INTRODUCTION TO PHARMACOGNOSY

DEFINITION

Pharmacognosy is systematic study of these crude drugs

obtained from natural origin like plant, animal and minerals. Pharmacognosy
can be defined as branch of science which involves detail study of drugs
obtained from natural origin including name, habitat, collection, cultivation,
macroscopy, microscopy, physical properties, chemical constituents,
therapeutic actions, uses and adulterants. The word pharmacognosy is
derived from two words, pharmakon means medicine (drug) and gignosco
means to acquire knowledge of something.

Prof. John Schimidt coined the term pharmacognosy in his

book Lehrbuch der MateriaMedica. Earlier subject was known as
‘Materiamedica’. It includes systematic study of crude drugs from nature.
Study of pharmacognosy includes the history, distribution, cultivation,
collection, processing and preservation. It also includes the study of physical,
chemical and structural characters and the safe uses of crude drugs. In short,
pharmacognosy is study of drugs from natural origin. Drugs from natural
origin can be obtained by plants, animals (terrestrial as well as marine) and
minerals.

HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT OF PHARMACOGNOSY

The history of pharmacognosy is as old as human existence.

To know the future one should know the past. The word ‘drug’ is derived from
Latin term Droog means dried, when dried plants were commonly used as
medicine. Broadly, history of pharmacognosy can be classified into three
major stages. First stage before eighteenth century, very few documents and
recorded evidences are available showing use of natural products by human.
Second stage involves nineteenth century, which is the time when basic
subject has evolved. In this century, the name pharmacognosy came into
practice. Initially the subject was more likely to descriptive botany of
medicinal plants. But as the time progress, it changes the course and
encompasses extraction, isolation and other advances techniques. In
twentieth century, which may be considered as third stage of development,
series of discoveries resulted in complete metamorphosis of the subject.
From last two decades, pharmacognosy is studied in more systematic
manner. As herbal wave continue to sweep the world, importance of natural
product is at the pinnacle. People are expecting natural products to fit in
modern framework. As a result of this there are series of new herbal
formulations in the market.

The ancient Egyptians documented their knowledge about

medicine on paper made from Cyperusaquaticus commonly called acquatic
sage or papyrus. Papyrus Ebers (around 1500 BC), Berlin Papyrus, Edwin
Smith Paprus, KahunMedicak Papyrus are some of the oldest handbooks
which contain information of illness and treatments. In ancient Egypt and
Mesopotamia clay tablets were used to document knowledge of drugs which
are dating back to 3000 BC. Ancient India, information about drugs was
documented in several Ayurvedic texts which still exist. Apart from
Atharvaveda there are several books like CharakSamhita, SushrutSamhita,
AstangHridaya, MadhavNidan and BhavaPrakash.

In eighteenth century, pharmacognosy was much closely

related to botany. In old days, drugs from natural origin were used in crude
form as powder or decoction. Later in nineteenth century, development in
science has expanded arena of pharmacognosy. Pharmacology developed
in the 19th century as a biomedical science that applied the principles of
scientific experimentation to therapeutic contexts. The advancement of
research techniques propelled pharmacological research and
understanding.

Pharmacognosy was developed as a descriptive botanical

subject in early days (nineteenth and during the last half of the twentieth
century), and currently, plant-based drugs are researched and formulated
in modern framework of medicine rather than galenical preparations.
Four stage of drugs department:Step 1: Discovery and Development.
Step 2: Preclinical Research.
Step 3: Clinical Research.
Step 4: FDA Drug Review.
Step 5: FDA Post-Market Drug Safety Monitoring

Discovery involves a number of processes like target

identification and validation, hit identification, lead generation and
optimization and finally the identification of a candidate for further
development. Development, on the other hand, includes optimization of
chemical synthesis. and its formulation. Now a day’s pharmacognosy has
become a kind of multidisciplinary subject which embarrasses
phytochemistry, analytical pharmacognosy, pharmacotherapy, medicinal
plant biotechnology, herbal formulations and nutraceuticals.
Zoopharmacognosy is branch of pharmacognosy which involves observation
of animal behavior for discovery and development of new drugs. Now a day’s
drug from natural origin are studied, formulated and regulated in the
framework of modern medicine.

SCOPE OF PHARMACOGNOSY

Pharmacognosy is "the study of the physical, chemical,

biochemical and biological properties of drugs, drug substances or potential
drugs or drug substances of natural origin as well as the search for new
drugs from natural sources"

Pharmacognosy deals with the natural drugs obtained from

organisms such as most plants, microbes, and animals. Up to date, many
important drugs including morphine, atropine, galanthamine, etc. have
originated from natural sources which continue to be good model molecules
in drug discovery.
Therefore, the scope of pharmacognosy is broad and includes the scientific
study of crude drugs, medicinal products (e.g., enzymes, vitamins,
antibiotics, pesticides, allergens, and allergenic extracts), and excipients
(e.g., coloring, flavuring, emulsifying and suspending agents, diluents,
bulking or filler agents,
Pharmacology and pharmacogenetics investigate how these drugs interact
with each other in the body to help healthcare providers choose the right
medication and the right dosage for patients
Source of Drugs

1. Plant Sources:
Plant source is the oldest source of drugs. Most of the drugs
in ancient times were derived from plants. Almost all parts of the plants are
used i.e. leaves, stem, bark, fruits and roots.

