.
Description:
• The pest occur both on wild and cultivated plants.
• Red colored larvae of the insect settle on the young fleshy shoots of the host plant.
• With their proboscis suck nutrients from the sap. Insect secrets the thick resinous fluid which envelops
their bodies.
• Secretions from their individual insect coalesce and form a hard continuous envelop over the twig.
• After the completion of life cycle and at the time of next generation emergence the twigs are harvested.
The encrustations scrapped off, dried and further processed to produce the lac.
• This crude lac is called stick lac and is not used in industry.
• Purification Stick lac is powdered and coloring matter is extracted with water or dilute soda solution.
• The solution evaporated to dryness constitutes lac dye.
• And the exhausted lac when dried is called as seed lac.
Types of Seed Lac:

From this seed lac four types of shellac recognized by EP/BP are produced as follows;
Types Preparation Characters

Wax containing shellac Seedlac →filteration through bags Flakes Bownish-orange or yellow
or by hot solvent extraction On Insoluble in water, partly soluble in
cooling subjected to stretching into ether and with alcohol gives an
long sheets and then broken opalescent solution.
Bleached shellac Seedlac is dissolved in hot soda Cream-brownish-yellow powder.
solution, bleached with Opalescent solution formed with
hypochlorite or chlorine and ppt. by alcohol.
acid. It is pulled under water into
sticks and dried.
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Dewaxed shellac Seedlac or wax-containing shellac Flakes Gives clear solution with
by treatment with a suitable alcohol
solvent and removal of the wax by
filtration.
Bleached Dewaxed shellac Seedlac /wax containing shellac → Bleached shellac Gives clear
treated with soda lime →bleached solution with alcohol
(hypochlorite)→Insoluble wax
removed by filteration and product
is ppt. from soln. with dil. Acid and
dried
Commercial grades:
Commercial grades are;
• button-lac
• orange shellac
• ruby or garnet shellac.
Physical properties:
• Yellowish transparent sheet or powder.
• Characteristic odor.
• Soluble in 80-85%alcohol, ether, benzene, petroleum ether and insoluble in water.
Chemical composition:
Lac contains;
• 70-80% resin
• sugars
• proteins
• coloring matter 1-2%,
• wax 4-6%,
• extraneous matter 8-12% and
• traces of volatile oils.
Lac resin contains;
• Hydroxyl fatty acids derivatives (Aleuritic acid) and

• a sesquiterpenes (cedrene type).
Uses:
• Pharmaceutically used in mfg. of sustained release dosage form .
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• Industrially used in the preparation of photographic records, in lacquers and varnishes, in electrical
machines as sealing wax, in inks.
2. MUSK
Common name: Moschus, Kasturi
Biological origin: Moschus moschiferus
Family: Cervidae
Part used: Dried secretion obtained from the preputial follicles of musk-dear.
Habitat: The animal is found in the mountains of regions of Himalayas and in china. It is also reported in
Russia.
Preparation of Musk:
• Musk deer (50cm in height) is contained in an oval hairy projecting sac found only in male,
situated between the umbilicus and the prepuce.
• The sac is known as POD.
• Its weight is 30g and contains half of its weight musk.
• To obtain the perfume from the musk, animal is killed and the gland is completely removed and
dried.
• Either in the sun or by immersion in hot oil.
• It appears in commerce either as MUSK IN POD or as MUSK IN GRAIN.
• The musk in pod have their entire gland.
• Musk in grain is the one in which perfume has been extracted from its receptacles.
• It is a viscid mass-coarse powder dark brown –brownish red in color.
• It possess very strong characteristic odor and slightly bitter in taste.
• It dissolves in boiling water.
Chemical constituents:
• On distillation, it yields 1.5% w/w of dark brown volatile oil.
• The organic compound responsible for the odor of musk is muskone which is a cyclic ketone
having closed chain of C atoms.
• It also contains fat, wax, cholsterin, albuminoids, ammonia, cholesterin and resins.
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Varieties of musk:
There are three kinds of musk
• Tong-king, Chinese or Tibetan musk: It is the most valued musk and imported from china.
• Assam or Nepal: Slightly lesser in value.
• Karbadin or Russian: Imported from central Asia by way of Russia.
Uses:
• Used as a powerful stimulant in the treatment of hysteria.
• Due to its ability to retain its odor even if diluted upto 3000 times, it is used in perfume industry.
3.CIVET
Introduction:
It is odorus secretion obtained from highly specialized scent glands in the region of external generative
organs of male and female civet cat.
Common name: Zibeth, khatas, Large Indian Civet.
Biological origin: Viverra zibetha
Family: Viverridae
Geographical source:
These cats are found all over South East Asia, Africa, Madagascar and Southern Europe.
Civets are omnivorous (distinguishing characters from other cats).
Semi liquid, pale yellow in color, obnoxious odor but when diluted becomes very pleasant.
Bitter in taste.
Partially soluble in hot alcohol, ether but insoluble in water.
• It mainly contains civetone, civetol, indole, ethylamine, propylamine and few unidentified free
acids. Civetol is odourless and is converted into cinvetone by chromic acid oxidation.
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Uses:
• Used as flavoring agents in cosmetics and foods and fixative in perfumery.
4. Ambergris
Common name: Grey amber, Amber grease
Biological origin: Physeter catodon
Family: Physeteradae
Geographical source: It is found floating in tropical seas or near sea shores.
Formation:
• It is pathological product formed in intestinal tract of sperm whale.
• The sperm whales feed on squid or cuttle fish.
• The indigestible beaks of these animals cause irritation of whale’s stomach and in turn
stimulates the formation of ambergris.
• Sometimes the masses weighing 1kg – 10kg or more are found at a time.
• Grey to black waxy mass.
• Agreeable, characteristic, persistent odor.
• It is brittle, flammable and completely volatile by heat (at 100°C as white vapors).
• It is insoluble in water and in alkali hydroxides but soluble in hot alcohol, chloroform, ether, fats
and volatile oils.
It contains triterpene alcohol, amberen (25%) which is white and crystalline emicoprostalol and
coprostanone.
Uses:
• Used in perfumery
• Used for the fixation of delicate flavours as it increases the life of into which it is incorporated.
• It is usually added in lotions
• It is also used to flavor the tobacco.
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• In dose 100mg-800mg it produce significant potentiation of pentobarbitone induced hypnosis,
mild analgesia and anti-convulsant activities.
• When applied externally, removes localized pain, and itching.
• Useful in scabies, pimples and other infection diseases.
5. Cantharides
Zoological origin:
Old name: Cantharis vesicatoria
New name: Lytta vesicatoria
Family: Meloidae
Part used: Dried insects
Habitat: These insects are found on plants of family Caprifoliaceae and Oleaceae. The plants are found
in Central Europe.
Zoological features:
Insects are oblong in shape, brilliant green in color.
Odor is strong and taste is pungent.
Collection:
• They are collected in the month of June and July.
• They are killed by exposing them by the fumes of ammonia or chloroform or carbon disulfide or
by sulpher dioxide.
• Finally they are dried in an oven at temperature not exceeding 40◦C.
• They are packed in air tight containers.
• A few drops of carbon tetrachloride is added as preservative.
Constituents:
• The main constituent is Cantharidin.
• Among the others are uric acid, formic acid, acetic acid, and 12% fats.
Medicinal uses:
• It is used as counter irritant.
• It is used as pustulant.
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• It is used as vesicant.
• It is used as rubefacient.
6. Honey
Honey is a viscid and sweet secretion stored in the honey comb by various species of bees.
Common name: Madh, Mel, Madhu
Botanical origin: Apis dorsota, Apis florea, Apis indica, Apis mellifica
Family: Apideae
Geographical Source: Honey is available in abundance in Africa, India, Jamaica, Australia, California,
Chili, Great Britain and New Zealand.
Preparation and Collection:

• Generally, honey bees are matched with social insects that reside in colonies and produce honey
and bee wax.
• Every colony essentially has one "queen" or "mother bee" under whose command a large no of
"employees" exist which could be sterile females and in certain season’s male bees.
• The employees are entrusted to collect nectar from sweet smelling flowers from far and near
that mostly contains aqueous soln. of sucrose (i.e. approximately 25% sucrose and 75% water)
and pollens. Invertase, an enzyme present in the saliva converts the nectar into the sugar, which
is partly consumed by the bee for its survival and the balance is carefully stored into the
honeycomb.
• With the passage of time the water gets evaporated thereby producing honey (i.e.
approximately 80% invert sugar and 20% water).
• As soon as the cell is filled up completely, the bees seal it with the wax to preserve it for off
season utility.
• The honey is collected by removing the wax wax-seal by the help of a sterilized sharp knife.
• The pure honey is obtained by centrifugation and filtering through a moistened cheese cloth.
• Invariably, the professional honey, and warm the separated combs to recover the bees wax.
Chemical Constituents:
The average composition of honey ranges as follows;
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 Moisture 14-24%
 Dextrose 23-36%
 Levulose (fructose) 30-47%
 Sucrose 0.4-6%
 Dextrin and gums 0-7%
 Ash 0.1-0.8%.
Besides, it is found to contain small amounts of essential oils, bees wax, pollen grains, formic acid, acetic
acid, succinic acid, maltose, dextrin, coloring pigments, vitamins and an admixture of enzymes e.g.
diastase, invertase and inulase.
Interestingly, the sugar contents in honey varies widely from one country to another as it is exclusively
governed by the source of nectar.
Substituents and Adulterants:

• Due to relatively high price of pure honey, it is invariably adulterated either with artificial invert
sugar or simply with cane sugar syrup.
• These adulterants or cheaper substituents not only alter the optical property of honey but also
its natural aroma and fragrance.
Uses:
• It is used as sweetening agent in confectionaries.
• Being a demulcent, it helps to relieve dryness and is, therefore recommended for coughs, colds,
sore throats and constipation.
• Because of its natural content of easily assimiable simple sugars, it is globally employed as a
good source of nutrient for infants, elderly persons and convalescing patients
7.Cod liver oil

Introduction:
It is the partially destearinated fixed oil obtained from the fresh livers.
Types:
It is of two types
Type A
Additional has anisidine value is performed to check the secondary oxidation of oil
Type B
45
Commercial product
Cod liver oil was exported from Norway during the middle ages but it was used for non-medical purpose.
In 1752 – 1784, Dr. Samuel Kay introduce it as a medicine. Initially it was prepared by rotting process. In
this method, livers was rotted in barrels and the rising oil to the surface was skimmed. The Modern
process includes – Steaming.
Biological source: Gadus morrhua
Family: Gadidae
Part Used: Partially destearinated fixed oil from fresh livers.
Geographical Sources:
Cod fish inhabit the northern Atlantic Ocean, coming to its shores to spawn in the late winter and spring.
Physical Properties:
• Appearance: Cod liver oil is a thin oily liquid.

• Odor: It has a peculiar, slightly fishy but not rancid odor.
• Taste: Fishy taste
• Solubility: It is slightly soluble in alcohol but freely soluble in ether, chloroform and ethyl
acetate.
Oil Preparation:
A.Collection and extraction:
• Cod livers contain 50% oil, removed immediately as the fishes are boarded and transferred to
steamers in which the oil is released from tissues.
• Crude oil is separated and stored at low temperature.
B.Preparation:
The principal stages in the preparation of medicinal oil are
1.Refining of crude oil
• It improves the quality and flavor.

• It is carried out in air free conditions.
• It is carried out In UK in continuous, automatic, hermetic refining plants Heating of crude oil to
77◦C in heat exchanger.
• Passed through the dics type mixers+ addition of reagents (impurity removal + small liver tissue
dissolution) .
• Oil and water are removed in hermetic separator in air free environment .
46
• The process is repeated in mixers and separators In third stage same apparatus is used to water
wash the oil .
2.Drying
• Carried out in vaccum drying tower which continuously evaporates the even small amount of
water and discharges a clear, bright, highly refined oil.
• 50-60 tons of oil per day .
3.Winterization
• Medicinal and veterinary oils are cooled to 0◦C.

• Stearin separates
• Removal of solid by cold filtration
4.Decolorization
• Carried out in steam in vacuum which removes 0.02% of aldehydic and ketonic impurities
5.Standardization for Vit. Content
BP oil 1g – 600units of Vit. A and 60 Units of D
Constituents:
• The oil contains Vitamin A and Vitamin D.
• The oil consists of glyceryl esters of unsaturated (oleic, linoleic, gadoleic and palmitoleic)
• Saturated (myristic,palmitic and traces of stearic) fatty acids.
Uses:
• It is used for the cure n prevention of rickets.
• Cod liver oil is employed for its content of antixerophthalmic and antirachitic vitamins.
• Due to Vitamin A it is valuable as a “flesh builder” in wasting diseases and as a “growth
promoter” in children.
• Due to Vitamin D it helps to utilize calcium in the formation of bones and teeth.
8.Spermaceti
Common name: Sperm whale
Biological origin: Physeter macrocephalus
Family: Physeteridae
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Part used: Waxy substance obtained from head cavity of sperm whale.
Whaling has let the sperm whale as endangered species. So, natural spermaceti is no longer been used
synthetic spermaceti and jojoba oil are used as its substitutes.
Method of obtaining Spermaceti:

• It is obtained from the head of sperm whale.
• After, whaling cavities are formed in the head of sperm whale.
• The waxy substances is then collected from these cavities.
• A large sperm whale contain on average 3 tons of spermacrit.
Constituents:
• It contains mixtures of hexadecyl esters of fatty acids.
• These esters constitute 85% of total weight.
• The major constituents are hexadecyl dodecanoic acid (cetyl lorate), hexadecyl tetradecanoic
acid (cetyl myristate), hexadecyl hexadecanoic acid (cetyl palmitate), hexadecyl octadeconoic
acid (cetyl sterate).
Synthetic spermaceti:
• It is composed of esters of saturated fatty acids (C14 – C18) with saturated fatty alcohol (C14 –
C18).
Uses:
• It is used as ointment base.
• It is used as emollient.
• It is used as stiffening agent in pharmaceutical preparations.
• It is also employed is cosmetics which are topically used in the form of inunction.
9.Gelatin
Biological source: Bos Taurus
Family: Bovidae
Part Used: collagenous tissue like skin,tendons,ligaments and bones
48
Preparation:
• Through the process of preparation of gelatin varies in many of the industries.
• Generally the raw material first subjected to the process of liming by placing the material of skin
and tendons in a dilute milk of lime.
• The process of liming dissolves the unwanted materials like the fleshy matter,chondro proteins
and saponified fat present in the connective tissues.
• The skin is then washed with water.
• If the raw material used is bone then it is first grounded and then defatted with any organic
solvent like benzene in an iron cylinders.
• The defatted material is then treated with mineral acid like HCl.
• The treated material is then heated in an open pan or under pressure in perforated false
bottoms.
• The fluid obtained is then evaporated under pressure to get a gelatin concentration of 45-50%.
• The concentrated fluid is then spreaded on glass tray to form a jelly.
• The jelly is removed and passed through wire netting and then dried at various temperature for
a month at an increasing rate of 10◦C each time from 30◦C to 60◦C.Bleaching with sulphur
dioxide is also done to obtain gelatin with lighter color.
Description:
• Gelatin is found in thin sheet form or as powder.
• Its color is yellow to amber and is odorless and tasteless.
• It is hard and brittle in nature.
• It swells in cold water and gets dissolved on heating,also soluble in acetic acid,alcohol and ether
etc.
• It forms glutin,peptone,hydrochloride on boiling with dilute HCl.
Constituents:
• The main constituent is glutin.
Uses:
• It is mainly used in manufacturing of hard and soft capsule shells,for micro encapsulation of
drugs.
• It is used as a vehicle in some injections,in the preparation of bacteriological culture media,as a
base for glycerin suppositories,preparation of pessaries and pastills.
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UNIT : 6
BIOLOGICS
Definition:
“Any product obtained from a living plants or animals is known as biologic. “
According to FDA
“Any virus, therapeutic serum, toxin, antitoxin and their analogue that may be viral vaccine, bacterial
vaccine, immune serum, human blood or products derived from blood used in diagnosis, prevention
and treatment of diseases.”
OR
“A preparation such as drug, vaccine, antitoxin that is synthesized from living organisms or their
products as a diagnostic, preventive and therapeutic agent. “
➢ Biologics have expiry date and storage conditions.

➢ They should be properly labelled with name.
➢ Biologics must have batch number, manufacture license number and storage conditions.
Classifications of biologics:
• Antigen
• Antibody
Antigen:
Any substance that provokes immune system and causes immune response is called antigen.
Categorical definition of antigens:
Biologically: Biologically antigen is any substance or the material that when enters the tissues of
humans or other vertebrates causes production of antibodies.
Biological properties:
Immunogenicity: It has the capacity to induce antibody formation or induce immune response.
Specificity: Antigen is specific to react with specific antibody. Specificity is governed by small chemical
sites on the antigen molecules called antigenic determinants.
Chemically: Antigen are usually proteins however some high molecular polysaccharides are antigenic.
50
Physically: Antigen must possess a high molecular weight. A weight of more than 10,000 Dalton is
required.
Hapten:
• Hapten is the incomplete antigen having molecular weight less than 10,000 Dalton.
• It has no ability to produce immune response.
• It combines with host protein and act as antigen.
The simplest form of an antigenic determinant present on a complex antigenic molecule is called an
epitope.
Antibody:
• Any substance that is produced in response to antigen is called antibody.
• Usually antibodies exist in human serum, other secretions and mucous membrane.
• Specialized cells of the immune system can recognize the antigen and are able to set off
complex chain of events designed to kill these foreign invades.
Fractionation of human blood by electrophoresis give following four fractions
• Albumin
• 𝜶 globulin
• 𝜷 globulin
• 𝜸 globulin
Immunoglobulins:
Antibodies that exist in 𝛾 globulin fraction are known as Immunoglobulin.
Classes of immunoglobulin:
1.IgG:
• It constitutes about 80% of the total antibodies.

• Its molecular weight is 1,50,000 Dalton and consists of only 1400 amino acids.
• It occurs in tetrameric form having two identical halves which together form the Y-linked shape.
• Each of the fork contain antigen binding site.
• It is the only class of immunoglobin that can cross placenta.
2. IgM:
• It is also known as material antibody.

• It is the first antibody that is made by fetus and the first immunoglobulin made by virgin B cells
when it is stimulated by antigen.
51
• It occurs in pentameric form.
3.IgA (Alpha heavy chain):
• It is predominant immunoglobulin that is found external bodily secretions such as saliva, tears,
GIT fluid, respiratory secretion (my also cause asthma).
4.IgD (Delta heavy chain):
• It is present in lowest concentration primarily found on B cell surface where it functions as a

receptor for antigen.
5.IgE (Epsilon heavy chain):
• It functions in allergic reactions.

• It is a hypersensitivity antibody and bound with mast cell of the surface of tissue.
Immunity
Definition:
“ It is the state of having sufficient biological defense to avoid infection, disease or other unwanted
biological invasion.”
It is the capability of the body to resist harmful microbes from entering it.
Types:
Innate immunity:
• It is the natural resistance with which a person is born.

• It depends upon race, genetic make-up.
• It can never be finished nor be increased .
Acquired Immunity:
The immunity obtained either from the development of antibodies in response to exposure an antigen
as from vaccination or an attack of an infection, disease or from the transmission of antibodies from
mother to fetus through the placenta or the injection of antiserum.
Types of acquired immunity:

• Active immunity (natural or artificial)
• Passive immunity (natural or artificial)
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Active immunity:
▪ It is produced by introducing antigenic substances.
Naturally acquired active immunity:
▪ It is received by the body in natural manner.