Leaves:
 The leaves of Digitalis Purpurea are the source of Digitoxin and
Digoxin, which are cardiac glycosides.
 Leaves of Eucalyptus give oil of Eucalyptus, which is important
component of cough syrup.
 Tobacco leaves give nicotine.
 Atropa belladonna gives atropine.

Flowers:
 Poppy papaver somniferum gives morphine (opoid)
 Vinca rosea gives vincristine and vinblastine
 Rose gives rose water used as tonic.

Fruits:
 Senna pod gives anthracine, which is a purgative (used in
constipation)
 Calabar beans give physostigmine, which is cholinomimetic agent.

Seeds:
 Seeds of Nux Vomica give strychnine, which is a CNS stimulant.
 Castor oil seeds give castor oil.
 Calabar beans give Physostigmine, which is a cholinomimetic drug.

Roots:
 Ipecacuanha root gives Emetine, used to induce vomiting as in
accidental poisoning. It also has amoebicidal properties.
 Rauwolfia serpentina gives reserpine, a hypotensive agent.
 Reserpine was used for hypertension treatment.
 Bark:
 Cinchona bark gives quinine and quinidine, which are antimalarial
drugs. Quinidine also has antiarrythmic properties.
 Atropa belladonna gives atropine, which is anticholinergic.
 Hyoscyamus Niger gives Hyosine, which is also anticholinergic.
 Chondrodendron tomentosum gives tuboqurarine, which is skeletal
muscle relaxant used in general anesthesia.

2.Animal Sources:

 Pancreas is a source of Insulin, used in treatment of Diabetes.

 Urine of pregnant women gives human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG)
used for the treatment of infertility.
 Sheep thyroid is a source of thyroxin, used in hypertension.
 Cod liver is used as a source of vitamin A and D.
 Anterior pituitary is a source of pituitary gonadotropins, used in
treatment of infertility.
 Blood of animals is used in preparation of vaccines.
 Stomach tissue contains pepsin and trypsin, which are digestive
juices used in treatment of peptic diseases in the past. Nowadays
better druUnorganized Drugs :

3.Marine sources

There are more than 5 lakh species of marine organisms

available in the seas and ocean. They are used for many important
therapeutic activities. The enormous ecological resources of the sea and
ocean have been exploited since ancient times and the use of marine
animals like fish and preparations from algae are included as the sources of
medicine. Oceans contain more than 80% of diverse plant and animal
species. Such organisms like sponges, tunicates, fishes, soft corals,
nudibranchs, sea hares, opisthobranch Molluscs, echinoderms, bryozoans,
prawns, shells, sea slugs, and marine microorganisms are sources of
bioactive compounds
4.Tissue culture

It is in-vitro cultivation of plant cells, tissues, and organs in

liquid or semi-solid nutrient media under an aseptic and controlled
environment. In this method, primary and secondary plant metabolites are
regenerated. The basic criteria for plant tissue culture are totipotency and
plasticity. Totipotency is defined as the regeneration capacity of the selected
plant parts whereas plasticity is the withstand capacity of plants in any
stressful condition. The plant tissue culture technique is important because
isolation of bioactive compounds from the medium is very easy, rare and
endangered plant species are micropropagated and cultivated in mass scale,
production of immobilized plant cells for future use, and even biochemical
conversion is easy, etc.

Organized Drugs

Introduction :
Crude drugs can be regarded as the substances either used
directly or indirectly as a drug which have not been changed or modified in
it's chemical composition.The crude drugs of natural origin can be divided
into two main categories as organized crude drugs and unorganized crude
drugs.
Organized Drugs:
Organized drugs consist of the cellular Organization in the form
of anatomical features.These are mostly the crude drugs from plant
sources.Almost all of the morphological plant parts or the entire plant itself
can be called as an organized drugs.A long list can be made of such crude
drugs to mention few of them like Cinchona bark,Sandalwood,Quassia
wood,Senna,Digitalis leaves,Nux vomica seeds,Rauwolfia roots and many
other examples of above-mentioned groups or crude drugs exemplified by
some other morphological organs can be quoted as the example of
organized crude drugs. Microscopical and anatomical studies are
preeminent for such crude drugs. These can be used directly in medicine or
can be used by modifying or by extracting the active ingredient from it.The
simple medicines prepared from these drugs are herbal
teas,extracts,tinctures etc,and it may be extensively processed for the
isolation and purification of pure therapeutically active constituent which is
ultimately responsible for the action of the drugs.