▪ It occurs when exposure to antigen is unintentional.
▪ It often follows a disease mumps, measles.
Artificially acquired active immunity:
▪ It is received by the body through the administration of vaccine or toxoid that act as antigen as
exposure to antigen is intentional.
Passive immunity:
▪ It is produced by injecting preformed antibodies from external to the body.
Naturally acquired passive immunity:
▪ It develops when antibodies pass into the fetal circulation from mother blood.
Artificially acquired passive immunity:
▪ It develops from the intentional injection of antibody rich serum into the circulation.
Vaccines
Definition:
Vaccines may contain living, attenuated or killed viruses or bacteria and they are used as inoculations to
stimulate the production of antibodies and provide immunity against one or several diseases.
Primary active immunity from vaccination develops more slowly than the incubation period of most
infections and must be induced prior to exposure to the infectious agent; therefor the general action of
vaccine should be considered prophylactic.
Nonliving vaccines provide protection for only a limited time. Active immunization with living agents is
generally preferable to immunization with killed vaccines because of a superior and more long-lived
immune response. Active immunization may cause fever, malaise and soreness at injection sites.
Use of vaccines is contraindicated under conditions in which the immune response may be depressed
such as during therapy involving corticosteroids, antineoplastic agents, immunosuppressive agents or
radiations in patients with immunoglobulin deficiency and in patients with latent or active infections.
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Viral vaccines
1.Poliomyelitis vaccines:
It is the sterile suspension of inactivated poliomyelitis virus of types 1,2 and 3. Sometimes it is also called
“Salk vaccine”, “Trivalent vaccine” or “Sabin vaccine”.
Polio is the very serious infection that cause paralysis of the muscles that enable the body to walk and
breath.
Types:
▪ Type I (brunhilde) most often isolated from paralysis cases.
▪ Type II (lansing) concerned in sporadic diseases.
▪ Type III (leon) proved to be etiologic agent in less frequent epidemics.
Types of polio vaccines:

• Polio vaccine by injection
• Oral polio vaccine
Discovery:
Landsteiner and Popper in 1908 first transmitted and isolated poliomyelitis virus in monkeys. It was
subsequently ascertained that monkeys that had survived one attack of poliomyelitis were resistant to
further attacks. Furthermore blood serum from such monkeys neutralized the virus in vitro. During 1948
Dr. John F. Enders and his associates originated a method of cultivating polio virus in vitro on animal
tissues other than nervous tissues. Then in 1953 Dr. Jonas Salk and his coworkers perfected the roller-
tissue method of polio virus culture as well as the final detoxified form of polio vaccine.
Preparation:
• The virus strains are grown separately in primary cultures of Rhesus monkey kidney tissues
bathed by a complex nutrient fluid containing more than 60 ingredients.
• After incubation the virus is harvested by decanting the nutrient fluid that is clarified by
filtration and formaldehyde 1:4000 is added.
• The formaldehyde treated virus is maintained at 36◦C at pH 7 until all viruses are killed.
• A series of teste is performed to ascertain that all viruses are inactivated.
• The formaldehyde is neutralized and a preservative is added.
• The 3 types of virus are then pooled and the resultant mixture is the trivalent vaccine.
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Dose:
The usual dose given S/C is 3 injections of 1ml,4 or more weeks apart and the 4 th reinforcing dose of
1ml,6-12 months later.
Oral polio vaccine:

• It was developed by Albert Sabin. It is also known as trivalent oral polio vaccine or Sabin vaccine.
• The amount equal to 1 sugar grain is sufficient to produce immunity.
• 5% dose is given due to active virus.
• It consists of a mixture of live attenuated polio virus strains of all three polio virus types.
Advantages:
• Ease of administration.
• Low cast and long-lasting immunity
• Can also be used when polio virus has formed colonies in the intestine.
Storage:
It is stored at -10◦C.
2.Yellow fever vaccine

• The vaccine is used to treat yellow fever (yellow jack), black vomit.
• It is a serious disease that is caused by yellow fever virus called Flavi.
• Fibricus is the causative agent and its vector is Aedes mosquito.
Effects of fibricus:
• Fever and flue.
• Jaundice
• Liver, kidney and respiratory failure.
• Death
Preparation:
• Live attenuated stains of yellow fever virus are grown on the tissues of domestic fowl Gallus
domesticus.
• Virus is inoculated to its embryo and after sufficient growth suspended in water.
• It is passed through aseptic process.
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• The vaccine is passed through freeze drying (lyophilization) and packed into the embryo. Liquid
nitrogen is filled above the embryo and sealed.
• Before use it is reconstituted and made available in liquid form.
Dose:
Single dose of 0.5ml is given S/C. Sometimes a booster dose is given before visit to countries where
yellow fever virus is present such as Africa, Syria.
Storage:
It is stored below 0 to maximum 5◦C.After 5◦C it becomes inactivated.
3.Rubeola/Measles and
Rubella/German Measles vaccine
➢ Measles is caused by two strains of virus.
➢ Rubeola strain causes measles and Rubella causes German measles.
➢ Both are two different diseases but have same symptoms.
➢ It is highly effective vaccine.
➢ It is considered as suspension of life.
Measles:
• Rubeola virus especially affect respiratory system.
• In severe case it can be life threatening.
• It results in red or reddish-brown rash.
Preparation:
• The vaccine is prepared by Enders strain and Shachwartz strain and the culture growth is carried
out on avion embryo or mammalian kidney. Usually chicken embryo is used for its preparation.
German measles:
• Rubella invades the lymph nodes, and eyes.
• It is benign or milder disease but pregnant women should be cautious.
• It results in red spots with white center known as Koplik spot in oral cavity.
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Preparation:
• The vaccine is prepared by CPV 77 viral strain and the culture growth is carried out on duck
embryo.
Contraindication:
• It is not given to pregnant woman, feeding woman and children below 1 year age.
Dose:
• Rubeola vaccine single dose of 0.5ml S/C over 1 year children.
• Rubella vaccine single dose of 0.5ml S/C to children 1 year to puberty.
Storage:
• Storage conditions for both vaccines is 2-8 ◦C.
Measles Mumps Rubeola (MMR) comes in common form and it is not trivalent.
4.Small pox vaccine

Small pox vaccine is the living virus of vaccinia that is prepared from skin of bovine calf or membrane of
chicken embryo.
Preparation:
From calf:
• A healthy calf is taken that is not diseased and its belly is washed and hair are removed.
• The belly is cut in such a way that the membrane serum comes out.
• The virus is inoculated and the skin is rubbed.
• When the maximum development of virus takes place, vesicles are formed.
• These vesicles are removed, triturated and suspended in glycerin or sorbitol 40%-60% (0.3%
phenol as preservative).
From chicken:
• Freshly incubated eggs are taken.

• Pox virus suspension is introduced into the egg yolk and then the eggs are incubated.
• When the maximum period of vaccine takes place then eggs are broken and are mixed with
water.
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Dose:
• 1 capillary tube is injected to the multiple puncture at human body at the age of 7 years.
Storage:
• Liquid form is stored below 0◦C.
• Dried form is stored at 2-8◦ .
5.Rabies vaccine
• It is virus killed vaccine and also known as human diploid cell rabies vaccine (HDCV).
• It is the sterile preparation of either the whole virion or sub-virion rabies virus.
• It is obtained from the brain of rabbit or from duck embryo.
• It is more effective as antibodies are produced at maximum 10th day because there is less
myelin sheath is eggs.
Forms:
• It is available in two forms
• Liquid form with 6 months expiry date.
• Dried form with 8 months expiry date.
Dose:
• 14 injections on consecutive basis are applied. Its action starts at minimum 10th days.
• The usual pre-exposure dose is 3 injections of 1ml.
Bacterial vaccines
It contains killed or attenuated strains of bacteria. Pathogenic bacteria grow in isotonic 0.9% NaCl
solution.Bacteria are killed by moist heat method and their pathogenicity is removed by radiations.
Bacterial smooth (S) strains are more endogenic than rough (R) strains.
The concentration or activity is measured in No. of micro-organisms/ml.
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Typhoid vaccine
Typhoid is caused by Salmonella typhi that grows in intestine. Typhoid fever is also known as enteric
fever that’s why the vaccine is also called enteric vaccine. The vaccine is prepared from the sterile
suspension of Salmonella typhi and is used for the production of active immunity.
Potency:
Its potency is 1 billion M.O/ml.
Dosage:
2 doses of 0.5ml 4 weeks apart and then 3rd dose of 0.5ml after every 3 years. Depending upon
condition the dosage schedule (not initial dose) can be changed.
Cholera vaccine
Cholera is caused by Vibrio cholera. Two strains of bacteria (Inaba and Ogawa) are used but Inaba strain
is used mostly.
Potency:
Its potency is 8 billion M.O/ml.
Dosage:
2 doses of 0.5ml 4 weeks apart and then 3rd dose after every 6 months.
Sometimes vaccine schedule is changed due to environmental conditions. The person is first examined
and then booster dose is given.
Storage:
It is stored at 2-8 oC no longer than 18 months.
Pertussis vaccine (whooping cough):

It is caused by Bordetella pertussis that cause secretion in trachea but not damage body organs. It is
generally used in combination with diphtheria and tetanus toxoid DTT or DTP.
Dosage:
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2 doses of 0.5ml 4 weeks apart and then 3rd dose after 1 year S/C.
Adsorbed pertussis vaccine contains Al hydroxide and Al phosphate while the concentration of Al is not
more than 850𝜇g/ml. It is given IM.
BCG vaccine:
It is the suspension of living cells of a strain Mycobacterium tuberculosis also known as bacillus of
Calmette and Gverin and protects against tuberculosis. The vaccine is also called TB vaccine (TB once
considered as life threatening). The vaccine is 70-80% effective against severe form of TB.
Dosage:
0.1ml I/C or 1 drop by multiple puncture method. It is given only if the Tuberculosis test is negative and
should be used 2 hours after reconstitution.
Storage:
It can be stored at 5◦C for 1 year.
Toxins
Definition:
Toxins are bacterial waste products that are considered poisonous to the animal body.
Types:
• Endotoxins:
If toxins are produced and retain within the bacterial body they are called endotoxins.
• Exotoxins:
If toxins are excreted from the bacterial cells producing them and are dissolved in surrounding
culture medium, they are called exotoxins. Exotoxins are pathogenic in nature and cause
diseases and vaccine production.
Preparation of exotoxin solution:

• To produce a solution of exotoxins commercially the highly virulent organisms are used.
• Bacteria are grown in beef broth media and then killed by appropriate means.
• The organisms are removed by filteration through a bacterial filter.
• This filtrate contains the toxins.
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Use of exotoxin solution:
Exotoxin solution can be used
• For diagnostic purpose:

• The unprocessed or pure form of exotoxin is used for the diagnostic purpose that either the
person is susceptible to certain disease or not.
For preparation of toxoids:

The unprocessed form is treated with 0.2% formaldehyde that reduces or eliminates the toxic properties
without affecting the antigenic properties. These products, detoxified in this manner are called fluid
toxoids and are used to induce artificial active immunity in susceptible individuals.
5 times of the toxoid is injected guinea pigs. The first 3 injections are at the intervals of 1-3 months while
the 4th is after 6-12 months. If the symptoms of toxicity appear then it is unprocessed. If no symptoms
of toxicity appear then it is processed. The toxoids alone and in combination with pertussis vaccine
should be stored at a temperature of between 2◦-8 ◦C for 2 years.
Adsorbed toxoid is prepared by precipitating or adsorbing the fluid toxoid with alum, aluminum
hydroxide or aluminum phosphate. Adsorbed toxoids result in a slower release of the antigen from the
site of injection. They are used to increase the potency. Both fluid and adsorbed toxoids are used to
produce active immunity against diphtheria and tetanus. They are used alone and in combination.
Toxoids produce active immunity as they produce antigens.
Tetanus toxoid (fluid)

It is the sterile preparation of Clostridium tetani. Pathogenicity is diminished by treating it with
formaldehyde. It is stored at 2-8 oC.Its expiry date is 2 years.
Usually 5 times of the dose (immunizing dose) is given to 4 guinea pigs individually having weight 300-
400g.If there is no symptoms of toxicity in 21 days then drug is toxoid.1/3rd of immunizing dose is
injected S/C to 10 guinea pigs and after it 6th week 10 folds of the minimum lethal dose is injected. If in
10 days there is 80% survival of pigs then toxoid has immunogenicity.
Dose:
For primary immunization 3 injections of 0.5ml given S/C or IM 4-8 weeks apart, and the 4th dose of
0.5ml given 6-12 months after the 3rd injection. A booster dose of 0.5ml is given every 10 years.
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Adsorbed tetanus toxoid: It is the sterile suspension of tetanus toxoid adsorbed in alum, aluminum
sulfate, aluminum hydroxide. It release the drug in low concentration thus cause active immunization
against tetanus.
Dose:
For primary immunization 2 injections of 0.5ml given IM 4-8 weeks apart, and the 3rd dose of 0.5ml
given 6-12 months later. Booster dose is same as tetanus toxoid(fluid).
Diphtheria tetanus toxoid (DTT)

It is the combination of diphtheria and tetanus toxoid. Diphtheria and tetanus toxoids are mixed in such
way that their ability to produce immunity remains intact.
Dose:
For primary immunization 3 injections of 0.5ml given S/C or IM 4-8 weeks apart, and the 4th dose of
0.5ml given 6-12 months after the 3rd injection. A booster dose of 0.5ml is given every 10 years.
Adsorbed diphtheria tetanus toxoid (suspension):
Equal quantity of diphtheria and tetanus toxoid is adsorbed in alum, aluminum sulfate and aluminum
hydroxide. It is available in two forms
For pediatric use (to children less than 6 years) :2 injections of 0.5ml given IM at intervals of 4-8 weeks.
A reinforce dose is given 6-12 months. Booster dose of 0.5ml at 5 years of age and then every 10 years
there-after.
For adult use It contains same amount of tetanus as in DTT but only 10-25% of the diphtheria toxoid as
in adults immunity is produced against diphtheria naturally. Aafaqi 16 Diphtheria tetanus toxoid and
pertussis vaccine (DTP): It is the mixture of diphtheria and tetanus toxoid in which killed pertussis bacilli
is added. It produces active immunity.
Dose:
For primary immunization 2 injections of 0.5ml given IM 4-8 weeks apart, and the 3rd dose of 0.5ml
given 6-12 months later.
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Adsorbed diphtheria tetanus toxoid and
pertussis vaccine
It produces active immunity in infants and children under 7 years of age against diphtheria, tetanus and
whooping cough.
Dose:
0.5ml dose at 4-8 weeks intervals IM at the age of 2-3 months with a reinforcing dose given 1 year after
the 3rd injection. Booster dose is 0.5ml when child is 4-6 years old.
Antitoxin:
An antitoxin is an antibody with the ability to neutralize a specific toxin.
Antitoxins are produced by certain animals, plants and bacteria in response to toxin exposure. Although
they are most effective in neutralizing toxins, they can also kill bacteria and other micro-organisms.
Preparation of antitoxin:
• Antitoxins are prepared from animals usually horses that have been immunized by repeated
injections of specific bacterial exotoxins.
• The toxin in constantly increasing doses induces the formation of antitoxin in the blood of the
injected animal.
• The first injection of toxin is injected to the animal.
• The second dose is injected after 1 month and the third is injected after 2 months of the second
dose.
• In this way maximum production of antitoxins take place.
• The animal is bled, the clot is permitted to form, and the clear serum is separated for
processing. Depending upon the manufacturer either two methods of processing is employed.
Precipitation method:
The method involves the series of precipitations using varying concentrations of ammonium sulfate.
During the process the euglobulin and fibrinogen fractions are initially salted out followed by the
pseudoglobulin fraction, which contains the antitoxin. The latter fraction is redissolved dialyzed and
filtered.
Pepsin method:
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The second method utilizes a pepsin solution to digest the plasma, thus removing up to 80% of protein,
however the loss of about 20% in antitoxin content occurs also. The digested material is then treated
with ammonium sulfate solution, redissolved, dialyzed and filtered.
Antitoxins are standardized in terms of “antitoxin units”. The antitoxin unit for diphtheria is 500
antitoxin unit/ml. Usually the expiry date is 5 years with 20% extra antitoxins.
Use of Antitoxins:
Antitoxins are used for
• Cure purpose (1000-8000 antitoxin units/ml)

• Pro-phylactic purpose (1000 antitoxin units/ml)
Tetanus antitoxin:
It is the sterile, non-pyrogenic solution of the refined and concentrated proteins, chiefly globulins,
containing antitoxic antibodies obtained from the blood serum or plasma of healthy horses that have
been immunized against tetanus toxin or toxoid. It has potency of not less than 400 antitoxin units/ml. It
should be stored at the temperature of 2-8 ◦C.
It is available in two forms
Liquid form 20% excess of potency with 5 years expiry date.
Lyophilized form 10% excess of potency with 5 years expiry date.
Use:
• Tetanus antitoxin is employed in the diagnostic purpose (40000- 100000 antitoxin units/ml).
• It is used in prophylaxis of tetanus (1500-5000 antitoxin units/ml) IM or S/C.
• Therapeutic dose is (50000-100000 antitoxin units/ml) IV.
Diphtheria antitoxin
• It is the sterile, non-pyrogenic solution of the refined and concentrated proteins, chiefly
globulins, containing antitoxin antibodies obtained from the blood serum or plasma of healthy
horses that have been immunized against diphtheria toxin or toxoid.
• It has the potency of not less than 500 antitoxin units/ml.
• It should be stored at the temperature of 2-8 ◦C.
• The expiry date is 5 years with a 20% excess of potency.
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Use:
Diphtheria antitoxin is a passive immunizing agent capable of inducing passive immunity against
diphtheria.
• The usual pro-phylactic dose is (1000-10000 antitoxin units/ml) IV or IM.

• The therapeutic dose is (20000-120000 antitoxin units/ml).
Botulism antitoxin
It is the sterile, non-pyrogenic solution of the refined and concentrated proteins, chiefly globulins,
containing antitoxin antibodies obtained from the blood serum or plasma of healthy horses that have
been immunized against the toxins produced by both type A and type B or type E strains of Clostridium
botulinum.
The antitoxin contains not more than 20% of solids and should be stored at the temperature of 2-8 ◦C.
The expiry date is 5 years.
Use:
It is classed as a passive immunizing agent to be used in treatment of botulism 20000 antitoxin units IV
repeated at 2-4 hours intervals.
Venoms
Definition:
“Venoms are poisonous excretions produced by animals usually by reptiles (snake, scorpion, spider). “
They can be compared with the toxic waste products (exotoxins) of bacteria. Venoms are mostly protein
in nature having enzymatic and non-enzymatic toxic effects. Chemical examination of the poisons of
toads have revealed that both skin and glandular secretions possess toxic substances called bufotoxins.
The chemical structure of bufotoxins are somewhat similar to those of the aglycones of the cardiac
glycosides; in fact the bufotoxins appear to have a similar pharmacologic effect.
Mostly venoms are obtained from snakes.
• Snake venins or venoms are obtained by holding a poisonous snake over a conical glass
container covered with a sheet of thin rubber.
• The snake strikes the rubber and penetrate it with its fangs, whereupon the semiliquid venom is
ejected into the container.
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Uses:
• Mixtures of venins from the poisonous snakes are prepared and used in the preparation of
polyvalent antivenins.
The life span of venom is 5 years.
Preparation of antivenins
Venoms are injected to horses for the production of antivenins.
In general, antivenins are prepared in the same manner as antitoxins. The specific venom is injected into
horses in gradually increasing doses until the blood titer reaches the desired strength. The animal is then
bled and the blood serum is subjected to the required processing.
Antivenin (Cortalidae) polyvalent:

It is the sterile, non-pyrogenic preparation derived by drying a frozen solution of specific venom-
neutralizing globulins obtained from the serum of healthy horses immunized against venoms of 4
species of pit vipers Crotalus atrox, C. adamanteus, C. terrifucus, Bothrops atrox.
It should be protected against exposure to excessive heat. The expiration date for antivenin polyvalent
with a 10% excess of potency is 5 years. It is the passive immunizing agent used for treating snakebite of
the species indicated. The preferred route of administration is intravenous infusion as a 1:1 to 1:10
dilution of antivenin in sodium chloride injection or 5% dextrose injection.
Antivenin (Micrurus fulvius):

It is the sterile, non-pyrogenic preparation derived by drying a frozen solution of specific venom-
neutralizing globulins obtained from the serum of healthy horses immunized against venom of Micrurus
fulvius.
Spider-bite antivenin:
Antivenin (Latrodectus mactans) or black widow spider antivenin is prepared from the serum obtained
from horses immunized against venom of black spider. It is given IM or IV over a 15 minutes period
when diluted in 10-50ml of saline solution.
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Antiserum
Definition:
“Antiserum is a specific biologic employed to provide a supply of ready-made antibodies to combat
diseases. ”
These are globulins that are gained from horses. The therapeutic effectiveness of antiserum is based on
their production of artificial passive immunity.
Preparation of antiserum
Antiserum are prepared in a manner similar to that for antitoxins and antivenins except that bacteria or
viruses are used to stimulate the production of specific antibodies like horses. Viral or bacterial cells
found in vaccines when introduced into the animal body in gradually increasing doses and are continued
until the proper antibody titer of the blood serum is achieved.
The destruction of the injected cells by phagocytes liberates antigenic materials with the subsequent
development of corresponding antibodies. Antiserum against rabies is an example of immunizing agent.
Anti-rabies serum
It is a sterile non-pyrogenic solution containing antiviral substances obtained from the blood serum or
plasma of healthy horses that has been immunized against rabies.
Use and dose:

• Injection of anti-rabies serum provides the patient with immediate protection against rabies.
• It is available in containers of 100 units.
• The usual single dose 1000 units/55 pounds of body weight is given IM.
Immune globulins:
Immune globulins are immunizing biologics that contain specific antibodies derived from the blood of
the humans who have been survived an attack of a specific disease or who have been immunized in
some other manner.
Immune globulins can be obtained from the plasma or serum pool of a large number of random donors
or from a limited number of individuals.
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1.Immune globulin/Immune
serum/Gamma globulin
It is the sterile non-pyrogenic solution of globulins and contains many antibodies normally present in
adult human blood. It has some prophylactic value in chicken pox, hepatitis A, rubella and other
diseases.
Use and dose:

It is a passive immunizing agent. It is also given to treat gamma globulin deficiency for prevention of
recurrent infection. The dose is based on body weight and varies with the intended use. The usual IM
dose is 0.2ml/kg for measles prophylaxis,0.02ml/kg for prophylaxis against hepatitis. It is injected IM in a
dose of 1.3ml/kg followed in 3 or 4 weeks by 0.66ml/kg to be given every 3-4 weeks.
Immune globulin intravenous provides immediate antibody levels and used in the treatment of
immunodeficiency syndrome. The usual dose is 100-200mg/kg.
2.Pertussis immune globulin

It is the sterile non-pyrogenic solution of globulins derived from the blood plasma of adult human
donors who have been immunized with pertussis vaccine.
Use and dose:

It is used in prophylaxis and treatment of pertussis. The usual IM dose is 1.25-2.5ml repeated in 1 or two
weeks as necessary. The therapeutic dose range is same.
3.Tetanus immune globulin

It is the sterile non-pyrogenic solution of globulins derived from the blood plasma of adult human
donors who have been immunized with tetanus toxoid. It is especially useful for passive immunization
against tetanus in an individual with wounds that may have been contaminated with tetanus micro-
organisms.
Use and dose:

It is used in prophylaxis and treatment of tetanus. The usual IM prophylactic dose is 250 units as a single
injection. The therapeutic dose range is 3000-6000 units.
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4.Rabies immune globulin
It is the sterile non-pyrogenic solution of anti-rabies gamma globulin concentrated by cold alcohol
fractionation from plasma of donors hyperimmunized with rabies vaccine.
Use and dose:

It is recommended that rabies immune globulin be used in combination with rabies vaccine as the best
postexposure prophylaxis. The usual dose is a single administration of 0.133ml/kg of body weight.
5.Hepatitis B immune globulin

It is the sterile non-pyrogenic solution of immunoglobulin prepared from pooled plasma obtained from
donors with high titer of antibody to hepatitis B surface antigen.
Use and dose:

It is used in prophylaxis postexposure following accidental exposure to hepatitis B surface antigen.
Injection should be given IM not later than 7 days after exposure and the recommended dose is
0.06ml/kg of body weight repeated 28-30 days after the first dose.
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UNIT : 7
SURGICAL DRESSINGS
Introduction:
• Fibers and the surgical dressings made from them are of immense value in medical and
pharmaceutical practices.
• Dressings are compulsorily needed for proper management and subsequent healing of wounds
caused by injuries, burns, microbial infections and surgical operations.
• They are used to provide ample protection to the exposed tissues against microbial infections
and other natural hazards.
• The surgical dressings not only aid the healing process but also help stop further tissue damage.
• The sources of wound management largely depends on the type and quality of the
• dressings used, to be able to choose the right kind of the surgical dressings one must be aware
of the types of available dressings, their qualities and usefulness.
• The quantity of a surgical dressing depends on the type of the fiber used to prepare the
dressing.
Importance in Pharmacy:
Surgical dressings and sutures are composed of fibres. A solid characterized by:
• Flexibility
• Fineness
• High ratio of length: thickness
• length at least 1000 times their breadth
That is important to:
• Forensic science
• Pharmacy
• For quality control
• To determine price v quality for bulk purchasing
This can be identifying by:
• Macroscopical examination
• Chemical tests
• Performed on a microscope slide
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• Observed under the microscope
FIBERS
Definition:
• “Fibers are elongated, thick walled cells with pointed ends. The cell walls consist of cellulose and
may or may not contain lignin.”
Fibers are used for dressing purposes both in their normal forms and in woven or fabric forms. Fibers
that are useful in wound management and healing include both natural and artificial or synthetic fibers.
Sources of Natural Fibers:

Natural fibers are obtained from:
• Animals
• Minerals
• Plants
Sources of Artificial Fibers:

Fibers are also synthesized chemically from various materials. Fibers obtained from various sources are
categorized as follows.
A. Plant fibers (Banana)

• Epidermal trachoma (such as cotton)
• Fibrous tissues of plants, such as phloem fibers (e.g., jute)
• Pericyclic fibers (e.g., Flax and Hemp)
B. Animal Fibers
• Animal products such as wool and silk.
C. Regenerated or Synthetic Fibers e.g. Nylon, Terylene, Orlon

a. Fibers regenerated from carbohydrate material. E.g. Alginate yarn, artificial silk or rayon or
regenerated cellulose
b. Fibers regenerated from protein material. Such as Aridil from ground nut, proteins and fibrolin from
milk casein.
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c.Synthetic fibers . Such as Terylene, Nylon, Orlon
d. Mineral Fibers . E.g. Glass, Asbestos
Commercial Use of Fibers:

Commercially fibers are used in textile industry for weaving the cloths, as filtering medium and also for
isolation purpose.
Evaluation of Fibers in Surgical Dressings

Various tests can be applied for the identification of fibers. The microscopical examination is the main
criteria to confirm the identity of fibers.
Tests of Vegetable and Regenerated Carbohydrate Fibers:

• With Molisch’s reagent they produce violet colour
• On heating with aqueous picric acid solution they’re not stained permanently.
• With Chlor-zinc iodine or a mixture of iodine and sulphuric acid they yield blue colour
• On ignition as such or boiling with soda lime they do not produce foul smell
• Vegetable fibers are soluble in copper oxide ammonia solution (cuoxam) forming a blue colour
• On heating with Millon’s reagent they do not produce red colour.
Tests of Animal Fibers:

Animal fibers are regenerated proteinous compounds containing peptide linkage.
They show following tests.
• On ignition they produce disagreeable odour.

• They‟re dissolved in 5% aqueous potassium hydroxide solution.
• They respond positively with Millon‟s test.
• They are stained permanently with picric acid.
Tests for Synthetic or Mineral Fibers:

• Synthetic or mineral fibers give negative tests of vegetable and animal fibers.
• Glass fibers melt on heating and form beads.
• There is no effect of heat on asbestos fibers.
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Molisch’s Test:
• The test solution is combined with a small amount of Molisch's reagent (α-naphthol dissolved in
ethanol) in a test tube.
• After mixing, a small amount of concentrated sulfuric acid is slowly added down the sides of the
sloping test-tube, without mixing, to form a layer.
• A positive reaction is indicated by appearance of a purple ring at the interface between the acid
and test layers.
Millon’s Test:
• Millon's reagent is an analytical reagent used to detect the presence of soluble proteins.
• A few drops of the reagent are added to the test solution, which is then heated gently.
• A reddish-brown coloration or precipitate indicates the presence of tyrosine residue which
occurs in nearly all proteins.
• Millon's test is not specific for proteins (it detects phenolic compounds), and so must be
confirmed by other tests for proteins such as the biuret test and the ninhydrin reaction.
CATGUT
Source:
“Catgut is a sterilized fibre or strand prepared from collagen of connective tissues obtained from
healthy animals like sheep and cattle.”
Preparation:
• The submucosal layer of small intestine of a freshly killed animal is used for the preparation of
catgut.
• About 7.5 meter long intestine is cleaned and split longitudinally into ribbons.
• The inner most mucosa and two outer layers of submucosa, muscularis and serosal layers, are
removed with the help of a machine leaving behind the submucosa.
• Up to six such ribbons are stretched, spun and dried to form a uniform strand.
• These fibres are polished to get smooth strings, gauzed for their diameter, cut into suitable
lengths and sterilized by placing the catgut in glass tubes filled with anhydrous high-boiling
liquids like toluene or xylene and then heating in an autoclave.
• Sterilization may be done by irradiating the suture by electron particles or by gamma rays from
cobalt-60.
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Properties:
These fibres are not affected by proteolytic enzymes in the body and they are not absorbed rapidly in
the body.
Uses:
• Kangaroo tendons, used in hernia and bone repairs, are prepared from the tails of kangaroo by
the Identical method adopted for the preparation of catgut.
• Chromicized surgical catguts are prepared by soaking the ribbons in solutions of chromium salts
for tanning the tissues.
Cellulose:
Source:
Cellulose represents one of the most widely distributed and abundantly available organic matters on
this planet. It is in-fact, the most important structural element of higher-plant-cell walls. In nature, wood
(40-50% cellulose) caters as the major source of cellulose for industrial utilities, whereas cotton (98%
cellulose) provides the balance requirement globally.
Geographical Source:
It has been observed that nearly thirty billion MT of carbon is transformed annually into organic
compounds by higher plants and out of this approximately 1/3rd is converted into cellulose. As cellulose
is profusely utilized in the form of wood to build houses, paper industry and textile industry, a
considerable amount of research has been duly conducted on this well-known polysaccharide.
Preparation:
• The scientific and large-scale methods for preparing cellulose essentially involvesthe removal of
excess of the non-cellulose substances e.g. Lignin.
• In fact, there are three well defined and established procedures whereby the undesired „lignin
content‟ present in wood shavings are removed exhaustively, namely:
(a) Treatment with Sodium Bisulphite [Sulphonate Process]: The small wood chips are boiled with a
solution of sodium bisulphite whereupon the lignin is removed as lignosulphonate,
(b) Treatment with Sodium Hydroxide [Soda Process]: The wood chips on being boiled with sodium
hydroxide solution remove the lignin content as soluble products,
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(c) Treatment with NaOH and Na2SO4 [Sulphate Process]: The sodium sulphide (Na2S) obtained by the
interaction of NaOH and Na2SO4 will remove most of the lignin component from the wood shavings.
• However, the traces of lignin may be removed by bleaching with chlorine. The remaining
mixture of hemicellulose and cellulose are subsequently extracted by subjecting it to alkaline
treatment.
• The readily soluble hemicellulose is removed by treatment with higher concentration of NaOH
solution, whereas the cellusans (Xylans) may be removed by treatment with a 5% solution of
NaOH.
Description:
• Cellulose has molecular weights ranging from 250,000 to 1,000,000 or even more.
• It is assumed that at least 1500 glucose units may be present in each molecule.
• Based on the findings by X-ray analysis and electron microscopy it is revealed that these long
chains lie side by-side in bundles, held together by H-bonds available between the huge number
of adjoining –OH moieties.
• Further, these bundles are twisted together to give rise to rope-like structures, that ultimately
are clubbed together to yield the normal apparently visible fibers. Interestingly, in the case of
wood these cellulose “ropes” are meticulously embedded in lignin to afford a structure that
resembles to concrete reinforced structures used for making buildings.
• Cellulose is comprised of chains of D-glucose units, whereby each unit is joined by a glycosidic
linkage to C-4 of the next unit.
• Cellulose derived from various sources and also from different modes of preparations usually
display great differences not only in their mean chain length but also in their degree of
homogenity. Generally, the cellulose that are distinctly more homogenous are the most suitable
for industrial utilities.
Uses:
• The viscose when forced through a spinnerette into an acid-bath, it gives rise to the generation
of cellulose as fine filaments that yield threads of a substance termed as RAYON.
• Cellulose undergoes an analogous reaction to produce cellulose xanthate, that is made to
dissolve in alkali to yield a viscous colloidal dispersion known as VISCOSE.
• Methyl, ethyl and benzyl ethers of cellulose are proved to be important in the commercial
production of films, textiles and various types plastic materials.
Chemical Tests:
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• Oxidized cellulose doesn’t give tests for animal fibers and animal source haemostatic.
• On ignition it behaves like normal cotton.
• It is slowly soluble in 80% sulphuric acid.
• It reduces Fehling’s solution.
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Unit : 8
PESTICIDES
Introduction:
Pest control is a major problem in cultivation of plants throughout the world.
Pest:
“Any animal, insect or plant, fungi, algae, bacteria, virus or anything which damage the store grains,
food stuff, cultivated crops, plants and medicinal plant is called pest.”
Pesticide:
“A pesticide is any toxic substance used to kill animal or plants that cause economic damage to crop or
ornamental plants or are hazardous to the health of domestic animals or humans.”
OR According to EPA ;
“The substances or mixtures of substances intended for preventing, destroying, repelling or mitigating
any pest is called as pesticide.”
Properties of Pesticides:
Pesticides produce their effect by inhibiting or destroying the metabolic processes of animals.
All pesticides have their own: Mechanism of action ,Potency, Speed of effect (onset of action), Dose
required to produce effect.
History:
• History records many examples of plagues and efforts to control pests
• 1000 BC China Sulfur used as a fumigant to kill bacteria and fungus
• Sulfur is widely used today, e.g. protecting wine barrels and in wine
• 1690 –Nicotine -water extracted from tobacco leaves sprayed on plants as insecticide
• 1700’s –Strychnine –extracted from plant used to kill rodents
• 1800’s –Arsenic trioxide –weed killer
• 1800’s –Rotenone –extracted from plants as insecticide
• 1800’s –Pyrethrum –extracted from chrysanthemum as insecticide
• 1900’s –lead arsenate –orchard insecticide
• 1962 –“Silent Spring” by Rachel Carson exposed the hazards of DDT
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Types of Pest:
Animal Pests:
• Rodents are responsible for damaging and destroying medicinal and agricultural crops.
• They spoil and contaminate the crude drugs in storage.
• The spoilage makes crude drugs unsuitable for use in pharmaceutical industry.
• The spoilage and contamination is done by: Excretory products , Hairs
• Rodents responsible for damage may be: Rabbits , Rats , Mice
Insects:
• More than 1M species of insects are present in this world.
• Out of these, 10K species are responsible for crop eating.
• Out of 10K, only 700 species can cause epidemic loss to medicinal plants and crops.
• Insects are divided into two groups: Biting Insects: Grass hopper, corn ear worm. They bite
seeds, stem, fruit and leaves etc. Sucking Insects: Suck instead of biting and examples include
mosquito and butterflies .
Plant Pests:
• Microorganisms e.g. Bacteria, Fungi and Viruses , Bacteria (Xanthomonas causing leave spots)
and Fungi (spores when come in contact cause rhinitis and if inhaled cause asthma and hay
fever)
• Weeds
Weeds:
• Undesirable plants in desirable or cultivated plants.
• Such plants consume minerals; water and fertilizer given to cultivated plants hence inhibit their
growth.
• Weeds may also be toxic for example spores of Agrostemma githago contain cyanophore
glycoside and which upon hydrolysis release HCN.
Pesticide Grouping:
Pesticides are grouped into 4 groups:
• Rodenticides- against rodents (rabbit, rat, mice)
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• Insecticides- against insects
• Herbicides-against weed and herbs
• Fungicides-against fungus
Mechanism of Action:
• Pesticides kill the pests in many ways. Each pesticide has its own mechanism of action, onset of
action, potency and dose required.
• Usually they perform their function by one of the following ways:
When ingested kill the pest also called stomach poison .
When come in contact kill the pest also called contact poisons.
When inhaled also called fumigants.
Essentials of good Pesticides:

For an agent to be a good and ideal pesticide, it should bear certain important characteristics as given
below.
• A pesticide should have a high margin of safety for plants and animal causing very little or no
damage to the foliage or livestock, respectively.
• It should be safer.
• It should be easier to handle and easy for application.
• It should not show toxicity in case of warm blooded animals.
• It should not have flammable or explosive character.
• It should have safety and palatability of the food products exposed to insecticides and should
not show the residual effects of pesticides.
• It should be available easily at affordable cost.
Pesticide Route of Entry:

• Dermal (skin) – Most common
• Oral
• Ocular
• Respiratory
Methods of Pest Control:

➢ Mechanical method of pest control
➢ Biological method of pest control
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➢ Environmental method of pest control
➢ Agricultural method of pest control
➢ Chemical method of pest control
Mechanical Method of Pest Control:

Mechanical weed control is any physical activity that inhibits unwanted plant growth. Mechanical, or
manual, weed control techniques manage weed populations through physical methods that remove,
injure, kill, or make the growing conditions unfavorable.
Mechanical methods include:
• Hand Picking
• Burning
• Trapping
• Pruning
Hand Picking:
• Large caterpillars e.g. a large, green tomato hornworm larva can be located rapidly and removed
by hand.
• Weeds are removed by hand picking.
Pruning:
• Tent caterpillars gather on branches of trees and shrubs, by pruning or cutting out such
branches of trees is an effective measure.
• If the insect’s tent is located near the trunk where the cutting is difficult, then this part is burnt
by a torch or burning oil soaked rags at the end of a long pole.
Burning:
• Burning helps in destruction of both animal and plant pests removed by handpicking and
pruning.
Trapping:
• Special traps are used to catch larger field insects, rats and mice.
• Electrified screens specially colored lights and other devices are also employed for controlling
insects.
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Biological Method of Pest Control:
Some animal or insects feed upon smaller forms which destroy the plants while some insects have a
short life cycle which parasitizes larger insects. For example:
• Rabbits are helpful in destroying certain type of weeds.

• Cats, owls are enemies of mice and rats
• Certain flies and wasps lay eggs on the body of large destructive insects like slow moving larvae.
The eggs of the parasitic insects hatch rapidly into smaller larvae which consume the body
tissues of the larger species. Ultimately the larger forms die and the parasitized organism is
developed into cocoon stage. It is emerged as adult fly and begins the cycle once again.
• Animals and insects which feed upon small forms: The insects which are used to control
agriculture pest in this manner are called Entomophagous e.g. red squill (rat poison)
administration cause vomiting in dogs so they are unaffected. Red squill administration can not
cause vomiting in rodents so they are died.
• Insects with short life cycle and parasitize larger insects: By taking advantage of natural
phenomenon of life cycle, agricultural experts have been able to control certain damaging
insects.
Chemical Method of Pest Control:

Method:
This method utilizes chemicals to control the pest. According to the type of pest chemical will be
classified:
• Rodenticides
• Insecticides
• Herbicide
• Fungicides
• Repellents
A.Rodenticides
RODENTS:
• Rodents are mammals like rats, mice, cats, dogs, monkeys etc.
• Rodents have been used as food, as pets and as laboratory animals in research.
• Some species, in particular the brown rat, the black rat, and the house mouse are serious pests,
eating and spoiling food stored by humans, and spreading diseases.
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• Accidentally introduced species of rodents are often considered to be invasive, as they
sometimes threaten the survival of native species.
PROPERTIES OF RODENTICIDES:
• Rodenticides are chemicals which are used to kill the rodents.
• Rodenticides are incorporated into the feeding stuff of the rodents.
• But these must be : Sufficiently toxic to kill the rodent and Acceptable to the rodents to be
ingested in lethal quantities to kill the rodent .
EXAMPLE OF RODENTICIDES:
• Norbormide
• Warfarin
• Squill
• Nux vomica seeds
1.Norbormide:
• NRB is specifically toxic to rats, but it's relatively harmless to other rodents and mammals.
• Norbormide is a toxic compound used as a rodenticide.
DOSE: 0.5% is sufficiently toxic to induce death.
MECHANISM OF ACTION: Death occurs due to respiratory failure.
2. Warfarin:
• It is an anticoagulant chemical.
• It is tasteless
• It is mainly used in warehouses.
MECHANISM: Death occurs due to hemorrhage after the animals have ingested four to five daily
doses.
DOSE: 1mg/kg body weight of pesticide
CHEMICAL PRODUCTS:
• Sodium flouracetate
• Thallium sulphate
• Zinc phosphide
• Arsenic trioxide
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• Barium carbonate
THALLIUM:
• It was being used as rodenticide but toxic so the use is much limitized due to its toxicity.
• Reported toxicity is neuropathy and hair loss.
BARIUM CONTAINING RODENTICIDES:
• Chemical substances that contain barium are used as rodenticides.