Sources of Organized Drugs :

Woods:
Quassia,Sandalwood and Red Sandalwood.

Leaves:
Digitalis,Eucalyptus,Gymnema,Mint,Senna,Spearmint,Squill,Tulsi,Vasaka,
Coca,Buchu,Hamamelis,Hyoscyamus,Belladonna,Tea.

Barks:
Arjuna,Ashoka,Cascara,Cassia,Cinchona,Cinnamon,Kurchi,Quillia,Wild
cherry.

Flowering parts:
Clove,Pyrethrum,Saffron,Santonica,Chamomile.

Fruits:
Amla,Anise,Bael,Bahera,Bitter
Orangepeel,Capsicum,Caraway,Cardamom,Colocynth,Coriander,Cumin,Dil
l,Fennel,Gokhru,Hirda,Lemon peel,Senna pod,Star anise,Tamarind,Vidang.

Seeds:
Bitter almond,Black
Mustard,Cardamom,Colchicum,Ispaghula,Kaladana,Linseed,Nutmeg, Nux
vomica,Physostigma,Psyllium,Strophanthus,White mustard.

Roots and Rhizomes :

Aconite,Ashwagandha,Calamus,Calumba,Colchicum
corn,Dioscorea,Galanga,Garlic,Gention,Ginger,Ginseng,Glycyrrhiza,Podop
hyllum,Ipecac,Ipomoea,Jalap,Jatamansi,Rauwolfia,Rhubarb,Sassurea,Sen
ega,Shatavari,Turmeric,Valerian,Squil.
Plants and Herbes:
Ergot,Ephedra,Bacopa,Andrographis,Kalmegh,Yeast,Vinca,Datura,Cetella

Hair and FIibres:

Cotton,Hemp,Jute,Silk,Flax.

Unorganized drugs

They are crude drugs of plant or animal origin and

having no cellular structure. They are eithar mixture of chemical substances
or they are decomposition products. Unorganized drugs,even through
prepared from plants are not the direct parts of plants and prepared by some
intermediary physical processes, such as incision,drying or extracting with
water and do not contain cellular tissue.

They are classified into several groups:

1. Dried latex.
2. Dried juices.
3. Dried extracts.
4. Gums and mucilages.
5. Oleo-resigns and oleo- gumresins.

1. Dried latex:
The air dried latex Obtained by incision of the unripe capsule
of papaver somniferum.

2. Dried juices (Aloe):

The solid residue obtained by evaporating of the liquid juice,
which drains from the leaves, cut transversely near their bases of Aloe ferox
and it's hybrids known in commerce as caoe Aloes
Solubility : partially soluble in water, chloroform and ether.But completely
soluble in ethanol, alkali and glacial acetic acid.

Uses of Dried juices :

1. Cathartic.
2. Hair fall.

3. Dried extracts (Agar) :

 It consists of polysaccharides obtained by extracting various
species of Rhodophyceae,mainly those belonging to the genus Gelidum with
boiling water, filtering Whilst hot and evaporating to dryness.
Solubility : Insoluble in cold water and soluble in boiling water.

Uses of Dried extracts:

1. Laxative
2. Suspending agent and emulsifer.
3. Gelating agent.
4. Tablet disintegrate.
5. In food processing.

4. Gums and mucilages :

The dried gummy exudates from the trunk and branches of
Acacia Senegal or some other African species of Acacia.
Solubility :Completely soluble in water but slowly. In soluble in ethanol and
ether.

Uses of Gums and mucilages :

1.Emulsifying and suspending agent.
2. Demulcent and emollient.
3. Adhesive and binder in tablet manufacture.

5. Oleo- resins :
The oleo - resins obtained from pinus palustris, pinus
toeda and other speices of pinus.
Solubility : Insoluble in water, soluble in chloroform and ethanol.

Oleo- gum resins :

Oleo- gum resins obtained from the stems and
branches of commiphora molmol and other species of commiphora.

Uses of Oleo- resins and oleo- gum resins:

1. Antiseptic in mouth wash preparation.
2. Stomachic.
3. In perfumery.gs have replaced them.
 Diffrences between organized drugs and unorganized drugs

Organized Drugs Unorganized Drugs

They are the source from plants and They are the sources of plants,
animals animals and minerals
They procured directly from the They are products of plants and
above sources animals obtained by extraction,
distilling, incision methods .
They have proper cellular structures They do not have well defined
like cellular structure like
leaves,roots,wood,barks,fruits,flowers gum,mucilage,resin etc.
etc.
They are identified by morphological They are identified by
characters organoleptic properties
They are solid in nature They are solid,semi-solid and
liquid in nature
To study their characters transverse To study their characters physical
section is used for drugs under parameters like density,optical
microscope rotation ,viscosity,index
referactive,chemical tests
examples:- Examples:-

wood: Quassia,Sandal wood Dried latex: Opium,Papain

Leaves: Dried juice: Aloe,Kino
Digitals,Eucalyptus,Mint,Senna