• Toxicity is hypokalemia associated with abdominal pain, nausea and diarrhea.
NATURAL PLANT PRODUCTS:
Two varieties of Squill are used as rodenticide.
1.Red Squill:
• It has reddish brown outer scale

• It contains cardio-active glycosides.
• Rodents ingest the product and because they are incapable of vomiting, develop glycoside
intoxication and pulmonary edema.
• Because humans are capable of vomiting, red squill was considered harmless, even to children.
2.White Squill
3. Squill:
BIOLOGICAL ORIGIN: Urginea maritima
FAMILY: Liliaceae
PART USED: Dried inner fleshy scales of bulb
TOXIC PRINCIPLE: Scilliroside
MECHANISM OF ACTION: Respiratory failure and convulsions
CAUTION: Very irritant to human skin
ADVANTAGE:
• Safe for mammals and domestic animals

• Cause instant vomiting
• Specific for rodents
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4. Nux vomica Seeds:
Biological Origin: Strychnos nux-vomica
FAMILY: Loganiaceae
Part Used: Dried Ripe Seeds
Synonyms: Dog button, Kuchla, Vomit nut
Chemical Constiteunts:
• Strychnine
• Isostrychnine
• Pseudo-strychnine
• N-oxystrychnine
• Brucine
• Loganin (A glycoside)
• α-colubrine
• β-colubrine
• Fatty matter
• Chlorogenic acid
TOXIC PRINCIPLE: Strychnine
MECHANISM: Increases the reflex irritability of spinal cord and cause convulsions.
B.Insecticides:
• Toxic chemicals used to kill insects are called insecticides.
• Insecticides are classified according to the life cycle of insects which they affect.
Nomenclature:
Insecticides are classified based on:
• Specific species
• The stage in the life cycle
Stages in the Life Cycle of Insect:
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• Ovicides (Against the egg stage)
• Larvicides (Against the larvae)
• Muscicides (Against the house fly)
• Pediculicides (Against the body louse)
• Scabicides (Against the scabies mite)
Examples of Natural Insecticides:

The important natural plant insecticides are white hellebore, sabadilla. rotenoids, rotenone, cinerins,
pyrethrins, phyrethrum flowers, nicotine and its salts and powdered tobacco leaves.
Examples of Synthetic Insecticides:

The examples of synthetic insecticides are DDT, methoxychlor, TDE, benzene hexachloride and its
Isomer, lindane, chlordane, aldrin, dieldrin, heptachlor, toxaphene, the organic phosphorus insecticides
such as parathion, malathion, and fluorophosphates and the organic nitrogen compounds.
Types of Insecticides:
• Stomach poison
• Contact poison
• Repellents
1.STOMACH POISONS:
• These are used for insects having biting or chewing mouth parts.
• Stomach poisons are applied in the form of solutions or suspensions which are sprayed on the
crops.
• A thin layer of poisons remain on the surface of leaves or other plant parts. So poison is also
ingested along with the plant parts, which is absorbed from the stomach and lead to the death
of the insect due to: Respiratory failure and Nervous system depression
METHOD:
Substance is sprinkled over the plants. The resinous material gets attached to various plant parts. When
biting insects eat the plant, toxic material is also taken in. After ingestion, respiratory failure leads to
death.
MAIN STOMACH POISONS:

• Acid lead arsenate (for growing plants)
• Basic lead arsenate (for growing plants)
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• Calcium arsenate (For tomatoes, potatoes and cotton)
• Sodium fluoride
• Thallium sulphate
• Phosphorous compounds (octamethyl pyrophosphoimide, phosphorous is absorbed from root
and make the plant resistant to pest attack).
2.CONTACT POISONS:
• These poisons kill the pest when come in contact with pest.
• These poisons penetrate through the skin or cuticle and cause death of the pest.
• Contact poisons are effective against sucking insects and are used in the form of residual sprays,
dust, aerosols.
Types:
There are two types of Contact Poisons:
• Natural contact poisons: include Tobacco leaves, pyrethrum flower, and derris root.
• Synthetic contact poisons: include Organic sulphur compounds, Halogenated organic compounds,
Organic compounds.
NATURAL CONTACT INSECTICIDES
1.Tobacco Leaves
Synonyms: Tobacco, Tambaku
Biological Origin: Nicotiana tabacum
Family: Solanaceae
Part Used: Cured and dried leaves
Habit: Annual herb
GEOGRAPHICAL SOURCE:
• Tobacco is indigenous to tropical America.

• It is cultivated on large scale in China, United States and India.
• It is also produced in Brazil, Turkey, Russia and Italy
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Constiteunts:
• A lesser amount of nornicotine and an aromatic compound, nicotianin or tobacco comphor are
also present in the herb.
• The charactersitic flavour is due to the nicotianin which is formed during the curing of the
leaves.
• The roots of N. tabacum contain about eight pyridine alkaloids, including nicotine, nornicotine,
anabasine and anatabine.
EARLY HSTORY:
• As early as 1763 nicotine, in the form of tea prepared from tobacco, was used as insecticide for
the destruction of aphids.
• Drying process is done by curing. By curing a new compound is formed called tobacco camphor,
which is responsible for odor of tobacco
• Some of nicotine is also converted to tobacco camphor by enzymatic action.
• Tobacco for smoking, chewing and snuffing is prepared by curing process from Virginian tobacco
such as N. tobaccum and Turkish tobacco such as N. rustica. (Solanaceae).
CULTIVATION, COLLECTION AND PREPARATION:
• Although tobacco is tropical in origin and thrives best in the warm climate, it is grown under
wide range of conditions.
• Tobacco is an annual crop attaining 1–3 m height. It tears about 20 large leaves.
• Tobacco is generally propagated by seeds. Seedlings are developed in the seedbeds during early
spring and the seedlings of about 12 weeks are transplanted in the field.
• Cutting of the flowering tops encourages the growth of the foliage. The crop is harvested after
about three to three–and-a-half months.
• Tobacco is subjected to curing by any of the three procedures, namely flue curing, fire curing
and air curing, which modifies the aroma and flavour characteristics of tobacco.
• Loss of nicotine during flue-curing is negligible but sun-curing causes considerable loss of
nicotine content.
PROPERTIES OF NICOTINE:
• Oily, volatile liquid

• Colorless to yellow in color
• Brown on exposure to air
• Acrid taste
• Completely soluble in chloroform, alcohol and ether
• Pyridine like flavor
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• Soluble in non-polar solvents like chloroform, alcohol, ether and CCl4
• Miscible with water
• Very toxic
• It is present in plat as: 18% stem, 64% leaves, 13% root and 5% flower
• Seeds don’t contain nicotine
• It cause death by convulsions
• Effective against soft pests
• Most of the tobacco waste materials obtained from the tobacco industry are used as the
potential source of raw material for production of commercial grade insecticidal nicotine.
• Nicotine is isolated by mixing tobacco waste with lime and extracting with water. Aqueous
extract is further extracted with kerosene and the subsequent kerosene extract is treated with
sulphuric acid to obtain nicotine sulphate solution from which it is separated.
ADVANTAGE:
• One of the advantages of the insecticidal use of nicotine is its high margin of safety for plants.
• Nicotine preparations are safer, easier to handle and much less toxic to warmblooded animals.
• Due to the volatile nature of nicotine, it disappears quickly leaving no residue on treated plants.
• The above properties make nicotine preparation a very ideal insecticide.
TOXIC EFFECTS:
• Local irritant
• Paralyzent
Uses:
• Nicotine is used as insecticide and fumigant. As a contact poison, it is most effective as soap, i.e.,
as the laurate, oleate, or naphthenate.
• As a stomach poison a combination with bentonite has come Into use.
• Nicotine sulphate in a 40% solution (Black leaf 40) Is quite toxic to aphids; if the solution is
alkalised, the toxicity is increased.
• Soap solution decomposes the sulphate to the free alkaloid which is considerably more
poisonous to the insects.
• Nicotine is highly toxic.
• The symptoms include extreme nausea, vomiting, evacuation of bowel and bladder, mental
confusion, twitching and convulsions.
• The base Is readily absorbed through mucous membranes and intact skin, but the salts are not.
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2.Pyrethrum Flower (Insect Flowers)
Biological Origin: Chrysanthemum cinerariaefolium
Famliy: Compositae (Asteraceae)
Part Used: Dried flower heads
Habit: Perennial Herb
Habitat: Cultivated in Yugoslavia, Brazil, Africa etc
Chemical Constiteunts: Pyrethrins (0.5%) (Pyrethrin-I, Pyrethrin-II) and Chrysanthine.
Collection:
• Flowers are collected from 2-6 years old plant.
• Flowers are carefully dried and preserved.
• Drying is done by sunlight.
• The most active form of insecticide is prepared from expanded flowers.
Pyrethrins:
• The Pyrethrins are a class of organic compounds normally derived from Chrysanthemum
cinerariifolium that have potent insecticidal activity by targeting the nervous systems of insects.
• Pyrethrin is synthetically made by industrial methods, but it also naturally occurs in
chrysanthemum flowers, thus is often considered an organic insecticide, or at least when is not
combined with piperonyl butoxide or other synthetic adjuvant.
• Pyrethrins are gradually replacing organophosphates and organochlorides as the pesticides of

choice, since these other compounds have been shown to have significant and persistent toxic
effects to humans.
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• Pyrethrins are now widely regarded as being preferable to pyrethroids, which is the name of a
group of synthetic analogues of pyrethrin. Pyrethrins are considered to be low-toxicity
pesticides from a human health standpoint.
Uses:
• Insect flowers are a contact poison for insects.

• It is used in the form of powders or sprays.
• Pyrethrin provide quick knock down of flying insects.
Adverse Effects:
• It can cause severe allergic dermatitis and systemic allergic reactions.

• Large amounts may cause nausea, vomiting, tinnitus, headaches and other CNS disturbances
3. Derris Root (Poison Vine / Tauba Root)

Biological Origin: Derris elliptica
Family: Fabaceae
Part Used: Dried roots
Habitat: Cultivated in Philipines, Malaysia, Indonesia and Burma.
Chemical Constiteunt: Rotenone
Characterictics:
• Derris roots are slender pieces of about 2-m long with a diameter of about 8–10 mm.
• It shows the fine longitudinal furrows on the outer surface of roots.
• It is flexible, tough and hard and breaks in the fibrous fracture.
• It shows slightly aromatic odour and bitter and numbing taste.
• The transversely cut surface of roots shows thick cork followed by rings of sclerenchyma
containing strands of phloem.
Uses:
• Insecticide
• Widely used in agriculture
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• Chewing insects
• Sucking insects
• No side effects on crops and garden plants
• Soluble in non-polar solvents
• Insoluble in water
• Used for both biting and sucking insects
• It leaves no harmful residues
4. Lonchocarpus Roots
Synonms: Lonchocarpus roots, Cube roots, Timbo, Barbasco.
Biological Origin: Lonchocarpus consists of the dried roots of Lonchocarpus utilis, L. urucu and other
species of Lonchocarpus
Family: Leguminoseae.
Geographical Sorce: Lonchocarpus is indigenous to Peru and Brazil. It is also produced in British and
Dutch Guiana.
Characteristics:
• Lonchocarpus roots usually occur in pieces to 30-cm long and 12–25 mm in diameter.
• Outer surface is brownish-gray with longitudinal reticulated wrinkles.
• Microscopically it resembles Derris but may be distinguished by the abundant starch grains,
comparatively larger and lignified xylem.
• The freshly cut transverse surface of lonchocarpus roots appear grayish-green under UV light,
and its ethereal extract shows bright blue fluorescence.
Constiteunts: 3–10 % rotenone.
Uses: Lonchocarpus roots owe its action to the presence of constituents similar to those of Derris and
are used for the same-purpose.
5.Neem
Synonyms: Neem, Margosa, Azadirachta
Biological Source: Azadirachta indica also, known as Melia azadirachta
Part Used: dried stem bark, root bark, leaves and fruits.
Family: Meliaceae
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• Neem is native of the arid region of India and Pakistan.
• Neem is found abundantly in India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Malaysia, and
Mauritius, countries of East and South Africa and in tropical Australia
Characteristics:
• Neem is large subtropical shade tree. It is known for centuries as being free of insects, disease
and nematodes.
• All the parts of the tree, such as bark, leaves, fruits and especially the seeds are resistant.
• The bark is grey to reddish brown with numerous furrows.
• Leaves are imparipinnate, alternate or opposite and bluntly serrate. Flowers are white to pale
yellow which gives green drupacious fruits turning yellow on ripening. Fruit contains single
exalburainous seed.
• Neem oil or margosa oil is a fixed oil expressed from seed kernels.
• It gives about 10% of the oil which is yellow in colour with garlic-like odour and bitter taste. It is
soluble in organic solvents and practically insoluble in alcohol and water.
• The cake left after the expression of oil is used as such. It may be subjected to alcoholic
extraction to yield neem cake extract.
Constiteunts: The complex tetranorterpenoid lactones azadirachtin (Most Active), Nimbin, nimbidin,
salanin and nimbolin B.
Uses:
• The pest control usage of neem and neem products can be properly exploited depending upon
the nature of the pest.
• Neem seeds can be directly extracted to yield neem seed extracts.
• The oil expressed from the seed is known as neem oil, while the residual marc is called as neem
cake which may be extracted using alcohol to obtain neem cake extractives.
• Neem oil extractive is a resinous dark byproduct of neem oil refining. It is well known that neem
possesses low- to medium-contact toxicity which is restricted to soft body insects, and its use as
an insecticide alone does not carry much conviction with the user.
Synthetic Organuc Insecticides

The synthetic organic insecticides are classified into three major groups:
➢ Organic sulphur/Sulphur compounds
➢ Chlorinated hydrocarbon
➢ Organophsophorus derivatives
1.Sulphur Compounds:
Sulphur is the traditional and ancient remedy for scabies.
For Example:
• Carbamates
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• Thiuram derivatives
• Mercaptens
• Thiazines
• Organic thiocyanates
2.Chlorinated Hydrocarbons:
• These are Synthetic contact poison for example:
• Dicophane/ (D.D.T) or Dichlorodiphenyl trichloroethane
• Gamma benzene hexachloride
Uses:
• DDT is used for the eradication of head lice,and gamma benzene hexachloride is used to treat
scabies and it also destroy head lice.
3.Organophosphorus Deriviatives:
These are used as contact and systemic poisons for example:
• TEPP (Tetraethylpyrophosphate)
• Parathion
• Chlorthion
Other Insecticides:
1.Cevadilla Seeds
Botanical Origin: Schoenocaulon officinale
Family: Liliaceae
Constiteunts: Cevadine and Veratridine.
Uses: Dust spray of this plant is used to control thrips and bugs that attack on vegetables.
2. Ryania
Botanical Origin: Ryania speciosa
Family: Flacourtiaceae
Principle Alkaloid: Ryanodine
Use: It is used to kill larvae which attack fruits.
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3. REPELLENTS
These are used to protect the attack of insects.
These are used in the form of sprays and aerosols.
For example:
• Citronella oil was used as repellents
• Dimethyl phthalate is used topically on skin
• Diethyl toluamide is effective against mosquito
C.Herbicides
These chemicals are used to destroy/kill the weeds (undesirable plants which grow among the cultivated
crops/medicinal plants).
Classification on the basis of Selectivity:
➢ Selective herbicides
➢ Non-selective herbicides
Selective Herbicides: They selectively eliminate the weeds and have little or no effect on the
cultivated plants.
For example:
• 2, 4 D (2,4-Dichloro phenoxy acetic acid)
• 2, 4, 5 D (2,4,5-Trichloro phenoxy acetic acid)
Non-Selective Herbicides: These are equally toxic for weeds and cultivated plants.
For examples:
• Sodium cyanide
• Potassium cyanide
• Ammonium thiocyanide
Classification on the basis of mode of action:
• Contact - When the chemicals kill the plants by coming in contact with them they are called
contact herbicides.
• Translocated -The systemic or translocated herbicides are chemicals that kill the plants after
their absorption by accelerating or retarding the metabolic activities of plants.
Classification on the basis of time of application:
• Pre-plant herbicides -Are applied on the field before planting the crop.
• Pre-plant emergence herbicides - Are applied before emergence of weeds.
• Past-emergence herbicides - Are applied after the emergence of weeds.
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Use of Herbicides:
• Herbicides used to clear waste ground are nonselective and kill all plant material with which
they come into contact.
• Some plants produce natural herbicides, such as the genus Juglans (walnuts).
• Herbicides are widely used in agriculture and in landscape turf management.
• They are applied in total vegetation control (TVC) programs for maintenance of highways and
railroads.
• Smaller quantities are used in forestry, pasture systems, and management of areas set aside as
wildlife habitat.
• Herbicides have been alleged to cause a variety of health effects ranging from skin rashes to
death.
• The pathway of attack can arise from improper applicatrion resulting in direct contact with field
workers, inhalation of aerial sprays, food consumption and from contact with residual soil
contamination.
• Herbicides can also be transported via surface runoff to contaminate distant surface waters and
hence another pathway of ingestion through extraction of those surface waters for drinking.
• Some herbicides decompose rapidly in soils and other types have more persistent characteristics
with longer environmental half-lives.
D.Fungicides
Fungicides are biocidal chemical compounds or biological organisms used to kill or inhibit fungi or fungal
spores. Fungi can cause serious damage in agriculture, resulting in critical losses of yield, quality, and
profit.
Fungicides are used both in agriculture and to fight fungal infections in animals.
Types:
There are two Types:
• Protectant fungicides
• Eradicant fungicides
1.Protectant Fungicides:
• These fungicides are used before the attack of fungus.

• Used in the form of sprays.
• Seed fungicides are used to eliminate the spores which germinate along with seeds.
• Fungicides are sprayed on wood to protect against the attack.
• Bordeaux mixture (Copper sulphate, Water, lime) as a fungicide.
• It is used in vineyards, fruit-farms and gardens to prevent infestations fungi.
• Other examples are: Copper sulphate, Copper carbonate, Mercury compound
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2.Eradicant fungicides:
These are used after the attack of fungi.
For example:
• Lime sulphur mixture
• Formaldehyde 40%
• Quaternary ammonium compounds
• Chlorophenol
Environmental Method of Pest Control

Change of the surrounding environment
• Interfere with supply of food
• Interfere with the life cycle of the pest
• E.g. removal of water or shorten the water supply for mosquito life.
Agricultural Method of Pest Control

This method includes following measures:
1.Development of Pest Resistance Crops:

• Involves cultivation of such crops which are resistant to pests.
• It may be achieved using biotechnology and genetic engineering.
2.Crop Rotation:
If the chief source of food of particular insect is withdrawn for one or more seasons, it will lead to
elimination of insects.
3. Deep Ploughing:
Deep ploughing will unearth the “GRUB” (state of larvae) and provides destruction of insects.
4.Genetic Control:
• Plants or animals are bred to be resistant to the attack of pests.
➢ Chemical barriers.
➢ Physical barriers.
• Introduction of genes into crops from other species: transgenic crops (Bt)
• Sterile males are released into pest population.
Human Health Effects:
• Acute: high dose, short-term response, rapid onset (headache, nausea, vomiting, respiratory
failure, death). Agricultural workers suffer acute poisoning during pesticide application.
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• Chronic: low-dose, long-term exposure, outcome takes many years before noticed (cancer,
dermatitis, neurological disorder, birth defects, sterility, endocrine system disruption, immune
system depression). Neighborhoods downwind of agricultural use; farm families; the innocent.
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UNIT : 9
GROWTH REGULATORS
Plant Growth Regulators

Plant growth regulators affect the morphological and physiological processes of plants in low
concentrations.These are organic compounds which modify the plant growth. Some growth regulators
occur naturally, e.g. plant hormones (auxins, gibberellins, zeatin); some of them are synthetic
compounds, e.g. kinetin, adenin and ethylene etc.
Five well known plant hormones are the auxins, gibberellins, cytokinins, abscisic acid and its derivatives
and ethylene. They are specific In their action and show effects in very low concentration. They take part
in cell division, organogenesis, senescence and dormancy. Their treatment influences the size of the
plant, effects earlier growth and root development, improves the level of proteins and amino acids, and
enhances the production of secondary metabolites.
Major Role of Growth Regulators:

1.Abscission:
• Process by which a plant drops one or more of its parts, such as a leaf, fruit, flower or seed.
2.Ripening:
• Process in fruits causes them to become more palatable .
• A fruit becomes sweeter, less green, and softer as it ripens.
• Fruit set , Leaf expansion [ethylene] , Plant senescence .
3.Dormancy:
• Period of arrested plant growth.
• A survival strategy exhibited by many plant species, which enables them to survive in
unfavourable climates.
• Chemical treatment on dormant plants has been proven to an effective method to break
dormancy, particularly in woody plants such as grapes, berries, apples, peaches and kiwis.
• Specifically, hydrogen cyanamide stimulates cell division and growth in dormant plants:
• Fruit abscission and Fruit ripening .
4.Plant senescence:
• Study of aging in plants
• Plants also seem to have both unintended and programmed aging (influenced by plant
hormones)
• Leaf senescence is the cause of autumn leaf colour in deciduous trees.
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• Cytokinins help to maintain the plant cell but when they are withdrawn or if the cell cannot
receive the cytokinin it may then undergo apoptosis or senescence.
• Root initiation , Seed germination and Stem elongation
Plant Growth Promotors

Auxins:
Auxins promote elongation of coleoptile tissues.
History:
• First plant hormones discovered.

• Charles Darwin – among the first scientists to pool in plant hormone research
• Salkowski (1885) discovered indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) in fermentation media
• In 1926, Fritz Went reported a plant growth substance.
• In 1954 a committee of plant physiologists was set up to characterize the group auxins.
Natural Auxins:
Indoleacetic acid (IAA) is the principal natural auxin which occurs in actively growing tissues.
Other similar natural compounds are indoleacetaldehyde, indoleacetonitrile and indolepyruvic acid.
All these compounds are derived from tryptophan in plants.
Synthetic Auxins:
The synthetic auxins include Indole-3-butyric acid, α-naphthyl acetic acid (NAA), naphthyl acetamide,
2.4-dichiorophenoxyacetic acid (2, 4-D), 5- carboxymethyl-N, N-dimethyl dithiocarbanate, etc.
Uses of Auxins:
• Auxins elongate cells to increase the length of a stem.
• Inhibit root growth and adventitious root production
• Produce fruits in the absence of pollination
• In low concentrations auxins accelerate the rooting of woody and herbaceous cuttings and in
high concentrations they act as selective herbicides or weed-killers.
• They influence the physical and chemical properties In leaf abscission and inhibition of lateral
buds.
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Effects of Auxins:
There are three major effects caused by auxins on the plant;
1.Apical Dominance:
Auxin causes the tip of the middle stem to grow at a faster rate. The phenomenon is known as apical
dominance. Apical dominance is why many conifers have a pyramid shape. It can be overcome by
cutting off the dominant or terminal stem, losing the source of auxin.
2.Phototropism:
Auxins are responsible for allowing a plant stem to grow toward the sun. The phenomenon is known as
phototropism. Sunlight slowly breaks down auxin; when the side not exposed to the sun grows faster
the stem bends towards the light.
3.Thigmotropism:
Auxins allow a plant to respond to the touch of a person or other object. The phenomenon is known as
thigmotropism. The repeated touch of an object causes less auxin to remain on that side of the stem.
When the auxin side starts to grow faster, the plant grows towards the object and ultimately wraps
around it.
Example:
• Touch me not is one of the good example of thigmotropism.
• Similarly the parasitic plants i.e. Venus fly trap, Sun dew and Pitcher plant rapidly response
when come in contact with organism by closing themselves.
• The creepers are mostly wraps around the object present under the action of auxins.
Role of IAA oxidase in Growth:
• In plants IAA oxidase controls the oxidative degradation of IAA. Orthodiphenols, e.g. caffeic and
chlorogenic acids, inhibit the action of the enzyme and stimulate the growth.
• Monophenols, e.g. p-coumaric acid, promote the action of IAA oxidase and inhibit the growth.
• α-Naphthyl acetic acid (NAA) is used for rooting of cuttings.
Applications of Auxins:
• IAA has been used for rooting of cuttings of Cinchona. Carica, Coffeo., Pinus and other species.
• Auxins in specific concentration destroy some species of plants leaving other unaffected.
• 2, 4- Dichlorophenoxyacetic acid is toxic to dicotyledenous plants like dandelion and plantain.
• Treatment of seedlings and young plants of Mentha pipenta with derivatives of NAA increases
yield up to 40% of oil which contains 4.5 - 9% more menthol than the control. 2, 4-D produces
abnormal and bizarre form of D. stramonium; an increase trichome production; and smooth
fruits as distinct from those with spines.
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Gibberellins
Commercially, they are used for promotion of vegetative and fruit growth, flower initiation, induction of
parthenocarpy and breaking dormancy.
Discovery:
Gibberellins (GA) are the tetracyclic endrogenous plant hormones and were originally discovered as the
phytotoxic metabolites of a rice pathogen, Gibberella fugikuroi.
Occurance:
• More than 40 gibberellins have been detected in plants and fungi.
• They are present in all plant organs.
• Many of their functional groups are attached on parent ring system.
• Gibberellin A was found to be a mixture of about 6 components, e.g. GA1 , GA2 GA3 (Gibberellic
acid), GA4 , GA7 and GA9.
Synthesis and Storage:

Gibberellins are synthesized in leaves and they usually accumulate in immature seeds and fruits.
Gibberellins occur in plants in deactivated forms.
Uses:
• Gibberellins promote rapid expansion of plant cells.
• Stimulate seed germination
• Breaking dormancy
• Induction of flowers
• Elongation of stem
• Increase in size of leaves
• Induction of parthenocarpic fruit leading to seedless fruit sets.
• The effects of gibberellins and auxins in cell division are almost similar.
Applications:
Application of GA shows various types of modifications in medicinal plants.
• Its spray on flowers of Humulus lupulus advances the maturity of the hops by 10 days.
• GA treatment on Mentha piperita has shown typical elongation of the internodes, changes in
leaf shapes, loss of ribs on the stem, variation in chlorophyll content, fewer glandular hairs and
decrease in the volatile oil yield up to 52.4 per cent.
• GA treatment on Chenopodium ambrosioides showed 33% increase in volatile oil.
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• GA increases the volatile oil content of Anethum graveolens up to 50% and of A. sowa up to 30
per cent.
• The hormone increases yield of Digitalis glycosides per shoot.
• In Hyoscyamus niger the hormone elongates the stem having narrow leaves, shows more rapid
onset of flowering and decreases of overall yield of alkaloids.
• Similar reduction of alkaloid contents of Datura species, Tobbaco, Duboisia species,
Catharanthus roseus, Rauwolfia serpentina and Thea sinensis has been observed.
• Application of GA decreases sennosides in Cassia angustfolia and glycoside rutin in buckwheat
plant.
• Gluconeogenic enzymes effects the action of gibberellic acid.
• The hormone induces the synthesis of α-amylase and other hydrolytic enzymes and Involves in
mobilizing seed storage reserves during germination.
Cytokinins
These are hormones that are mostly responsible for cell division and differentiation in plants.
They are produced in the root tips in seeds. They tend to travel up to the stem of growing plant.
Introduction:
• These are compounds with a structure resembling adenine which promote cell division and have
other similar functions to kinetin.
• Regulate the pattern and frequency of organ production as well as position and shape.
• These are hormones that are mostly responsible for cell division and differentiation.
• They are produced in the root tips in seeds.
• They tend to travel up the stem.
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History:
• The first cytokinin was isolated from herring sperm in 1955 by Miller and his associates.
• This compound was named kinetin because of its ability to promote cytokinesis (cell division).
• The first naturally occurring cytokinin was isolated from corn in 1961 by Miller and it was later
called zeatin.
Effects of Cytokinins:
Negative Geotropism:
They are majorly involved in the development of plant stem upward to sky. The phenomenon is called
Negative Geotropism.
Example:
In tissue culture, cell division or root growth can be encouraged by adjusting hormones in the agar. If
higher levels of auxins are given in the agar, roots are produced. If given higher levels of cytokinins are
provided then the shoots multiply.
Kinetin:
• First cytokinin identified
• Named because of the ability to promote cytokinesis (cell division)
• Natural compound but not made in plants, and is therefore usually considered a ‘synthetic’
cytokinin.
Zeatin:
• The common naturally occurring cytokinin in plants today is called zeatin which was isolated
from corn.
Natural Occurring Cytokinins:

• Zeatin
• N6 dimethyl amino purine
• Isopentanyl aminopurine
Synthetic Occurring Cytokinins:

There are more than 200 natural and synthetic cytokinins identified.
• Kineatin
• Adenine
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• 6-benzyl adenine benzimidazole
• N, N-diphenyl urea
Production:
• Produced in root and shoot meristematic tissue, in mature shoot cells and in mature roots in
small amounts.
• Rapidly transported in xylem stream.
• Peak production occurs in day time.
• Activity is reduced in plants suffering drought.
• It is directly or indirectly induced by high levels of Gibberlic acid.
• Cytokinin biosynthesis happens through the biochemical modification of adenine.
Occurrence:
• Found in almost all higher plants as well as mosses, fungi, bacteria, and also in many
prokaryotes and eukaryotes.
• Cytokinin concentrations are more in meristematic regions and areas of continuous growth
potential such as roots, young leaves, developing fruits, and seeds.
Functions:
• Stimulates cell division.

• Stimulates morphogenesis (shoot initiation / bud formation) in tissue culture.
• Stimulates the growth of lateral (or adventitious) buds release of apical dominance.
• Stimulates leaf expansion resulting from cell enlargement.
• Enhances stomatal opening in some species .
• Stimulates the dark-germination of light dependent seeds.
• Delays senescence.
• Promotes some stages of root development.
Plant Growth Inhibitors

Endogenous or exogenous substances which inhibit the normal growth of human and animal cells or
micro-organisms, as distinguished from those affecting plant growth.
These are chemicals that inhibit the growth and promote dormancy and abscission in plants.
Example:
• Abscisic acid
• Ethylene
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Ethylene
History:
• In 1901, a Russian scientist named Dimitry Neljubow showed that the active component was
ethylene.
• Doubt 1917, discovered that ethylene stimulated abscission.
• In 1934 Gane reported that plants synthesize ethylene.
• In 1935, Crocker proposed that ethylene was the plant hormone responsible for fruit ripening as
well as inhibition of vegetative tissues.
Production:
• Directly induced by high levels of Auxin, root flooding and drought.
• Light minimizes the production
• Ethylene is produced in all higher plants and is produced from methionine in essentially all
tissues.
• Production of ethylene varies with the type of tissue, the plant species, and also the stage of
development.
Occurrence:
It is found in germinating seeds and produced in nodes of stems, tissues of ripening fruits, response to
shoot environmental, pest, or disease stress and in senescent leaves and flowers.
Uses and Applications:

• It is a regulator of cell death programs in plants (apoptosis).
• It stimulates the release of dormancy.
• It stimulates shoot and root growth and differentiation (triple response).
• It regulates ripening of climacteric fruits.
• It May have a role in adventitious root formation.
• It stimulates leaf and fruit abscission.
• Mangos, pineapples and some ornamentals are stimulated by ethylene.
• Induction of femaleness in dioecious flowers is done by it.
• It stimulates flower opening.
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• Ethylene gas is why fruit will ripen faster in a paper bag, than on the counter. The bag helps to
concentrate the gas in a specific area.
• Ethylene has a negative effect on cut flowers & foliages. It causes them to age more quickly,
reducing their useful life.
Abscisic Acid
Introduction:
• Abscisic acid is a single compound unlike the auxins, gibberellins, and cytokinins.
• It was called ‘abscisin II’ originally because it was thought to play a major role in abscission of
fruits.
• At about the same time another group was calling it ‘dormin’ because they thought it had a
major role in bud dormancy.
History:
• In 1963, Frederick Addicott and his associates were the one to identify abscisic acid.
• Two compounds were isolated and named as abscisin I and abscisin II.
• Abscisin II is presently called abscisic acid (ABA).
• At the same time Philip Wareing, who was studying bud dormancy in woody plants and Van
Steveninck, who was studying abscission of flowers and fruits discovered the same compound.
Production :
• ABA is a naturally occurring sesquiterpenoid (15-carbon) compound in plants, which is partially
produced via the mevalonic pathway in chloroplasts and other plastids.
Occurrence:
• Because it is synthesized partially in the chloroplasts, it makes sense that biosynthesis primarily
occurs in the leaves.
• The production of ABA is by stresses such as water loss and freezing temperatures.
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Roles:
• Inhibits growth.
• Found in seeds which are dormant and in dying leaves.
• Appears to help a plant prepare its buds for winter.
• The abscisic acid stimulates the closure of stomata.
• Prolongs seed dormancy and delays germination.
• Inhibits elongation.
• ABA coming from the plastids promotes the metabolism of ripening.
• Reverses the effects of growth stimulating hormones.
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UNIT : 10
POISONOUS PLANTS INCLUDING
ALLERGANS AND ALLERGIC
PREPARATIONS
The term allergy was first defined in 1906 by von Pirquet in describing a changed or altered reaction in
the body. When an individual develops an unusual response to a substance or condition that is harmless
to others, the individual is said to be allergic.
• Allergy may be developed at any age.

• It is an autointoxification disease (self poisoning).
• Approx. half of population of US suffers from some sort of allergic syndrome.
• One person in 10 develops symptoms of allergy.
Allergy:
“It is unwanted and altered reaction to body when any substance or foreign particle (antigen) enters
to the body.”
Allergy is a specific immunological reaction to a normally harmless substance, one that does not bother
most people. An allergic reaction produces inflammation, a basic response of the body to injury. It is
often characterized by redness of the skin, warmth, swelling, and pain. Inflammation results from a
complex series of events involving cells and chemicals that are intended to protect the body against
invading foreign substances.
Common symptoms of Allergy:
• Swelling of nasal mucosa

• Allergic sinusitis
• Conjuctivitis
• sneezing
• coughing
• bronchoconstriction
• Rashes
• Abdominal pain etc.
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Causes of Allergy:
Allergens of:
• Biochemical Origin : Pollen grains and Synocytes
• Chemical Origin : Perfumes
• Synthetic Origin : Cotton fibers or linters
Factors of Allergy:
• Hereditary factors
• Emotional factors
• Psychosomatic factors
• Atmospheric factors
• Chronic types of infections
Predisposing Factors:
• Hereditary tendency to allergic response

• Dysfunction of the endocrine glands
• Increased excitability of ANS
• Absorption of toxic metabolic and catabolic substances
• Hepatic dysfunction
• Psychic influences
Allergans:
Allergens are antigenic substances capable of sensitizing the body in such a way that unusual responses
occur in hypersensitive individuals. Almost any substance, whether of biologic, chemical, or synthetic
origin, may prove to be allergenic.
Types of Allergans:
The types of symptoms depend on the shock organ affected by the particular organ and its path of entry
in to the body.
• Inhalant allergens
• Ingestant allergens
• Injectant allergens
• Contactant allergens
• Infectant allergens
• Infestant allergens
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1.Inhalant Allergens
These are the substances that are distributed in the atmosphere and contact the nasal or buccal mucosa
during respiration is inhalant allergens.
• Pollens: trees, grasses, and/or weeds

• Mold spores
Pollens:
Because of their heterogeneous nature, pollen grains can he distinguished and identified without
difficulty. Pollen grains may be round, oval, angular, square, rectangular, or otherwise shaped,
depending on whether they are contracted or fully expanded. Most pollen grains are single entities, but
some may be 2-compound, 3-compound, tetrads, and so forth. They may have no germinal apertures as
such (acolpate), have many pores (multicolpate), or range in-between (dicolpate, tricolpate,
tetracolpate).
The outer wall is known as the exine and the inner wall as the intine. The surface appearance of the
exine is characteristic and is a determining factor in identification; it my range from smooth (psilate) to
spiny (echinate), with various intervening gradations (reticulate, granulate, lophate). Atmospheric
pollens are liberated chiefly by anernophilous (wind-pollinated) plants and are usually small (15 to 45µ
in diameter), light, nonadhesive, and relatively smooth .Trees (oak, walnut), grasses (Bermuda grass and
timothy), and weeds (ragweed, plantain) are examples of plants having anernophilous flowers. In
contrast, pollens of entomophilous (insect pollinated) plants are usually larger (up to 200 µ in diameter),
heavier, adhesive, and may be somewhat spiny. Plants with scented, colored flowers (clover, hollyhock,
honeysuckle, rose) are eritomophilous. Wind-pollinated flowers are rarely colored and are generally not
fragrant because they do not need to attract insects for the pollination process.
Allergic Rhinitis:
Allergic rhinitis ("hay fever") is the most common of the allergic diseases and refers to seasonal nasal
symptoms that are due to pollens. It is an inflammation of the nasal passages, usually associated with
watery nasal discharge or increased flow of mucous and itching of the nose and eyes.
• Runny nose
• Stuffy nose
• Sneezing
• Nasal itching (rubbing)
• Itchy ears and throat
• Post nasal drip (throat clearing )
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Hay fever (sinusitis):
AIlergic rhinitis triggered by the pollens or spores of specific seasonal plants is commonly known as "hay
fever" which causes catarrh of conjunctivitis, nose and throat.
Catarrh is a thick exudate of mucus and white blood cells caused by the swelling of the mucous
membranes esp. of the respiratory tract, accompanied by excessive secretions in response to an
infection.
Hay Fever Symptoms:

The usual symptoms of hay fever include the following:
• Sneezing
• Runny nose (clear, thin discharge)
• Congested ("stuffy") nose
• Postnasal drip
• Sensation of plugged ear(s)
• Watery, bloodshot eyes
• Itching of nose, soft palate, ear canal, eyes, and/or skin
• Fatigue
• Trouble sleeping
TYPES:
• Seasonal Hay fever.
• Non seasonal Hay Fever.
A.Seasonal Hay Fever:

Seasonal hay fever is related to seasonal conditions caused by pollen grains. Since, it is associated with
release of pollen from certain plants so also known as Pollinosis. The determination of exact dates
within which the symptoms of hay fever become more frequent gives a clue to type of pollen grains
responsible for allergy.
There are three seasonal pollens.
1) Tree Season: In spring and extending from February to June

2) Grass Season: It is principally from April to August.
3) Ragweed Season: Beginning from first week of August and continuing until mid October.
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B.Non Seasonal Hay Fever:
It is not related to seasonal conditions it can occur throughout the year or several periods. It is also
known as perennial rhinitis. Causes are;
• volatile oil
• Dust
• Cotton linters
• Animal dander or epidermis Feathers
• Spores
• Inhalants present in home at site of occupation and places frequently cause hay fever
➢ Nonseasonal hay fever, as the name indicates, cannot be related to a seasonal trend.
➢ The allergic symptoms maybe manifested throughout the entire year or perhaps at several
periods during the year but with no regularity.
➢ Often inhalant allergens may occur in the home, at the place of employment, or in some
particular locale frequented by the patient. In the home, cotton pillowcases, sheets, and
blankets usually shed "linters" or fragments of Cotton fibers that are light enough to float in the
air.
➢ The pillows, if made of feathers, may be a source of the allergen, particularly if the pillows are
old and the feathers are disintegrating.
➢ If a person has a sensitivity to feathers, he should use a foam rubber pillow or should cover the
feather pillow with a plastic, dust-free cover.
➢ Sometimes a pet canary or parakeet may cause a feather sensitivity.
➢ Odors and perfumes are a major factor in nonseasonal allergy.
➢ The increased desire for unusual scents in toiletries and cosmetics has led manufacturers to use
volatile oils from many new plant sources as ingredients in their formulations.
➢ For example, sandalwood oil is an ingredient in some men's toiletries; however, photoallergy to
sandalwood oil has been reported in the medical literature.
➢ Many other volatile oils are allergenic.
➢ Removal of the allergans by subsituting non scented cosmetics brings relief.
Spores:
Persons allergic to mold spores are usually allergic to dust as well. Dust is almost
indefinable because it differs from one place to the next, but it probably is composed of mold spores,
cotton linters, animal danders, sizing from rugs and carpets, and innumerable other allergenic particles.
Various types of mites have also proved to be major allergens in house dust, particularly the acarine
mite, Dermatophagoides, and specifically its species, D. pteronyssinus. Several years ago, the Allergy
Research Laboratory of Northwestern University reported that nearly 30% of patients with symptoms of
asthma or hayfever are sensitive to disintegrating bits of insect dust inhaled from air and soil; thus, a
clinical diagnosis of "sensitivity to dust' is inadequate.
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2.Injestant Allergens
The allergens that are present in the food stuff and are swallowed are called ingestant allergens.
• Foods
• Drugs (when taken by mouth): for example, antibiotics and aspirin.
The most common food allergies are

• Dairy allergy
• Egg allergy
• Peanut allergy
• Tree nut allergy
• Seafood allergy
• Shellfish allergy
• Wheat allergy
Symptoms of Allergies caused by Ingestant Allergens:

Food allergens ordinarily cause gastrointestinal symptoms, but they may also cause skin rash, puffed lips
and tongue, migraine, rhinitis, or other more serious effects, such as bronchial asthma. Severe cases of
eczema of the hands have been caused by allergenic foods.
Activity of Ingestant Allergen:

In food allergy, the activity of the allergen is not localized in one organ or area of the body but is
transferred to other organs by the blood. Thus, an atopic dermatitis, such as a tomato rash, strawberry
rash, or that caused by eating oranges, chocolate, or shellfish, is. developed by the patient.
Common Ingested Allergens in our life:

No doubt, many persons who exclaim "Cucumbers don't agree with me!" have discovered the hard way
(trial and error) that they have an allergy to certain foods. Such persons may not know that they have an
allergy, but they do know that eating certain foods leads to dire consequences.
Some of the most common allergens ingested by children are foods considered essential to proper diet
and growth, such as cow's milk, orange juice, cod liver oil, or other vitamin-containing fish liver oils.
Method of Combating Food Allergies:

Colic may sometimes bean, allergic manifestation to a food substance, just as dermatitis may indicate a
hypersensitivity to other foods. Hundreds of extracts of foodstuffs are commercially available as single
or multiple units for use by the allergist as diagnostic skin test materials; however, they have little or no
value in therapy.
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The most satisfactory method of combating food allergies is elimination of the offending substance from
the diet.
Milk Allergy:
Milk allergy is a specific immunologic, antigen-antibody response caused partially by a lactalbumin.
Because heating or boiling alters this protein, evaporated milk may be used as an effective substitute for
cow's milk. Milk allergy may result in severe dermatitis, recurrent rhinorrhea, bronchitis, and asthma.
Various commercial milk substitutes that are prepared from soybean isolates offer a milk-free formula
claimed to be devoid of antigenicity. Two of these soybean products are Soyalac ® and Prosobee® .
Coffee Allergy:
It has been definitely determined that coffee can produce an allergic response. The principal water
extractable allergenic component of green coffee is chiorogenic acid (3-caffeoylquinic acid). Some
authorities disagree about the allergenic properties of chiorogenic acid; claiming that the coffee-
roasting process alters its structure.
Various symptoms of coffee allergy have been reported:-
• severe migraine
• gastroenteritis
• widespread hives
Celiac Disease:
Celiac disease is a digestive disease that damages the small intestine and interferes with absorption of
nutrients from food. People who have celiac disease cannot tolerate gluten, a protein in wheat, rye, and
barley. Gluten is found mainly in foods but may also be found in everyday products such as medicines,
vitamins, and lip balms. When people with celiac disease eat foods or use products containing gluten,
their immune system responds by damaging or destroying villi—the tiny, fingerlike protrusions lining the
small intestine. Villi normally allow nutrients from food to be absorbed through the walls of the small
intestine into the bloodstream. Without healthy villi, a person becomes malnourished, no matter how
much food one eats.
Symptoms of celiac disease

• abdominal bloating and pain
• chronic diarrhea
• vomiting
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3.Injectant Allergens:
Those that may be present in solutions that are intended for parenteral administration are injectants.
The following are commonly injected allergens that can cause severe allergic reactions:
• Insect venom
• Medications
• Vaccines (including allergy shots)
• Hormones (for example, insulin)
Allergic Reactions to Penicillin and other Antibiotics:
Allergic reactions to penicillin injections are well-known to most of the lay public. More attention has
been called to the allergies following penicillin injections than has been given to all other allergies
produced by the injection method. It is estimated that anaphylactic reactions to penicillin occur with a
frequency of 1 to 5 per 10,000 patient-courses of penicillin. Once a patient has suffered a penicillin
reaction, he is keenly concerned about the next injection he may receive.
Skin testing for tests must be conducted under controlled conditions. 6-Amino penicillanic acid (6-APA)
and 7- aminocephalosporanic acid (7-ACA), as well as the semisynthetic penicillins and cephalosporins
cause positive intracutaneous reactions in most susceptible patients. For this reason, antibiotics such as
the cephalosporins and semisynthetic penicillins should be used with caution by physicians treating
patients who are sensitive to penicillin G.
Other Injectables that cause Allergy:

In addition to penicillin products, other injectables may cause allergies—liver extract, antitoxins, and the
glandular products. The symptoms in each case are similar to those caused by the antibiotic; itching of
the palms of the hands and the soles of the feet, erythema, and peeling of the skin are characteristic.
Stings of Bees, Wasps and Hornets:

Because bees, hornets, and wasps actually "sting" instead of "bite," such insects are considered a source
of injectant allergens. Stings of such insects can induce severe local and constitutional reactions,
sometimes causing death. In fact, it has been estimated that more people die annually from bee stings
and wasp stings than from snakebites. Such patients can be immunized by using injections of antigens
because one antigen is common to all bees and wasps however, each species has its own additional
distinct antigen(s).
✓ Considerable research is being conducted on this subject at the present time. Immunologic
comparisons of the effects of insect venoms, venom sac extracts, and whole insect extracts have
been made to determine the optimal method of treatment. Not only are the hymenopterous
insects being studied, but many of the "biting" arthropods are the subjects of clinical
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inviigations. Among these forms are spiders, mites, lice, chiggers, ticks, sand flies, stable flies,
horse flies, scorpions, centipedes, and numerous others indigenous to the geographic area of
the investigators.
4.Contactant Allergens:
Those that come into direct contact with the epithelium are called contactant allergens.
Examples of allergic contact dermatitis include:

• Dyes
• Chemicals
• Metals (nickel)
• Cosmetics
• Latex
Important Causes of Contact Allergies:

Many substances and products have been recognized as the cause of contact allergies. One of the most
important of these is the well-known poison ivy, Toxicodendron radicans.
Other allergenic species of the genus Toxicodendron (formerly Rhus) include T. diversilobum (T. & G.) Greene
(known as western poison oak), T. quercifolium (Michx.) Greene(known as eastern poison oak), and T.
vernix (L.) Kuntze (known as poison sumac, poison elder, or poison dogwood).
All of these contain the same nonvolatile, phenolic principle, urushiol, and all produce allergic symptoms
in hypersensitive individuals.
Following are the symptoms:

✓ Watery blisters associated with pruritus are indicative of this affliction which can become quite
distressing if not properly treated.
✓ The blisters break open, and the exuding fluid forms new blisters that spread quite rapidly.
Plant Excitants of Contact Dermatitis:

Other plant excitants of contact dermatitis are asparagus, buckwheat, buttercups, catalpa leaves,
chrysanthemums, daffodils, English ivy, ginkgo leaves, lobelia, marigolds, mayapple, osage orange,
flowering spurge, snow-on-the-mountain, smartweeds, and dozens of others.
Aeroallergens:
Occasional contact dermatitis has been caused by aeroallergens, such as the various pollen grains that
contain oils, hairs from different kinds of leaves and flowers, and even small fragments of plant tissue
carried by smoke emanating from brush fires, grass fires, and burning leaves.
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Hypoallergenic Cosmetics:
A number of cosmetic manufacturing companies have removed certain known irritants and allergens
from their beauty products and consequently use the term hypoallergenic cosmetics to denote this fact.
Products bearing the brand names of Ar-Ex, Allercreme, Almay, and Marcelle are examples of
hypoallergenic cosmetics.
Examples:
✓ Orris root, an ingredient in "violet' talcum powders, is a chief contact allergen.
✓ Dibromofluorescein, commonly used in indelible lipsticks, is another.
✓ Because perfumes can be allergenic, many hypoallergenic products are unscented; in others, the
perfuming agents are carefully screened to eliminate possible allergens.
Jewelry Allergies :
Nickel allergy is one of the most common causes of allergic contact dermatitis an itchy rash that appears
when your skin touches a normally harmless substance. Nickel allergy can affect people of all ages. You
may develop nickel allergy after a single exposure to nickel or after repeated or prolonged exposure.
Latex allergy :
Latex allergy is a reaction to certain proteins found in natural rubber latex, a product manufactured
from a milky fluid that comes from the rubber tree.
Other Products:
Frequently, individuals cannot tolerate wool in clothing, blankets, or even in the form of wool fat
(lanolin) in cosmetics. Soaps and soap powders, plain and enzyme detergents, nail polishes and nail
polish removers, and hair dyes and hair sprays are listed among the numerous major causes of contact
dermatitis.
5.Infectant Allergens
These allergens are represented by metabolic wastes and growth products of pathogenic micro-
organism. Infectant allergy is caused by pathogenic organisms. Their metabolic wastes and growth
products are mainly involved.
• Many living organisms may cause allergy through the products they release during their
metabolism in the human body.
• Certain types of bacteria, protozoa, molds, helminthes and other parasitic forms live
continuously in the body are responsible for the chronic illness.
• The example is the chronic bacterial infection. of the bronchioles known as bronchiectasis.
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Numerous living organisms may cause allergy through the products they release during their
metabolism in the human body. Some individuals harbor certain types of bacteria, protozoans, molds,
helminths, and other parasitic forms which, by their continual presence in the body, are responsible for
chronic illness. The patient may or may not be aware of this infection because it may or may not
manifest recognizable symptoms. Metabolic products of growth of these organisms may be of such
nature that the individual becomes sensitized.
The chronic bacterial infection of the bronchioles, known as bronchiectasis, in which the Constant
presence of bacterial wastes may sensitize the allergic individual, is an example. Thus, the person may
exhibit allergic symptoms but does not respond positively to skin tests for inhalant allergens. In this
case, the bacterial metabolic wastes are considered infectant allergens.
6.Infestant Allergens:
These allergens are represented by metabolic wastes and growth products of parasitic microorganism. It
is somewhat similar to the above. The parasitic organisms may sensitize the human body. Invasion of
hook worms, tapeworms, threadworms, and other worms have caused allergic responses in susceptible
individuals.
In a manner somewhat similar to the infectants, parasitic organisms may sensitize the human body.
Invasions of hookworms, tapeworms, pinworms, threadworms, dermatophytes, and other forms have
caused allergic responses in susceptible individuals. Growth products and metabolic wastes of these
parasites are constantly present in the body and are referred to as infestant allergens.
Hypersensitivity
Defination:
“Hypersensitivity as an immunological dysfunction is defined as exaggerated or inappropriate

response of the immune system, which is mostly targeted at innocuous antigens with
consequent tissue damage.”
Types of Hypersensitivity Reactions:

➢ Type I
➢ Type II
➢ Type III
➢ Type IV
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Hypersensitivity Type l :
Alternate Names:
• Anaphylactic type hypersensitivity
• Immediate type hypersensitivity
Chracteristics:
• Anti-body mediated
• Mediator; IgE (rarely IgG4)
• Occurs within 15 – 30 minutes
• Systemic (systemic anaphylaxis) or localized (asthma)
Reasons:
1.Exogenous Substances
• Pollens (Nasal Route)
• Food stuff (GIT Route)
2.Re-exposure of same antigen by
• Contact
• Inhalation
• Ingestion
• Injection
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Tests:
Test can be done via skin test for specific IgE .
Disorders:
• Allergic asthma
• Anaphylaxis
• Hay fever
• Atopy
• Rhinitis (itching + Swelling)
Hypersensitivity Type ll :
Alternate Names:
• Cytotoxic hypersensitivity
• Poisoning of Living C
Characters:
• Mediator; IgE / IgM ; Complement System and MAC (Membrane Attack Complex)
• Occurs within 10 – 12 Hours
• Systemic Reason
Reasons:
• Exogenous + Endogenous Substances
• Pollens (Nasal Route)
• Food stuff (GIT Route)
• Metabolic Reactions
Description:
• Anti-body binds to anti-gen
• Cause phagocytosis and lysis of cell (RBCs, WBCs) happens
• Via MAC which produce symptoms and illness
Tests:
• Test includes both the
• Direct
• Indirect Coombs test
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Disorders:
• Autonomic hemolytic anemia
• Rheumatic heart disease
• Thrombocytopenia
• Sickle cell anemia
• Serum sickness
Hypersensitivity Type lll :

Alternate Name: Immune complex hypersensitivity
Characters:
• Mediator; IgE / IgM ; Complement System and Neutrophils
• Occurs within 10 – 12/15 Hours
• Systemic or localized
Description:
• Endogenous and exogenous antigens
• Anti-body binds to soluble anti-gen
• Form a circulating immune complex
• Deposit in walls of kidneys
• Local inflammation
• Tissue damaging
Disorders:
• Serum sickness
• Arthus reaction
• Reactive arthritis
• Systemic lupus
• Extrinsic allergic alveolitis
Hypersensitivity Type IV :
Alternate Names: Delayed type hypersensitivity
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Characters:
• Cell mediated
• Mediator; T cell
• Occurs within 42 – 47 Hours
• Anti-body independent
• Systemic
Description:
• Endogenous
• Helper T cells are activated by an APC
• When antigen is presented again in the future, the memory Th1 cells will activate macrophages
• And cause an inflammatory response
• Lead to tissue
Disorders:
• Rheumatoid arthritis
• Multiple sclerosis
• Mantoux test
• Tuberclin cells cause TB
• Contact dermatitis
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Poisonous Plants
The separation of scientific fact from fiction is extremely difficult in the study of poisonous plants.
Examination of the pertinent literature reveals considerable confusion that tends to mask an even
greater amount of ignorance. Indeed, almost any plant may be judged toxic, questionabIe or edible,
depending on the reference consulted.
For example, perhaps the most famous cookbook in the world, Larousse Gastronomique, once declared
that rhubarb leaves could be 'eaten like spinach," but well-documented fatalities resulting from their
ingestion, both by human beings and by animals, have long been known to the medical profession.
Poison antidote kits contain ipecac syrup as well as activated charcoal to be used as directed by the
physician to counteract the effects of poisonous substances, Each kit contains a one-half-ounce bottle of
ipecac syrup and a 5-gram container of activated charcoal packaged in a plastic box.
1.Abrus precatorius
Biological Origin : Abrus precatorius
Family : Fabaceae
Synonym: jequirity
Habit : shrub
Habitat : common to tropical and subtropical countries of both hemispheres
Toxic Principle:
The seed contains abrin (jequiritin), a lectin Or hemagglutin resembling ricin in its physiologic action. It is
toxic, is soluble in a solution of sodium chloride, and has a melting point of 295° C.
Because jequirity seeds are colorful and attractive and because they are made into rosary heads,
decorative table pads, necklaces, and other types of jewelry, they frequently are handled by small
children. One must remember that these seeds contain the extremely toxic principle, abrin, which has
caused death on numerous occasions.
2.Aconitum Species
Biological Origin : Aconitum napellus
Family : Ranunculaceae
Synonym : Monkshood, Wolfsbane, Aconite
Toxic Constiteunt : They contain highly toxic diterpenoid alkaloids, including the well-known aconitine.
3.Aleurites fordii Hemsley

Biological Origin : Aleurites fordii
Family : Euphorbiaceae
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Synonym : Tung tree, Tung tree oil
Toxic Constiteunts : Commercial tung oil is obtained from the seeds which also contain uncharacterized
toxic pronciples. Ingestion of a single seed can produce severe gastroenteritis in a human being.
4.Alocasia macrorhiza
Biological Origin : Alocasia macrorrhizos
Family : Araceae
Synonym : Giant taro
Toxic Constiteunts : The plant is an irritant poison. owing to the raphides of calcium oxalate contained in
the sap as well as to an additional unknown toxic ingredient, very likely a protein.
5.Atropa belladonna
Biological Origin : Atropa belladonna
Family : Solanaceae
Synonym : Deadly Night Shade
Toxic Constiteunts : contains tropine alkaloids, esperially hyoscyamine
6.Cicuta Species
Biological Origin : Cicuta maculata
Family : Apiaceae
Synonym : Water hemlock
Toxic Constiteunts : The toxic principle, cicutoxin, an unsaturated higher alcohol (trans-heptadeca-
8,10,12-triene-4,6- diyne-1,14-diol), has been isolated from C.virosa . it is a violent convulsant that acts
directly on the central nervous system.
7.Colchicum autumnale
Biological Origin : Colchicul autumnale
Family : Liliaceae
Synonym : Autumn crocus, Meadow saffron
Toxic Constiteunts : Colchicine
8.Conium maculatum
Biological Origin : Conium maculatum
Family : Apiaceae
Synonym : Poison hemlock
Toxic Constiteunts : several nicotinelike alkaloids, especially coniine, N-methyl-coniine, conhydrine and
pseudoconhydrine.
The juice of poison hemlock constituted the famous hemlock potion of the ancient Greeks and was used
to put their criminals to death. It is commonly believed that Socrates was executed by means of a
decoction of this plant.
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Because of its occurrence as a weed in many parts of the United States and the relative attractiveness,
especially to children, of its leaves, fruits, and root, this toxic plant should be recognized by every
pharmacist.
It is particularly important to be able to differentiate poison hemlock from other members of the family
Umbelliferae, both edible and toxic, that bear a close resemblance.
9.Convallaria majalis
Biological Origin : Convallaria majalis
Family : Asparagaceae
Synonym : Lily of the valley
Toxic Constiteunts : contains cardiac glycosides, especially convallatoxin.
10.Datura Species
Biological Origin : Datura stramonium

Family : Solanaceae
Synonym : Thorn apple, Jamestown weed, Jimson weed
Toxic Constiteunts : contain tropine alkaloids, especially hyoscyamine
11.Delphinium Species
Biological Origin : Delphinium patens
Family : Ranunculaceae
Synonym : Lice banes
Toxic Constiteunts : They contain a number of toxic polycyclic diterpenoid alkaloids that account for
their frequent involvement in the poisoning of livestock and human beings, especially children.
12.Digitalis purpurea
Biological Origin : Digitalis purpureae
Family : Scrophulariaceae
Synonym :
• Foxglove
• Purple foxglove
• Fairy gloves
• Digifortis
• Digitora
• Neodigitalis
• Pil-digis
• Folia digitalis
• Digitalis folium.
Toxic Constiteunts : contains cardioactive glycosides, digitoxin, gitoxin, and others.
125
13.Nicotiana Species
Biological Origin : Nicotiana tabacum
Family : Solanaceae
Synonym : Tobacco
Toxic Constiteunts : Nicotine
14.Prunus serotina
Biological Origin : Prunus serotina
Family : Rosaceae
Synonym : Wild cherry
Toxic Constiteunts : contain cyanogenetic glycosides.
15.Ranunculus Species
Synonym : Buttercap, Crowfoot
Toxic Constiteunts : ϒ-lactone
16.Rheum rhaponticum
Biological Origin : Rheum rhaponticum
Family : Polygonaceae
Synonym : Rhapontic rhubarb, common rhubarb
Toxic Constiteunts : Contain large quantities of oxalic acid and its salts in the lamina of the leaf.
17.Ricinus communis
Biological Origin : Ricinus communis
Family : Euphorbiaceae
Synonym : Castor bean
Toxic Constiteunts : Contain recin, a phytotoxin, in the seeds.
18.Sanguinaria Canadensis
Biological Origin : Sanguinaria canadensis
Family : Papaveraceae
Synonym : Blood root
Toxic Constiteunts : Contain isoquinoline alkaloids, especially sanguinarine
19.Solanum Species
Biological Origin : Solanum dulcamara, S.nigrum, S.tuberosum
Family : Solanaceae
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Synonym : Nightshade
Toxic Constiteunts : Contain toxic steroidal glycoalkaloids (solanine, demissine)
20.Thevetia peruviana
Biological Origin : Cascabela thevetia
Family : Apocynaceae
Synonym : Thevetia peruviana
Toxic Constiteunts : Yellow oleander contains cardiac glycosides (cerebrin, neriifolin, thevetin) that
produce digitalis like effects.
21.Toxicodendron radicans
Biological Origin : Toxicodendron radicans
Family : Anacardiaceae
Synonym : Poison ivy
Toxic Constiteunts : Urushiol, a phenolic allergen that produces contact dermatitis.
22.Veratum viride
Biological Origin : Veratum viride
Family : Liliaceae
Synonym : Green hellebore
Toxic Constiteunts : Contain steroidal alkaloids
23.Wisteria Species
Synonym : Wisteria
Toxic Constiteunts : Sapotoxins
24.Zamia integrifolia
Biological Origin : Zamia integrifolia
Family : Zamiaceae
Synonym : Florids arrowroot
Toxic Constiteunts : These cycads contain a carcinogenic and hepatotoxic glycoside, cycasin, which has
been characterized as methylazoxymethanoI-β-D-glucoside. In many tropical areas, various parts of
cycads are employed for the preparation of edible flour, and cases of poisoning sometimes result from
the ingestion of an improperly prepared product. Acute intoxications resulting from a single ingestion of
cycad roots or seeds are much less common.
25.Zigadenus Species
Synonym : Death camas
Toxic Constiteunts : The plants contain steroidal glycoalkaloids, chemically and physiologically similar to
those of Veratrum viride.
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128
UNIT : 11
ENZYMES
Enzymes
Enzymes are the organic catalysts produced by living organisms. They are biological catalyst and
increase the rate of chemical reaction. They make possible the many complex chemical reactions that
make up life processes. Although produced by living organisms, enzymes are lifeless. When isolated,
they still exert their characteristic catalytic effect.
Properties of Enzymes:
• Enzyme are colloids and are soluble in water and dilute alcohol, but are precipitated by
concentrated alcohol.
• Most enzyme act best at temperature between 35 - 40◦C, temperature above 65◦C, especially in
the presence of moisture, usually completely destroy them, where as their activity is negligible
at 0◦C.
• Enzymes are sensitive to heat and are denatured by excess heat or cold, i.e. their active site
becomes permanently warped, thus the enzyme is unable to form an enzyme substrate
complex. This is what happens when you fry an egg, the egg white (augmentin, a type of
protein, not an enzyme), is denatured.
• Certain heavy metals, formaldehydes and free iodine retard the enzyme activity. There activity is
markedly affected by the pH of the medium in which they act or by the presence of other
substances in this medium.
• They are highly selective in their action.
• The enzymes are proteins that range in molecular weight from about 13,000 to as much as
840,000 Dalton.
• Minute quantities of enzymes are required to complete a chemical reaction.
• Enzymes are created in cells but are capable of functioning outside of the cell. This allows the
enzymes to be immobilized, without killing them.
• Enzymes are reusable and some enzymes are capable of catalysing many hundreds of thousands
of reactions, for example, catalase working on hydrogen peroxide, try putting some liver into
hydrogen peroxide.
• Enzymes will only catalyse one reaction, for example, invertase will only produce glucose and
fructose, when a glucose solution is passed over beads of enzyme.
129
• Enzymes are capable of working in reverse, this act as a cut off point for the amount of product
being produced. If there are excess reactants, the reaction will keep going and be reversed, so
that there is no overload or build up of product.
• Enzymes are lifeless and when isolated, they still exert their characteristic catalytic effect.
• Their chemical composition varies, and they do show several common properties.
Models for Enzyme Activity

• Lock and Key Model
• Induced Fit Model
Lock and Key Model:

The specific action of an enzyme with a single substrate can be explained using a Lock and Keyanalogy
first postulated in 1894 by Emil Fischer. In this analogy, the lock is the enzyme and the key is the
substrate.
Only the correctly sized key (substrate) fits into the key hole (active site) of the lock (enzyme). Smaller
keys, larger keys, or incorrectly positioned teeth on keys (incorrectly shaped or sized substrate
molecules) do not fit into the lock (enzyme). Only the correctly shaped key opens a particular lock.
• Fit between the substrate and the active site of the enzyme is exact
• Like a key fits into a lock very precisely
• The key is analogous to the enzyme and the substrate analogous to the lock
• Temporary structure called the enzyme-substrate complex formed
• Products have a different shape from the substrate
• Once formed, they are released from the active site
• Leaving it free to become attached to another substrate
Induced Fit Model:

It is proposed by Koshland (1959). Not all experimental evidence can be adequately explained by using
the so-called rigid enzyme model assumed by the lock and key theory. For this reason, a modification
called the induced-fit theory has been proposed.
The induced-fit theory assumes that the substrate plays a role in determining the final shape of the
enzyme and that the enzyme is partially flexible. This explains why certain compounds can bind to the
enzyme but do not react because the enzyme has been distorted too much. Other molecules may be too
small to induce the proper alignment and therefore cannot react. Only the proper substrate is capable
of inducing the proper alignment of the active site.
130
Classification of Enzymes:
There are several methods for classification of enzymes. Few are:
• Classification on the basis of reaction they control

• Classification on the basis of site of action
• Classification on the basis of nature of substrate
Classification on the basis of reaction they

control
Enzymes are presently classified according to their action by Commission on Enzymes of the
International Union of Biochemistry. Under this heading, enzymes can be classified in six major classes;
each class has 4 to 13 subclasses and each enzyme is assigned with a systematic code number (E.C.)
comprised of four digits.
• Oxidoreductase
• Transferase
• Hydrolases
• Lyases
• Isomerases
• Ligases
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1.Oxidoreductases:
These enzymes are also called as redox enzymes. This class comprises the enzymes which were earlier
called dehydrogenases, oxidases, peroxidases, hydroxylases, oxygenases etc. The group, in fact, includes
those enzymes which bring about oxidation-reduction reactions between two substrates (substances), S
and S′.
Defination:
The enzymes which bring about oxidation-reduction reactions between two substrates are called as
Oxidoreductases.
Chemical Reaction:
Sreduced + S′oxidized → Soxidized + S′reduced
More precisely, they catalyze electron transfer reactions. In this class are included the enzymes
catalyzing oxidoreductions of CH—OH, C=O, CH—CH, CH— NH2 and CH=NH groups.
Examples:
• Alcohol: NAD oxidoreductase [Common or trivial name, Alcohol dehydrogenase]
Alcohol + NAD → Aldehyde or Ketone + NADH + H+
• Glucose 6-phosphate: NADP+
Other oxidoreductase are:
• O2 oxidoreductase
• H2O2 oxidoreductase
• Dehydrogenase
132
2.Transferases:
Defination:
These enzymes bring about a transfer of functional groups such as phosphate, amino, acyl and methyl
from one molecule to another molecule called donor and acceptor molecules respectively.
Function:
Transfer functional group from one molecule to other.
Chemical Reaction:
S—G + S′ → S + S′—G
In these are included the enzymes catalyzing the transfer of one-carbon groups, aldehydic or ketonic
residues and acyl, glycosyl, alkyl, phosphorus or sulfurcontaining groups.
Example:
Other Examples are:
• Glycosyltransferases
• Orthophosphate glycosyl transferase [Phosphorylase]
• D-hexose-6-phosphotransferase [Hexokinase]
• Methyl transferase
• Acyl transferase
• Formyltransferases
• Sulfurtransferase
133
3.Hydrolysis
Defination:
Hydrolysis are enzymes that use water in order to cleave covalent bonds in compounds.
Substrates:
The substrates include ester, glycosyl, ether, peptide, acid-anhydride, C—C, halide and P—N bonds.
Function:
Divide a larger molecule to smaller molecules by the use of water.
Chemical Reaction:
A-B + H2O → A-OH + B-H
Examples:
• Enzymes acting on ester bonds e.g. Glycerol ester hydrolase [Lipase]
Triglyceride + H2O → Diglyceride + a fatty acid
• Enzymes acting on glycosyl compounds e.g. β-D-galactoside galactohydrolase [β-galactosidase]
β-D-galactoside + H2O → An alcohol + D-galactose
• Enzymes acting on C—N bonds, other than peptide bonds E.g. L-arginine ureohydrolase
[Ariginase]
L-arginine + H2O → L-ornithine + urea
4.Lyases
Defination:
These are those enzymes which catalyze the removal of groups from substrates by mechanisms other
than hydrolysis, leaving double bonds.
In these are included the enzymes acting on C—C, C—O, C—N, C—S and C—halide bonds.
134
Chemical Reaction:
Examples:
• Carbon-carbon lyases e.g. Ketose-1-phosphate aldehyde-lyase [Aldolase]
A ketose-1-phosphate → Dihydroxyacetone phosphate + an aldehyde
• Carbon-nitrogen lyases e.g. L-histidine ammonia-lyase [Histidase]

L-histidine → Urocanate + NH3
5.Isomerases:
Defination:
These catalyze inter-conversions of optical, geometric or positional isomers by intramolecular
rearrangement of atoms or groups.
Chemical Reaction:
A-B → B-A
Example:
• Racemases and epimerases e.g. Alanine racemase
L-alanine → D-alanine
• Cis-trans Isomerases e.g. All trans-retinene 11-cis-trans isomerase [Retinene isomerase]

All trans-retinene → 11-cis-retinene
• Intramolecular oxidoreductases e.g. D-glucose-6-phosphate keto-isomerase [Glucosephosphate

isomerase]
D-glucose-6-phosphate → D fructose-6-phosphate
135
6.Ligases (Synthetase):
Defination:
These are the enzymes catalyzing the linking together of two compounds utilizing the energy made
available due to simultaneous breaking of a pyrophosphate bond in ATP or a similar compound.
This category includes enzymes catalyzing reactions forming C—O, C—S, C—N and C—C bonds.
Examples:
• Enzymes catalyzing formation of C—S bonds For example: Acetate : CoA ligase (AMP)
[Acetyl-CoA synthetase] ATP + acetate + CoA → AMP + pyrophosphate + acetyl-CoA
• Enzymes catalyzing formation of C—N bonds For example : L-glutamate : ammonia ligase (ADP)
[Glutamine synthetase]
ATP + L-glutamate + NH3 → ADP + orthophosphate + L-glutamine
• Enzymes catalyzing formation of C—C bonds. For example : Acetyl-CoA : CO2 ligase (ADP)
[Acetyl-CoA carboxylase]
ATP + acetyl-CoA + CO2 + H2O → ADP + orthophosphate + malonyl-CoA
CLASSIFICATION ON THE BASIS OF SITE

OF ACTION
Under this heading, enzymes are classified into two types:
• Endoenzymes
• Exoenzymes
Endoenzymes:
• Most of the enzymes usually act within the cells in which they are produced and hence are
called intracellular enzymes or endoenzymes.
• E.g. most of the plant enzymes. As these enzymes catalyze the metabolic reactions of the cell,
they are also referred to as metabolic enzymes.
• Examples are synthetase, isomerase and phosphorylase.
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Exoenzymes:
• Certain enzymes which are liberated by living cells catalyze useful reactions outside the cell in its
environment and hence are known as extracellular enzymes or exoenzymes, e.g., enzymes
found in bacteria, fungi and some insectivores like Drosera and Nepenthes.
• They act chiefly as digestive enzymes, catalyzing the breakdown of complex substances to
simpler ones which can readily be absorbed by the cell. Such enzymes are digestive in their
function i.e. breakdown complex molecule into small units
• E.g. proteases, lipases, amylases.
CLASSIFICATION ON THE BASIS OF

CHEMICAL NATURE
• Many enzymes are inactive when first produced. Such enzymes in inactive form are called pro-
enzymes or zymogens. They are inactive because the active site is not exposed and unable to
bind with substrate.
• Later by the action of essential coenzymes (organic in nature, loosely attached with molecule
e.g. NAD, FAD, NADP) or activator they made active.
• Enzymes often occur in combination with inorganic and organic substances that have an
important part in the catalytic action. If these are non protein organic compounds known as
coenzymes. If they are inorganic ions, they are referred as activator e.g. Hexokinase (Mg2+),
Arginiosuccinate (Cu2+), Carbonic anhydrase (Zn2+), Phosphofructokinase (Fe2+).
• Coenzymes are integral part of enzyme system. Several vitamins, thiamine chloride, riboflavin,
nicotinic acid are recognized as having a coenzymatic function. Both are collectively called
cofactors. The cofactors bound to the protein part of enzyme tightly. In this case cofactor is
termed as prosthetic cofactor or prosthetic group. It may be organic or inorganic.
• In globular structure of enzymes, one or more polypeptide chains twist and fold, bringing
together a small number of amino acids to form active site. Active site is that location on the
enzyme where the substrate binds. Enzyme and substrate fails to bind if there shape does not
match exactly.
CLASSIFICATION ON THE BASIS OF

SUBSTRATE
On the basis of substrate type enzymes are classified into following types:
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1.Esterases:
An esterase is a Hydrolases enzyme that splits esters into an acid and an alcohol in a chemical reaction
with water called hydrolysis. A wide range of different Esterases exist that differ in their substrate
specificity, their protein structure, and their biological function. E.g. lipase, phospholipase and
acetylcholinesterases etc.
2.Carbohydratases:
E.g. diastase, lactase, maltase, Invertase, cellulose, lysozyme and others.
3.Nucleases:
A nuclease is an enzyme capable of cleaving the phosphodiester bonds between monomers of nucleic
acids. E.g. Ribonuclease, deoxyribonuclease, and others.
4.Nuclein deaminases:
Includes adenase, adenosine deaminase, and others
5.Amidases:
Amidase e.g. deaminase, fatty acylamidase, N-acetylaminohydrolase (ambiguous) is an enzyme that
catalyzes the hydrolysis of an amide.
6.Proteolytic Enzymes:
Proteolytic enzymes (or proteases) refer to the various enzymes that digest (break down into smaller
units) protein. These enzymes include the pancreatic proteases chymotrypsin and trypsin, bromelain
(pineapple enzyme), papain (papaya enzyme), fungal proteases, and Serratia peptidase (the ―silk
worm‖ enzyme).
Enzyme and Catalyst

Similarities:
• Both catalyst and enzyme increase the rate of a chemical reaction by lowering the activation
energy.
• Both catalyst and enzyme are not changed by the reaction.
• Both catalyst and enzyme temporary bind to their substrates.
• The rate of both forward and backward reactions are increased by catalysts and enzymes.
• Both catalyst and enzyme have no effect on the equilibrium constant of the reaction.
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Differences:
ENZYMES CATALYST
Defination An enzyme is a biological A catalyst is a substance that
molecule produced by living increases the rate of a chemical
organisms, which catalyzes a reaction, without undergoing
specific biochemical reaction at any permanent chemical
body temperatures. change.
Composition All enzymes are made up of Catalysts are small inorganic
proteins molecules.
Structure They have complex three They have a simple structure.
dimensional structure.
Specificity Enzymes are highly specific in They catalyze diverse reactions.
their action.
Regulation They can be regulated by They are not regulated by any
specific molecules which can regulator molecules.
change conformation and
therefore activity.
Correlation Enzymes are a type of a catalyst. Catalyst can be either inorganic
catalysts or enzymes.
Type Enzymes are globular proteins. Inorganic catalysts are mineral
ions or small molecules.
Size Difference Enzymes are quite larger than Inorganic catalysts are similar in
the substrate molecules. size to the substrate molecules.
Action Enzymes act on biochemical Inorganic catalysts act on
reactions. physical reactions
Efficiency Enzymes are highly efficient. Inorganic catalysts are less
efficient.
Molecular Weight Has high molecular weight Low molecular weight
compounds
C-C and CH bonds Present Absent
Factor Affecting They are more sensitive to They are less sensitive to
changes in pH and temperature. changes in pH and temperature
Protein Poisons Enzymes can be poisoned by Protein poisons have no effect
protein poisons on the inorganic catalysts.
Examples Amylase, lipase, Glucose-6- Vanadium (V) oxide, iron, and
phosphatase, Alcohol platinum are examples of
dehydrogenase, and inorganic catalysts.
Aminotransferases are the
examples of enzymes..
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Factors Affecting Enzyme Activity:
1. Effect of Substrate Concentration (Single-Substrate Reactions)
2. Effect of Inhibitors
3. Effect of pH
4. Effect of Temperature
5. Effect of Pressure
6. Effect of Water
Some Important Enzymes

1.The amylolytic Enzyme or carbohydrates:
• Diastase and amylase: Term applied to 2 well known amylolytic enzymes salivary diastase or
ptyalin and pancreatic diastase or amylopsin are found in digestive tract of animals
• Malt diastase: It is formed during the germination of barley grains and converts starch into
lactose.
• Invertase or sucrase: Found in yeast and intestinal juices. It brings hydrolysis of sucrose into
glucose and fructose.
• Maltase: cause conversion of maltose into glucose.
• Zymase: Fermentation enzyme cause conversion of monosaccharides into alcohol and carbon
dioxide.
• Emulsin: This enzyme is found in almonds. It causes hydrolysis of betaglucosides; thus,
amygdalin is hydrolyzed into to glucose, HCN and benzaldehyde.
• Myrosin: It is found in white and black mustard; it hydrolyzes Sinalbin, Sinigrin and other
glycoside.
2.The Esterases:
• Lipase: it is a lipolytic enzyme widely distributed in animal and vegetable kingdoms. Found in
pencreatic juice of animals and oily seeds.
• Pectase: splits pectin into pectic acid and methyl alcohol.
• Steapsin: it is lipolytic enzyme capable of methyl alcohol.
• Urease: obtained from soybeans and used in laboratory reagent for converting urea to
ammonia.
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3.The Proteolytic Enzyme:
• Pepsin: is protolytic enzyme found in the gastric juice. And active at pH 1.8.
• Trypsin: it is formed when the proenzyme trypsinogen is acted on by the enterokinase of the
intestinal juice. It is more active than pepsin and converting proteoses and peptones into
polypeptides and amino acids. It is active at pH 8.
• Erepsin: it is found in intestinal juices. It converts proteoses and peptones into amino acids.
• Rennin: it is a coagulating enzyme present in the mucous membrane of the stomach of
mammals. It curdles the soluble casein of milk.
• Papain: it is a mixture of active proteolytic enzymes found in the unripe fruit of the papaya
tree.
4.The Oxidizing Enzymes:

• Peroxides: are widely distributed in plants, they bring about the oxidation reactions that cause
the discoloration of bruised fruits.
• Thrombin: converts the fibrinogen of the circulating blood into the insoluble fibrin of the blood
clot.
• Zymase: splitting of monosaccharides by oxidation.
Enzymes Obtained From Plant Source

(Phytoenzymes)
Enzymes that have natural plant origin are called as Phytoenzymes
➢ Malt Extract
➢ Papain
➢ Bromelain
1.MALT EXTRACT
Introduction:
➢ Malt extract is a type of phyto-enzyme.
➢ It is obtained by extracting malt or malted barley, which is partially and artificially germinated
grain of one or more verities of barley grain
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Biological Source : Hordeum vulgare
Family : Gramineae
Part Used : Dried grains
Synonyms : Maltin, Diastase of malt, Diastase, Malt Extract, Malt or Malted Barley.
Habitat :
• Barley is widely cultivated throughout the world wherever climate is suitable.
• The major producers are United States, Russia, Canada, India, and Turkey.
• It is also cultivated in highlands of China and Tibet.
Cultivation and Collection:

• Barley is one of the oldest cultivated cereals.
• It is an annual erect stout herb resembling wheat.
• The crop becomes ready for harvest in about four months after sowing.
• The grains are threshed out by beating with sticks or trampling by oxen.
• Dried barley grains are artificially germinated by keeping their heaps wet with water in a warm
room.
• When the caulicle (projection during germination) of the grains starts protruding out, the
germinated grams are dried quickly.
• The enzyme diastase in the moist warm grains converts the starch to maltose, thereby
stimulating the embryo to growth. The embryo is killed when the grain is dried.
Preparation:
• Dry germinated barley or dry malt is subjected to extraction.
• The malt is infused with water at 60°C.
• An infusion is concentrated below 60°C under reduced pressure and then dried.
• Malt extract is mixed with 10% glycerin.
• Less purified malt extract contains sugars (dextrin, maltose, glucose), and amylolytic enzymes.
• Its further purification affords diastase.
• It can convert not less than 5 times its weight of starch into water soluble sugars.
Description:
• It occurs as yellowish-brown or amber colored viscous liquid.
• Dry malt resembles barley.
• It has agreeable odour and sweet taste.
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Chemical Characteristics:
• Malt extract contains enzymes, which are most active in neutral solution.
• The acidic conditions destroy the activity.
• It converts starch into disaccharide maltose.
• The enzyme is destroyed by heat.
• Many heat sterilized malt extracts do not contain diastase.
• It is completely soluble in cold water, more readily in warm water.
• The aqueous solution shows flocculant precipitate on standing.
• Limit for arsenic should not exceed one part per million.
Chemical Constiteunts:
• Maltose sugar (50-70%)
• Dextrins (2-15%)
• Proteins (8%)
• Diastase
• Peptase enzyme
• Glucose
• Amolytic enzymes
Classes:
1.Standard Malt: It can be thought of as the original starch or grain based sweetener.
2.Specialty and Black Malt Extract: It can be used for yeast food, brewing or flavoring agent.
3.Co-Extracts of Malt: Un-malted grains or starch sources can be converted into extracts using malted
barley as a natural enzyme source in extraction process. This is done mostly for economy and in some
cases, to make lighter flavored syrup.
Dose:
Usually 15g
Note:
Many commercial extracts of malt do not contain diastase, which is destroyed by the heat used for their
sterilization. Such extracts should not be confused with this product.
Uses:
• Malt is used in brewing & alcohol industries.
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• Malt extract and purified diastase, both are used as amylolytic enzymes.
• It is used as an aid in digesting starch.
• They are used as bulk producing laxatives.
• Malt extract is used as easily digested nutritive.
• Diastase i.e. in starch sugars is 50 times than its own weight.
• Lactase converts lactose galactose and glucose. It is used in patients having lactose intolerance.
• It is used as flavoring agent to cover bitter taste.
• It is used as a vehicle for preparation of cod liver oil and halibut liver oil.
Commercial Product:
Maltsupex
2.Papain
Introduction:
Papain is a Phytoenzymes which contains a mixture of proteolytic enzymes found in the unripe fruit of
papaya tree.
Synonyms:
• Papayotin
• Vegetable pepsin
• Tromasin
• Arbuz
• Papaya proteinase
Biological Source: Carica papaya
Family: Caricaceae
Part Used: Latex of unripe fruit
Geographical Source: The papaya tree is indigenous to tropical America and is cultivated in Sri Lanka,
Tanzania, Hawaii, and Florida.
Plant Description:
• Plant attains a height of about 5 or 6 meters.

• The fruit grows to a length of about 30 cm (12 inches) and a weight of 5 kg.
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• Papaya is planted during spring (February – March), monsoon (June-July) and autumn (October-
November).
• The epicarp adheres to the orange-colored, fleshy sarcocarp, which surrounds the central
Cavity.
• This cavity contains a mass of nearly black seeds.
• Papain is distributed throughout the plant, but mostly concentrated in the latex of the fruit.
• The full grown but unripe fruit is subjected to shallow incisions on the 4 sides.
• Incisions are about 1/8 inch deep.
• The incisions are made early in the morning, at intervals of three to seven days.
• The latex flows freely for a few seconds, but soon coagulates which is collected with help of
scrapper.
Preparation:
• After collection, the coagulated lumps are shredded and dried by the sun or by the use of
artificial heat.
• Incisions and collections are made at weekly intervals as long as the fruit exudes the latex.
• The crude papin is purified by dissolving in the water and precipitating with alcohol.
Spray Drying Method:

• Latex of these fruits is collected in aluminium trays.
• To the collected latex, potassium metabisulphaite is added.
• The extraneous matter is cleared out by passing through sieves and latex is dried in vacuum
shelf drier at 55 – 60.
• This latex is called papain.
Note:
• Rapid drying or exposure to sun or higher temperature above 38°C produce dark colour product
with weak in proteolytic activity.
• The use of artificial heat yields the better grade of crude papain.
• The final product should be creamy white and friable.
• It is sealed in air-tight containers to prevent loss of activity.
• If 10% common salt or 1% solution of formaldehyde is added before drying, the product retains
its activity for many months.
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• Fully grown fruits give more latex of high enzyme potency than smaller or immature fruits. The
yield of Papain varies from 20 to 250 g per tree. The yield of commercial papain from latex is
about 20%.
Description:
• Papain is available as light brown or grayish white colored amorphous with typical odor and
taste.
• It is a hygroscopic powder.
• It shows maximum proteolytic activity between pH 5-6.
• It is insoluble in water and glycerin.
• A temperature range of 60–90°C is favourable for the digestive process with 65° the optimum
point.
• Crystalline papain is most stable in the pH range 5–7 and is rapidly destroyed at 30°C below pH
2.5 and above pH 12.
• It is resistant to heat, inactivated by metal ions, oxidants and reagents which react with thiols,
and is an endopeptidase activated by thiols and reducing moieties, for example, cysteine,
thiosulphate, and glutathione
Chemical Nature: Mixture of enzymes which acts upon polypeptide and amides.
Chemical Constitutes:
• Papain contains several enzymes such as proteolytic enzymes peptidase I capable of converting
proteins into dipeptides and polypeptides.
• Renninlike enzyme
• Clotting enzyme similar to pectase, an enzyme having a feeble activity on fats.
• Two enzymes, papain and chymopapain, have been isolated In crystalline form from the latex.
• Papain is a typical protein digesting enzyme with Isoelectric point.
• It contains 15.5% nitrogen and 1.2% sulphur.
• Crystalline Papain is most stable in the pH range 5 - 7 and is rapidly destroyed at 30◦ below pH
2.5 and above pH 12.
Uses:
Papain is used to prevent adhesions; in sloughing and infected wounds; internally as protein digestant,
as anthelmintic (nemotode), to relieve the symptoms of episiotomy (incision of vulva) and in meat
industry for tenderizing beef, used for treatment of dyspepsia, intestinal and gastric disorders: for the
treatment of diphtheria, for dissolving diphtheria membrane; in surgery to reduce incidence of blood
clots where thromboplasma Is undesirable: for local treatment of buccal, pharyngeal and laryngeal
disorders.
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It is used in digestive mixtures, liver tonics, for reducing enlarged tonsils, in prevention of post operative
adhesions, carbuncles and eschar burns. It is an allergic agent causing severe paroxysmal cough,
vasomotor rhinitis and dyspnea. It is a powerful poison when injected Intravenously. In industry It Is
used In the manufacture of proteolytic preparations of meat, lever and casein, with dilute alcohol and
lactic acid as meat tenderizer, as a substitute for rennet in cheese manufacture, in brewing industry for
making chillproof bear, for degumming natural milk, in preparation of tooth pastes and cosmetics and In
tanning industry for bating skin and hides.
Adulteration: Commercial papain is often adulterated with arrowroot starch, dried milk of
cactus, gutta percha, rice flour, and pepsin.
Dose: Oral Therapy

• For herpes zoster (shingles): An enzyme combination containing papain for 14 days
• For pharyngitis: Lozenges containing 2 mg papain, 5 mg lysozyme, and 200 I.U. bacitracin for 4
days
Podiatry Product: Caroid and Papase
3.Bromelain
Synonyms:
• Bromelin
• Bromelain
Introduction:
• Bromelain or bromelin is a protein digesting and milk-clotting enzyme
• It is obtained from the juice of the pineapple plant.
Biological Source: Ananas comosus
Family: Bromeliaceae
Part Used:
• Although this enzyme can appear in the juice of the fruit, it can also occur in the stem of the
plant.
• It differs from papain because it is obtained from both the ripe and unripe fruits.
Pineapple is a native of tropical America. It is grown in almost all parts of the world including India,
China, Thailand, United States, Brazil, Philippines, Mexico, Hawaii, and Taiwan.
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• Bromelin is found in pineapple fruit juice and stem.
• Pineapple is perennial, and it does not have a natural period of dormancy.
• It is propagated through suckers, slips, and crowns.
• In Pakistan it is planted in August, the plant generally flowers in February–March, and the fruit
ripens during July–October.
• The fruits must be left on the plant to ripen for the full flavour to develop.
• Dark green unripe fruits gradually change to yellow and finally to deep orange.
Preparation:
• The fruits are cut off.
• The enzyme bromelin does not disappear as the fruit ripens.
• The enzyme from fruit and stem are known as fruit bromelin and stem bromelin, respectively.
• It is isolated from pineapple juice by precipitation with acetone and also with ammonium
sulphide .
Description:
• It is odorless to slightly putrid buff color powder with irritating taste.

• It is soluble in water, insoluble in organic solvents like ether, chloroform and alcohol.
• The optimum pH of bromelain is 5.0–8.0.
• In solution pH below 3.0 and above 9.5 inactivates the enzyme.
• The optimum temperature is between 50 and 60°C, still it is effective between 20 and 65°C too.
• The moisture content should not exceed 6%.
• Bromelain is not a single substance, but rather a collection of enzymes and other compounds.
• It is a mixture of sulphur-containing protein-digesting enzymes, called proteolytic enzymes or
proteases.
• It also contains several other substances in smaller quantities, including peroxidase, acid
phosphatase, protease inhibitors, and calcium.
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Uses:
• Bromelain is used as adjunctive therapy to reduce inflammation and edema and to accelerate
tissue repair, especially following episiotomy.
• Its effectiveness in such conditions is apparently owing to depolymerization and permeability
modifications that it induces following oral administration.
• Bromelain is also employed in the production of protein hydrolysates, in tenderizing meats, and
in the leather industry.
Dose: Oral Dose

• For osteoarthritis: a combination product (Phlogenzym), which contains rutin 100 mg, trypsin
48 mg, and bromelain 90 mg, given as 2 tablets 3 times daily has been used.
Prescription Product: Ananase
Enzymes Obtained From Animal Source

4.Pepsin
Other Names:
• Peptide hydrolyser
• Protein digesting enzyme
Introduction:
• This enzyme has animal source.

• It is a type of proteolytic enzyme.
• This enzyme is obtained from the glandular layer of the fresh stomach of various animals like
pig, sheep or calf but commonly from pig.
Biological Source: Sus scrofa
Family: Suidae
Part Used: Glandular layer of fresh stomach
Note: The generic name ‗Sus‘ is from the Greek, meaning HOG; ‗Scrofa‘ is latin and means BREADING;
and ‗Domesticus‘ is latin and means THE HOUSE HOLD.
149
Preparation of Pepsin:
• Pepsin is prepared by using stomach linings.
• The mucous membrane is separated from the stomach by the process of stripping or it is
scrapped off.
• Then it is placed in acidified water for autolysis at 37ºC for 2 hours.
• The liquid so obtained consists of both pepsin and peptone.
• It is then filtered and sodium or ammonium salts are added to the liquid till it is half saturated.
• At this point only the pepsin separates out in the form of precipitates, and the peptone remains
in solution.
• The precipitates are collected and subjected to dialysis for the separation of salts.
• Remaining amount of pepsin if any in the aqueous solution is precipitated by the addition of
alcohol into it.
Types of Pepsin Based on Concentration:
• Concentrated solution containing precipitates is poured on glass plates to dry; forming the Scale
pepsin.
• Or concentrated solution is carefully evaporated in vacuum; forming the spongy pepsin.
Description of Enzyme:
• Pepsin is lustrous, transparent or translucent scales or occurs as granular or spongy masses.
• Its colour ranges between light yellow to light brown or as fine white or cream colored
amorphous powder.
• It is free from offensive odour and has a slightly acid or saline taste.
• It shows optimal activity at a pH 1.8 to 3.5.
• It is reversibly inactive at pH 7 to 8.
• It is soluble in dilute acids, water, and physiological salt (NaCl) solution.
• It is best active at a temperature of 40°C.
Standard Pepsin:
• Pepsin digests not less than 3000 and not more than 3500 times its weight of coagulated egg
albumin.
• Commercial pepsin, especially spongy pepsin is often 4-5 times more active than that of
medicinally used.
• Pepsin of higher digestive power may be reduced to standard pepsin by admixture with pepsin
of lower grade or with lactose.
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• Pepsin best act at a temperature 40ºC and pH 2-4
• Pepsin denatured at 70ºC and in the presence of alcohol.
Storage:
Pepsin can be stored at 2-8ºC for about 1-2 years
Uses:
• Pepsin is used in deficiency of gastric secretion.
• Pepsin is administered to assist digestive digestion in combination with pancreatin.
• It converts protein into peptone and proteose.
• It is used in laboratory analysis of various proteins.
• It is used in preparation of cheese and other protein containing food.
Dose:
It is proteolytic enzyme is administered after meals and followed by a dose of hydrochloric acid; its usual
dose is 500mg. It is often combined with pancreatin in product formulations.
5. PANCREATIN
Other Names:
• Pancreatinum
• Pancreatic enzymes.
Introduction:
• It is an animal enzyme.
• Pancreatin is a mixture of several digestive enzymes.
Biological Source:
• Pancreatin is produced by the exocrine cells of the pancreas of Pig or Hog,

Sus scrofa
• Or from Pancreas of Ox or calf,
Bos taurus
Family:
• Sus scrofa Family Suidae

• Bos taurus Family Bovidae
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Part Used: Exocrine cells of pancreas of different animals.
Preparation Method:
• The Pancreas is a gland that lies directly inside the posterior wall of the abdomen.
• Fresh glands are minced and extracted.
• The mucous membrane is separated from the pancreas by the process of stripping or it is
scrapped off.
• The liquid so obtained consists of both pancreatin and peptone.
• At this point only the pancreatin separates out in the form of precipitates, and the peptone
remains in solution.
• Remaining amount of pancreatin if any in the aqueous solution is precipitated by the addition of
alcohol into it.
Constituents: It is composed of
• Amylase (hydrolyses starches to oligo& disaccharides maltose)

• Lipase (hydrolyses triglycerides to fatty acids and glycerols)
• Protease (Trypsin hydrolyses proteins to oligopeptides)
Standard Pancreatin: Pancreatin contain in each mg:

• Not less than 25 USP units of amylase activity
• Not less than 2 USP units of lipase activity
• Not less than 25USP units of protease activity
USP Units:
• One USP unit of amylase activity is contained in the amount of pancreatin that digests 1mg of
the dry USP potato starch standard
• One USP unit of lipase activity is contained in the amount of pancreatin that liberates 1μEq of
acid per minute at a pH 9 and 37ºC.
• One USP unit of protease activity is contained in the amount of pancreatin that digests 1mg of
casein under specific conditions
Description / Properties:
• It is cream coloured amorphous powder with a faint, characteristic but not offensive odour.
• It show optimal activity in neutral or faintly alkaline solution
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• More than traces of mineral acids or large amounts of alkali hydroxide render pancreatin inert,
and excess of alkali carbonates inhibits its action
Uses:
• Pancreatin is a mixture of several digestive enzymes. This mixture is used to treat conditions in
which pancreatic secretions are deficient, such as:
• Surgical pancreatectomy (surgical removal of the pancreas)
• Pancreatitis (inflammation of the pancreas)
• Cystic fibrosis (Progressive, genetic disease that causes persistent lung infections and limits the
ability to breathe over time)
• As digestive aid for invalids
• Enteric coated granules are used to treat infants with celiac disease and related pancreatic
deficiencies.
Dose:
Usual dose is 325mg –1g as tablets, capsules or granules
Prodietary Products:
• Elzyme
• Panteric ®
• Viokase
• Products containing both pepsin and pancreatin in combination with bile salts
6.PANCREALIPASE
Other Names:
• Pancreatinum
• Concentrated pancreatic enzymes
Introduction:
• Pancrealipase is a mixture of several digestive enzymes.
• It is same as Pancreatin but is more concentrated form of Pancreatin.
Biological Source:
• Pancreatin is produced by the exocrine cells of the pancreas of Pig or Hog,
Sus scrofa
• Or from Pancreas of Ox or calf,
Bos taurus
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Family:
• Sus scrofa Family Suidae
• Bos taurus Family Bovidae
Part Used: Exocrine cells of pancreas of different animals
Preparation Method:
• The Pancreas is a gland that lies directly inside the posterior wall of the abdomen.
• Fresh glands are minced and extracted.
• The mucous membrane is separated from the pancreas by the process of stripping or it is
scrapped off.
• The liquid so obtained consists of both pancreatin and peptone.
• At this point only the pancreatin separates out in the form of precipitates, and the peptone
remains in solution.
• Remaining amount of pancreatin if any in the aqueous solution is precipitated by the addition of
alcohol into it.
Constituents: It is composed of
• Amylase (hydrolyses starches to oligo& disaccharides maltose)

• Lipase (hydrolyses triglycerides to fatty acids and glycerols)
• Protease (Trypsin hydrolyses proteins to oligopeptides)
Standard Pancrealipase: Pancrealipase contain in each mg,
• Not less than 100 USP units of amylase activity

• Not less than 24 USP units of lipase activity
• Not less than 100USP units of protease activity.
Thus the lipase activity is increased by 12folds, but the amylase and protease activity only 4 folds when
compared to Pancreatin.
USP Units:
• One USP unit of amylase activity is contained in the amount of pancreatin that digests 1mg of
the dry USP potato starch standard
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• One USP unit of lipase activity is contained in the amount of pancreatin that liberates 1μEq of
acid per minute at a pH 9 and 37ºC.
• One USP unit of protease activity is contained in the amount of pancreatin that digests 1mg of
casein under specific conditions
Description / Properties:
• It is cream coloured amorphous powder with a faint, characteristic but not offensive odour.
• It show optimal activity in neutral or faintly alkaline solution
• More than traces of mineral acids or large amounts of alkali hydroxide render pancrealipase
inert, and excess of alkali carbonates inhibits its action
Uses:
• It is employed as digestive aid.

• It increase intestinal absorption of fats used to treat steatorrhea.
Dose:
• Usual dose is 8000 to 24000 USP units

• Dose is determined on the basis of clinical evaluation according to pancreatic insufficiency.
Commercial Products:
• Ultresa
• Viokace
• Zenpep
7.Renin
Introduction:
• It is a protease enzyme.
Other Names:
• Milk curdling enzyme

• Rennet
• Chymosin
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Biological Source:
Rennin is partially purified enzyme obtained from the glandular layer of the stomach of the calf, Bos
taurus
Family: Bovidae
Main Sources: There are three main sources:
• Bos taurus i.e. an animal source

• Withania coagulans i.e. a plant source
• Rhizomucor miehei i.e. a microbial source
Part Used: Glandular layer of the stomach
Preparation Method:
• Rennin is prepared by macerating the minced glandular layer of the digestive stomach of the calf
in 0.5% sodium chloride solution.
• Filtration is then carried out.
• Filtrate is acidified with hydrochloric acid.
• Then saturation is carried out with sodium chloride which precipitates the Rennin.
• Rennin is then separated and dried and powdered.
Standard Rennin
• Standard Rennin can coagulate approximately 25000 times its own weight of fresh cow‘s milk.
• If it coagulates milk more then 25,000 times of its own weight than lactose or NaCl is mixed to
bring its required strength.
• Rennin curdles milk by converting milk protein casein into para-casein by partial hydrolysis.
Properties:
• Rennin occur as a yellowish white powder or as yellowish grains or scales
• It has characteristic and slightly saline taste.
• It has peculiar odour.
Uses:
• Rennin is used to coagulate milk, thus rendering it more digestible for convalescents.
156
• It is ingredient in Rennin and pepsin elixir called pepsin essence.
• Protease enzyme that curdles the casein in milk, helping young mammals digests their mothers'
milk.
• Its principal used is in the manufacture of cheese, mainly for coagulation of milk.
• It is used to separate milk into solid curds used for cheese making and liquid whey.
Dose: 7-day therapy of drug with dose 1.5 mg/kg/day
Commercial Products: Aliskiren
157

Pharmacognocy Notes (ASCP) - 2

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Pharmacognocy Notes (ASCP) - 2

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1. GENERAL INTRODUCTION AND SCOPE OF PHARMACOGNOSY 3

3. EVALUATION AND ADULTERATION OF CRUDE DRUGS 19

5. DRUGS OF ANIMAL ORIGIN 38

10. POISONOUS PLANTS INCLUDING ALLERGANS AND 108

11. ENZYMES 129

• According to the American Society of Pharmacognosy,

• Ancient Greece and Rome: most advancements made by Greek scientists.

The pharmacognosist would serve in various aspects as follows:

• Academics: Teaching in colleges, universities, museums and botanical gardens.

COMMON TERMINOLOGY USED IN PHARMACOGNOSY :

Organized Drugs: Direct parts of plants and consist of cellular tissues.

Shrub: A woody plant shorter than a tree.

Adulteration: Substitution of original crude drug with similar impurity.

Family and part used.

Uses: the pharmaceutical, pharmacological and biological activity.

Substituents: the alternate drug that can be used in case of non-availability.

Adulterants: impurities that can be added to the pure plant material.

• Unani Sytem of Medicine

UNANI SYSTEM OF MEDICINE :

AYURVEDIC SYSTEM OF MEDICINE :

FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF HOMEOPATHY:

Introduction to Herbal Pharmacopoeias :

A herbal pharmacopoeia represents qualitative and therapeutic details on botanicals.

May also contain the description of preparation of a plant.

Modern Concepts of Pharmacognosy :

PREPARATION OF CRUDE DRUGS :

• Garbling is the final step in the preparation of a crude drug.

PACKAGING, STORAGE AND PREVENTION:

• Packaging is often characteristic for certain drugs.

Storage and Prevention:

Prevention from light on Drugs:

Prevention from Insects:

Storage of small lots of Drugs:

• Small lots of drugs may readily be stored in tight, light-resistant containers.

Prevention of Drugs from Moisture:

Prevention of Drugs from Temperature:

• Temperatre also effects the drugs.

CLASSIFICATION OF CRUDE DRUGS:

Drawback of Morphological Classification:

Gross Classification of Drugs on the Basis of Morphological

PLANT PARTS DRUGS

Hairs and Fibers Cotton, Hemp, Jute, Silk, Flax.

PLANT PARTS DRUGS

PHYLUM ORDER FAMILY DRUGS

CHEMICAL CONSTITEUNTS DRUGS

PHARMACOLOGICAL ACTIONS DRUGS

EVALUATION OF CRUDE DRUGS

External markings are mentioned as

• The odour of a drug may be either distinct (characterisic) or indistinct.

Standardization and Determination of colour of drugs:

MICROSCOPICAL AND ANATOMICAL

Veinlet Termination Number :

LYCOPODIUM SPORE METHOD:

Biological Source: Lycopodium clavatum

Evaluation of Drugs by Lycopodium Spore Method:

• In this method the moisture content of the powdered material is determined.

By employing lycopodium spore method the number of pollen grains in,

Determination of Size by Lycopodium Spore Method:

• The procedure is almost the same as used for counting of particles.

• Tropane alkaloids in Datura, Belladonna and Stramonium are determined by Vitali-Morin

• Qualitative analysis is useful in the detection of adulteration.

Protein Station - Biuret test: