Microbiology & Public Health
San Pedro College
Batch 2013-2014
MICROBIOLOGY & PUBLIC HEALTH
I. INTRODUCTION
A. Microbiology
 Study of living things too small to be seen
with the unaided eye (“microorganisms”)
 Study of cellular microorganisms & acellular
entities (not considered to be living)
B. History
1. First observations
 ____________________
 life’s smallest structural units were “little
boxes” or “cells”
 Start of Cell Theory: All living things are
composed of cells
 ____________________
 Father of Microbiology
 Described “Animalcules” through single-
lens microscope
 First to observe the microorganisms
through magnifying lenses (Giardia
lamblia)
2. Theory of Abiogenesis
 _________________
 Opposed Spontaneous Generation –
Jars with decaying meat
 Experiment: Maggots appeared only if
flies were allowed to leave their eggs on
the meat inside jar
 ____________________
 Strengthened Theory of Spontaneous
Generation /Abiogenesis
 Claimed that life (microorganisms) arises
spontaneously from non-living matter
(broth)
 ____________________
 Suggested that microorganisms from the
air probably had entered Needham's
solutions after they were boiled.
 He showed that nutrient fluids heated
after being sealed in a flask did not
develop microbial growth
 Needham’s response: “vital force
necessary for spontaneous generation
had been destroyed by the heat and was
kept out of the flasks by the seals”
 ______________________
 Showed the importance of oxygen to life.
 Spallanzani's observations were criticized
on the grounds that there was not enough
oxygen in the sealed flasks to support
microbial life.
3. Theory of Biogenesis
 ____________________
 Proposed the theory of biogenesis:
“Living things only arise from pre-existing
living things”
 ________________
 “Microorganisms are indeed present in
the air, can contaminate seemingly
sterile solutions, but air itself does not
create microbes” (Pasteur flask)
 Developed immunity for anthrax, rabies,
Cholera  coined the term “vaccine”
 Explained the ____________of disease:
“microorganisms may cause diseases”
 Discovered ________ process
 ___________ – destroying vegetative
form of microbes; preserve quality of
milk products
 James Tyndall
 Tyndallization / ________: Alternate
rounds of boiling, and of incubation (3
rounds) – most effective way to kill
spores
 ___________________
 Supported the Germ theory of disease;
Developed pure-culture techniques
 Koch’s postulate: Experimental steps for
directly relating a specific microbe to a
specific disease
 Causative agent must be present in
every case of disease; must not be
present in healthy animal
 Pathogen must be isolated from the
diseased host and grown in pure
culture
 Same disease must be present./
produced if the pathogen is
inoculated in a healthy animal
 Same Pathogen must be isolated/
recovered from the inoculated animal
Limitations:
 Many organisms have the
pathogen but do not show
symptoms.
 Some microbes cannot be
isolated and ate difficult to
culture.
o Mycobacterium leprae
o Treponema pallidum
 There are some pathogens which
are specie-specific
 There are some diseases
developed only when immune
system is down
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 Microbiology & Public Health
San Pedro College
Batch 2013-2014

 Julius Petri c. ____________ - a specific group of

 Assistant of Robert Koch
 invented Petri dish
 Frau Hesse
 Wife/ assistant of Julius Petri
 suggested use of agar as stiffening
agent for culture media
 ____________________
 Father of aseptic technique; Sterilized
surgical instruments (carbolic acid /
phenol
 Used disinfectants to clean surgical
dressings in order to control infections in
human
 Ignaz Semmelweis
 Noticed that physicians who went from
one obstrical patient to another, without
disinfecting their hands transmitted
puerperal (childbirth fever (an after-birth
infection).
4. Birth of Modern Chemotherapy
Chemotherapy – Treatment of disease by
using chemical substances
o Synthetic drugs – chemically prepared in
the laboratory
o Antibiotic – produced naturally by
bacteria/ fungi to inhibit growth of other
microorganisms.
 Paul Erlich
 Father of Chemotherapy
 Discovered the 1st chemotherapeutic
agent Salvarsan / Arsphenamine /
Compound 606
 Emil von Behring
 Developed immunity against Diphtheria
by using antitoxin
 Domaqk
 created prontosil ( red dye ) which is the
prodrug of Sulfanilamide
 Alexander Fleming
 Discovered that the fungus mold
Penicillium notatum (penicillin) inhibits
Staphylococcus
 Florey and Chain
 developed Penicillin in clinical setting
 Selman Waksman
 Discovered Streptomycin
 Edward Jenner
 Developed vaccine for smallpox (Variola)
from cowpox (vaccinia)
symptoms / sign of a specific disease
d. ____________ -disease that spreads from 1
host to another, either directly / indirectly
e. ____________ -easily spread from 1 to
another; transmission through direct contact
f. ____________ -disease occurs occasionally
g. ____________ -disease constantly present in
a population (e.g. malaria)
h. ____________ -many people in a given area
acquire a certain disease in a relatively short.
i. ____________ -sudden, unexpected
occurrence of a disease in a given population
j. ____________ -epidemic of worldwide
proportions (e.g. AIDS)
k. ____________ -refers to disease occurring in
animals
l. ____________ -disease of animals
transmissible to man (e.g. rabies from dogs)
D.THE DIVERSITY OF MICROORGANISMS
5 Kingdom Classification systems
 based on cell organization and nutritional
patterns; by Robert Whittaker
1. Monera - eubacteria and
archeobacteria
2. Protista - slime molds, protozoa, and
some algae
3. Fungi - unicellular yeasts,
multicellular molds and macroscopic
mushrooms
4. Plantae - some algae and mosses,
ferns, conifers, flowering plants
5. Animalia - sponges, worms, insects,
vertebrates

C. TERMINOLOGY
a. ____________ - subjective changes in body
function
b. ____________ - objective changes that can
be measured

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 Microbiology & Public Health
San Pedro College
Batch 2013-2014

PRINCIPAL DIFFERENCES BETWEEN PROKARYOTIC AND EUKARYOTIC CELLS

CHARACTERISTIC PROKARYOTIC EUKARYOTIC
Size of Cell Typically 0.2-2.0 µm in Typically 10-100 µm in
diameter diameter
Nucleus No nuclear membrane or True nucleus. consisting of
nucleoli nuclear membrane
and nucleoli
Membrane-Enclosed Absent Present; examples include
Organelles Iysosomes, Golgi
Complex, endoplasmic
reticulum, mitochondria,
and chloroplasts
Flagella Consist of two protein Complex: consist of multiple
building blocks microtubules
Glycocalyx Present as a capsule or slime Present in some cells that
layer lack a cell wall
Cell Wall Usually present chemically When present, chemically
complex (typical simple (includes
bacterial cell wall includes cellulose and chitin)
peptidoglycan)
Plasma Membrane No carbohydrates and Sterols and carbohydrates
generally lacks sterols that serve as
Receptors
Cytoplasm No cytoskeleton or Cytoskeleton; cytoplasmic
cytoplasmic streaming streaming
Ribosomes Smaller size (70S) Larger size (80S); smaller
size (70S) in organelles
Chromosome (DNA) Usually single circular Multiple linear chromosomes
chromosome; with histones
typically lacks histones
Cell Division Binary fission Involves mitosis
Sexual Recombination None: transfer of DNA only Involves meiosis

A. Prokaryotic Cell Structure

1. Glycocalyx 2. Flagella
 General term for substances that surround  H-antigen; Long, filamentous appendages
cells that propel bacteria
 Gelatinous polymer (polysaccharides or  __________ – single flagellum at one
polypeptides) pole
1.1. _______ – evasion of  __________ – a tuft of flagella coming
phagocytosis; virulence factor; from one pole
Glycocalyx firmly attached to the  __________ – flagella at both poles
cell wall  __________ – flagella at the entire cell
1.2. ________ – Glycocalyx loosely body
attached to the cell wall  ___________ – no flagella

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 Microbiology & Public Health
San Pedro College
Batch 2013-2014

 Motility/movement/locomotion
 Taxis – bacterial movement towards or 6. Cytoplasmic membrane
away a particular stimulus  Thin structure lying inside the cell wall and
 Chemotaxis: from or towards enclosing the cytoplasm
chemicals  Semipermeable; different transport system
 Phototaxis : lights 7. Cytoplasm
3. Axial filament  Internal matrix of cell contained inside the
 Bundles of fibrils that arise at the ends of plasma membrane
the cell beneath the outer sheath and  Nuclear area/nucleoid: long circular
spiral around the cells (spirochetes) for double stranded DNA molecule;
motility bacterial cell region containing the
4. Pili and fimbriae chromosome
 Small, hair-like structures that are shorter  __________: small self-replicating
and thinner than flagella piece of double stranded DNA
 Function: attachment rather than motility molecule; carry resistant genes
 ______: transfer of DNA from one cell to  __________: site of protein synthesis;
another (sex pilus; conjugation) 70s (S stands for Svedberg)
5. Cell wall*  Inclusions: contain several kinds of
 Complex, semi-rigid structure responsible reserved deposits; basis for
for the characteristic shape of the cell identification and never present in
 Contains ___________  polymer of N- eukaryotes, very specific for
acetylglucosamine and N-acetylmuramic prokaryotes
acid (+ amino acid) 8. Endospores
 Amino acid + amino acid (__________  Specialized resting cells when water and
enzyme/PBP)  cross-linking essential nutrients are depleted
Parameters Gram (+)
cell walls
Gram (–)
cell
Atypical
cell walls
 Endospores can remain dormant for
walls thousands of years
Lipid content Low High Cells that  __________ or sporogenesis: the
Periplasmic space No Yes naturally
have no cell
process of spore formation
Porins* No Yes
Peptidoglycan* 60-100% 5-10% walls or  __________: endospore returning to its
Endotoxin (lipid A)* No Yes have very vegetative state; triggered by physical or
Exotoxin * Yes Yes little material
chemical damage to the endospores coat.
Teichoic acid Yes No
Penicillin High Low Cell wall  Examples: _________, __________
susceptibility* synthesis  Most vegetative cells are normally killed at
inhibitors
NOT 70 Celsius, but endospores can survive in
effective boiling water for several hours or more.
Examples Staphylococcus, Neisseria Mycoplasma
Clostridrium , E. coli

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 Microbiology & Public Health
San Pedro College
Batch 2013-2014
B. Eukaryotic Cell Structure
1. Flagella
 Few, long projections for motility;
 Cilia: numerous, short projections
2. Cell wall
 ________ – algae & plant
 ________ – fungi (Note: Chitin is also the
main structural component of the
exoskeleton of crustaceans and insects.
 _____________ - yeasts
 *________ - flexible outer covering of
protozoa (Note: Protozoa do not have
typical cell wall)
 __________ - a layer of material
containing sticky carbohydrates
 ___________ – animals (Note: Animals
have no cell wall)
3. Plasma membrane
 External covering of the cell; for
permeability and transport mechanism
4. Cytoplasm
 Matrix inside the plasma membrane and
outside the nucleus; not found in
prokaryotes
5. Organelles
5.1. Nucleus
 Cell area containing the genetic material
 Nuclear envelope: separates nucleus
from the cytoplasm
 Nucleoplasm: gelatinous fluid within
the nuclear envelope
 Nucleolus: one or more spherical
bodies where rRNA is synthesized
 Histones: proteins combined to DNA
 Chromatin: threadlike, uncondensed
DNA in interphase
 Chromosome: chromatin coils into
shorter and thicker rodlike bodies
5.2. Endoplasmic reticulum
 Extensive network of flattened
membranous sacs (cisterns)
 Rough ER – site of protein synthesis
 Smooth ER – site of lipid synthesis
5.3. Ribosomes
 Site of protein synthesis; 80s for
eukaryotes
5.4. Golgi complex
 4-6 flattened sacs that are stacked on
each other; for transport
5.5. Mitochondria
 Powerhouse of the cell (site of energy
production: ETC, ATP synthesis)
5.6. Chloroplasts
 Present in blue-green algae and green
plants; contains chlorophyll and light-
gathering enzymes for photosynthesis
5.7. Lysosomes
 Have powerful digestive enzymes capable
of breaking down molecules
5.8. Vacuoles
 Space or cavity enclosed by a membrane
called tonoplast; for temporary storage of
substances (proteins, sugars, organic and
inorganic substances); rigidity of stems
and leaves
 In plant vacuoles occupy 5-90% of the cell
volume
5.9. Centrioles
 Play a role in cell division and formation
of flagella and cilia
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 Microbiology & Public Health
San Pedro College
Batch 2013-2014

II. BACTERIOLOGY
A. Characteristics of Bacteria  Generation time – time for the
 Unicellular bacteria to double in size and split
 Divide by binary fission into two
 Peptidoglycan wall  Bacterial replication – binary fission
 Use wide range of substances for nutrition  Bacterial growth curve
B. Bacterial anatomy  Lag phase / Phase 0
 Capsule – evasion of phagocytosis,  Period of acclimatization
resistance to desiccation, adherence  Increase in size
 Cell wall – gives shape and resistance to  No population increase
lysis by osmotic shock, made up of  Log phase / Phase 1
peptidoglycan; endotoxin  “exponential” phase
 Flagellum – contains flagellin (protein);  Increase in number of
run and tumble movement microbes
 Cytoplasm – viscous aqueous  # of cells living is greater
suspension of protein, nucleic acid and than # of cells dying
dissolved organic compounds and  Stationary phase / Phase 2
mineral salts  “stage of saturation”
 Ribosomes  Living cells = dying cells
 Genome  Death phase / Phase 3
 Spores : clostridium and bacilli  “logarithmic decline
C. Bacterial physiology phase”
 Bacterial growth – refers to an increase in
bacterial number, not in the size of individual
cells.

1] Physical requirements: Temperature

“cold-loving” microbes (0OC)
Group of microbes causing spoilage in the refrigerator
Moderate temperature loving microbes (25OC - 40OC)
“heat-loving” microbes (50OC - 60OC)
Extreme heat (80OC)
Lowest temperature at which bacterial specie will grow
Maximum temperature at which bacterial species will grow
Temperature at which bacterial species grows best

1] Physical Requirement: pH
Tolerant to acidic environment
Tolerant to alkaline environment
pH=7

1] Physical Requirement: Osmotic pressure and salt concentration

Plasmolysis
Extreme halophiles
Obligate halophiles
Facultative halophiles
Cell shrinkage in a hypertonic solution
Organisms adapted so well in high salt concentration that they
actually require them for growth
Organisms growing at extremely high salt concentration (nearly
30% salt)
Do not require extremely high salt but are able to grow at salt
concentrations ip to 2%

2] Chemical requirements
Carbon Chemoheterotrophs
 get carbon from the source of their energy (CHON, CHO and
lipids)
Chemoautotrophs and Photoautotrophs both get their carbon from
carbon dioxide

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 Microbiology & Public Health
San Pedro College
Batch 2013-2014

Nitrogen, Sulfur,
Phosphorous and Trace
elements
Some bacteria use gaseous nitrogen directly from the atmosphere
(Nitrogen fixation)
Sulfur is used to synthesize sulfur-containing amino acids and vitamins
such as thiamine and biotin

Phosphorous is essential for the synthesis of nucleic acids and the

phospholipids of cell membrane

Trace elements are required by microbes to grow

Oxygen Obligate Aerobes
 require oxygen to survive
 eg: Neisseria, Pseudomonas and Legionella
 (+) superoxide dismutase (SOD); (+) catalase; (+) peroxidase
enyzyme
Facultative anaerobes
 aerobes, but they continue to grow without oxygen
 B. antracis; Listeria, Mycoplasma
 (+) SOD; (+) catalase
Obligate anaerobes
 Oxygen hating
 Clostridium
Aerotolerant anaerobes
 Cannot use oxygen for growth but they tolerate it fairly well.
Aerotolerant bacteria characteristically ferment carbohydrate.
 (+) SOD; (-) catalase
 Lactobacilli
Microaerophiles
 aerobic (require oxygen) but grow only in concentration lower
than the air concentration

CULTURE MEDIA
 ___________: A nutrient material prepared for
the growth of microorganisms in a laboratory. .1.4. Selective Medium
 ___________: microbes that are introduced  Designed to suppress growth of
into a culture medium to initiate growth. unwanted microbes & encourage the
 ___________ – the microbes that grow and growth of desired ones.
multiply in or on a culture medium.  added with inhibitors to prohibit the
 ___________ - complex polysaccharide growth of undesirable organisms
derived from a marine alga  Ex.
 ___________ – visible growth of o Bismuth sulfite agar
microorganisms on the surface of the solid  isolates _________ from feces
medium o Saboraud’s dextrose agar
 isolate ____ using pH 5.6
.1. Classification based on function o Brilliant green agar
.1.1. Chemically defined media  Salmonella
 Exact chemical composition is known o Middlebrook, Lowenstein-
 Eg: Neisseria gonorrhea Jennsenisolate
.1.2. Simple Medium  Mycobacterium
 for non-fastidious (doesn’t require o Colistin, Nalidixic acid
many growth factors) organisms (they  for gram (+) organisms
do not require additional supplement .1.5. Differential Medium
to grow)  For distinguishing colonies of
.1.3. Complex media desired species from other
 made up of nutrients including colonies growing on the same
extracts from yeasts, meat, or plants, plate.
or digests of proteins from these and  dyes or indicators are added to
other sources differentiate between two groups

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 Microbiology & Public Health
San Pedro College
Batch 2013-2014

of organisms growing together in o Candle Jar Method – no oxygen;

the medium o Gas Pak – absorbs oxygen, so
 Ex. Blood Agar – differentiates anaerobes predominate
the genus Streptococci .2. Bacterial Culture Preservation
o - hemolytic: partial  Short term: Refrigeration
hemolysis  Long Term:
o  - hemolytic: complete o ___________ is a process in
hemolysis which a pure culture of microbes
o -hemolytic: no is placed in a suspending liquid
hemolysis and quick-frozen at
.1.6. Combined Selective and Differential temperatures ranging from -
Medium 50°C to -95°C.
 Examples o During __________ (freeze-
o Mannitol salt agar – selective for drying), a suspension of
Staphylococcus aureus microbes is quickly frozen at
o MacConkey agar –selective for temperatures ranging from -
gram (-) Enterics; and 54°C to -72°C, and the water is
distinguishes between non- removed by a high vacuum
lactose fermenters and lactose (sublimation).
fermenters (E.coli)
.1.7. Enrichment Culture D. Relationships Between Organisms
 designed to increase very small  _____________ or competitive exclusion
numbers of desired microbes to o Competition among microbes
detectable levels o Eg: Clostridium difficile effectively inhibited
 For fastidious organism; with added by normal flora in the large intestine
nutrient  _____________ - living together of 2 different
organisms; relationship between microbiota and
 Ex:
the host
o Milk agar – high protein content
o __________ - one of the organisms is
o Blood agar – high RBC content
benefited and the other unharmed
.1.8. Anaerobic Medium
o __________ -symbiosis that benefits both
 Allows growth of anaerobic
organisms; “give and take relationship”
microorganisms
o __________- one organisms is benefited at
 Ex: the expense of others; many disease-
o Thioglycolate agar; causing bacteria are parasites
E. Normal microbiota
 Normal flora: microorganisms that establish permanent residence (colonize) but do not
produce disease under normal conditions
 Transient microbiota: temporary residence only (appears in just days, weeks or months
and then disappears)
BODY PART NORMAL FLORA DISEASE IT CAN CAUSE
Nose Scalded skin syndrome
Toxic shock syndrome
Acute endocarditis
Skin Catheter infection
Mouth Subacute endocarditis
Dental carries
Throat Tonsillitis, RHD, Scarlet fever
Colon
Appendicitis
UTI
Diarrhea
Blindness
Vagina

F. Control of microbial growth  ______________- destroying vegetative cells,

 ____________- total destruction of all forms of but not necessarily endospores or viruses, on
microbial life (pathogenic or non-pathogenic) inanimate objects.
(Agent name: sterilant)

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 Microbiology & Public Health
San Pedro College
Batch 2013-2014
 ____________ - Chemical disinfection of skin,
mucus membranes, or other living tissues.
(Agent name: antiseptic)
 ____________ - chemical agent that rapidly
kills microbes but not necessarily the
endospores
 ____________ –removal of microbes from a
limited area, such as the skin around an
injection site.
 ____________- a condition wherein bacterial
growth is inhibited; bacterium is not killed
 ____________- absence of pathogens from an
object or area
 ____________- reduction of number of
microorganisms to acceptable, safe public
health level
1. Physical Process of Control
1.1. Use of high temperature
 Moist heat – bactericidal; rapid;
abundances of moisture; MOA: ________
 Steam under pressure / _______
 based in sterilizing culture
media; _____, 15 psi,
______minutes
 spore strip: has
________________
 boiling at 100̊OC –vegetative cells
only are eliminated, not the pores
 pasteurization/ heat treatment for
milk
 Tyndallization/ intermittent
sterilization
 for media with high protein
content (3 rounds)
 Dry heat – MOA: __________
 Hot air sterilization/ Oven -
170̊OC (1-2 hours); empty
glassware, surgical instruments
 ____________
 burning to ashes (large
amount of contaminated
dressings, garbage)
 Open flame/ Bunsen burner/ Alcohol
lamp – burning to ashes, for inoculating
loops and needles.
1.2. Use of low temperature – bacteriostatic;
retards metabolism
 __________ (food, drug, culture
preservation)
 __________ (-50̊OC to - 95̊OC)
 _____________/ cryoscopic freezing (-
20̊OC)
 freeze-drying/ Lyophilization (principle
of sublimation)
1.3. ________ – sterilization of rooms; ionizing or
non-ionizing; MOA: Destruction of DNA
1.4. ____________ pressure (MOA:
plasmolysis)
1.5. Desiccation/ dehydration
1.6. Sonic vibration destruction of cell wall due
to constant bouncing
1.7. ____________ – separating bacteria from
heat-sensitive solutions like penicillin
 HEPA: used in laminar flow hood 0.3
µm (99.97% microbes eliminated)
2. Chemical Processes of Control
2.1. Phenol/ Carbolic Acid: MOA:
Denaturation of proteins, alter cell
membrane function
 ______________: measure or
test for efficiency of chemical
sterilants
 Microorganism used: _________
 PC = 1 means same as
phenol
 PC< 1 means weaker than
phenol
 PC> 1 means stronger than
phenol
2.2. Alcohols /70% isopropyl alcohol/
Ethanol – antiseptics; MOA: hydrolysis
2.3. Halogens (F, Cl, Br, I, Povidone-iodine,
Betadine, Chlorox) strong oxidizing
agents
2.4. Heavy Metals (Pb, Ag, Au, Cu, Hg, Zn)
 Oligodynamic property; 1% AgNo3
for ophthalmia neonatorum
(before)
 MOA: bind to sulfhydryl groups in
bacteria
 Organic mercurial
o Thimerosal – Merthiolate
(old)
o Mercurochrome –
Merbromin (has mercury)
o Metaphan – Nitromerozol
(has lead)
2.5. Detergents (for cleansing)
2.6. Quaternary Ammonium compounds
 Benzalkonium chloride,
Cetylpyridinium chloride
2.7. Oxidizing agents - KMnO4, H2O2
(anaerobic), sodium perborate
2.8. Dyes
 gentian violet, crystal violet 
fungicide and for UTI
 Pyrivinium  red cyanine dye
for pinworm infection
2.9. Chemical / Gas sterilants (for
sterilization of plastics)
 ________ – highly flammable;
MOA: alkylation of proteins
 B-propiolactone (BPL) not
flammable; carcinogenic
 glutaraldehyde – MOA: alteration
of enzymes
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 Microbiology & Public Health
San Pedro College
Batch 2013-2014

 formaldehyde- preserving tissues; H. Medically important bacteria

MOA: protein alkylation A. Gram (+) cocci
(formalin:___% formaldehyde) 1. Staphylococcus spp.
G. Gram staining a. Staphylococcus aureus
1. Gram Staining - Hans Christian Gram  Coagulase (+)
1.1. Chemical Reagents  Grapelike clusters
 _______ - primary stain  Produces yellow colonies
 _______ - mordant  Grow at temperature 15-45OC
 _______- decolorizer and at as high as 15% NaCl
 _______ - secondary stain concentration
1.2. Color Reactions  Exotoxin dependent:
 Gram (+)  violet or purple o Gastroenteritis/food
 Gram (-)  red or pink poisoning: enterotoxin
1.3. Exceptions o TSS: superantigen; fever,
 Mycobacteria hypotension, rash
 Spirochetes diarrhea, N&V
 Mycoplasma o SSS: Toxins A and B;
2. Acid-Fast Staining/ Ziehl-Neelsen Stain exfoliation
 only for bacteria that have a waxy b. Staphylococcus epidermidis
material in their cell walls  Coagulase (-)
 acid-fast organisms stain with color red:  Adheres to a variety of prosthetic
___________ and ___________ devices
 non-acid-fast organisms stain with the  Disease: nosocomial infections
color blue via IV lines
 Reagents: c. Staphylococcus saprophyticus
o ___________ - primary stain  Coagulase (-)
o ___________ - mordant  2nd leading cause of UTI in
o ___________ - decolorizer sexually active women
o ___________ - secondary stain 2. Streptococcus spp.
3. Special Staining Techniques a. Streptococcus pyogenes
3.1. Spore stain/Schaeffer-Fulton Method
 Group A beta-hemolytic
 spore-formers: Bacillus, Clostridium
streptococcus
 Endospores appear _____ in color.
 Non-motile cocci
Addition of safranin red stains the
remainders of the cell red or pink.  Highly virulent
o ___________ – green primary o Virulence Factors:
stain  M protein – avoid
o ___________ – help stain phagocytosis
penetrate endospore wall  Streptokinase
o Water remove primary stain  Hyaluronidase –
except from endospores spreading factor
o ___________ -secondary stain  Cytolytic toxins and other
3.2. Flagellar Stain – Tannic acid & exoenzymes
Carbolfuchsin  Diseases: pharyngitis,
3.3. ________ Stain – specific for staining necrotizing fasciitis, scarlet fever
nuclei/DNA  Post-strep infection: Rheumatic
3.4. Stain for Spirochetes: use of dark field fever and acute
microscopy; ____________________ glomerulonephritis
3.5. Negative Staining and Capsule Staining b. Streptococcus agalactiae
 Nigrosin or India ink; capsulated  Group B beta-hemolytic
organism is colorless / white on  Normal flora in pregnant women
black background (vagina)
 Capsule Stain/ __________:  Disease: neonatal sepsis,
treatment with hot crystal violet meningitis, pneumonia
solution followed by a rinsing with c. Streptococcus viridans
copper sulfate solution  Alpha-hemolytic
 Disease: subacute bacterial
endocarditis

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d. Streptococcus mutans
 Causes dental carries
e. Streptococcus pneumoniae
 Alpha-hemolytic
 Flame-shaped diplococci
 Major virulence factor:
polysaccharide capsule
 Lab test: __________ and
Optochin-inhibition test
 Disease: adult pneumonia, adult
meningitis (most common
causative agent), sepsis, otitis
media (most common cause)
B. Gram (+) Bacilli: Spore formers
1. Bacillus spp (central spore)
a. Bacillus cereus
 motile, found in undercooked fried
rice; causes food poisoning
b. Bacillus anthracis
 zoonotic (from cow, sheep)
 MOT; direct contact, inhalation,
ingestion
 Cutaneous anthrax: development
of pustule (painless, round back
lesion with edema)
 Pulmonary anthrax: _________
deadliest type
 GI anthrax necrotic lesion in
intestine, vomiting, bloody
diarrhea
 Edema factor (EF): Camp, which
impairs neutrophil function &
causes edema
 Lethal factor (LF): stimulate
macrophage to release
 Protective antigen (PA): promotes
entry of EF into phagocytic cells
2. Clostridium spp (terminal spore)
a. Clostridium botolinum
 MOT: soil (cutaneous); stored
veggies (home-canned); infant
botulism (eating)
 Neurotoxin inhibits release of
acetylcholine  ________
 Botulism: flaccid paralysis
 Symptoms: visual disturbance,
dysphagia, speech difficulty,
respiratory arrest
b. Clostridium perfringens
 MOT: soil contaminant,
introduced through wound, gas
former (aerogenic)
 Non-motile
 -toxin /lecithinase: splits lecithin
into phosphocholine and
diglyceride
 Symptoms: _________,
fatalmyonecrosis, wound infection
 Penicillin with Clindamycin
c. Clostridium tetani
 MOT: soil contaminant,
introduced through wound
 Structure: drumstick, tennis
racket, “tack head bacillus”
 Tetanospasmin: inhibits release
of GABA and glycine
 Result: sustained muscle
contraction
 Spastic paralysis
 Symptoms: muscle spasm,
lockjaw (trismus) risus
sardonicus, paralysis
d. Clostridium difficile
 MOT: fecal-oral (ingestion of
endospore)
 Normal flora of intestinal tract
 Pseudomembranous enterocolitis:
antibiotic-associated diarrhea
 Overgrowth of C. difficile is due to
broad spectrum antibiotics
(eg:___________)
 Toxin A (diarrhea); Toxin B
(cytotoxic to colonic epithelial
cells)
 Treatment: ________,
Vancomycin
C. Gram (+) Bacilli: Non-spore formers
1. Corynebacterium diphtheriae
 Pleomorphic, __________appearance
 MOT: respiratory droplets
 Disease: mild sore throat with fever,
pseudomembrane formation (pharynx),
neural involvement
 Exotoxin: inhibits protein synthesis
by inactivating EF2
 Treatment: DPT vaccine, antitoxin,
Penicillin or erythromycin
 Screening test: Schick test
 Lab test: Loeffler’s test
2. Listeria monocytogenes
 Motile, _________, facultative
intracellular microorganism
 Only gram (+) with endotoxin (LPS)
 Common cause of meningitis in
children
 Treatment: Cotrimoxazole, Ampicillin
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D. Gram (-) cocci  Present in Respiratory tract and

1. Neisseria sp feces of about 5% of normal
 Only cocci gram (-) bacteria individuals
 Nonmotile diplococcus  2nd most common cause of G(-)
 Aerobic, non-aerobic environment sepsis
 Oxidase (+), ferment CHO  acid  Disease: sepsis and pneumonia
 Culture: ________________ iii. Proteus mirabilis
 _________ motility (appearance
a. Neisseria gonorrheae of concentric rings)
 Disease: STD, PID  Very motile
 Gonococcal ophthalmia  Common cause of UTI and
neonatorum nosocomial infections
 Virulence: Pili/ adhesins, IgA
Protease, endotoxin iv. Shigella dysenteriae
 Sugar fermented: only glucose  MOT: fecal-oral ; on-motile, no H2S
 DOC: __________ production, no H antigen; acid
 Neonatorum: __________drops resistant, non-lactose fermenter
(New)  Shiga toxin: inhibits 60s
b. Neisseria meningitis ribosomes, inhibiting protein
 Respiratory transmission synthesis
 Virulence: capsule/Glycocalyx,  Disease: dysentery, bloody
can extract iron from transferrin, diarrhea with mucus and pus
endotoxin  DOC: _______________
 Sugar fermented: glucose and
maltose v. Salmonella typhi
 Menigococcus  MOT: fecal-oral route; produces
 Disease: Meningitis; H2S; motile (H antigen); non-
meningococcemia lactose fermenter
 DOC: penicillin G, ceftriaxone  Disease: typhoid fever,
gastroenteritis, sepsis,
E. Gram (-) Bacilli osteomyelitis
1. Enterics  DOC: chloramphenicol,
a. Enterobacteriaceae (5) ciprofloxacin, ________ (newest)
i. Escherichia coli
 Normally found in the GIT b. Vibrionaceae
 Index organism for fecal i. Vibrio cholera
contamination of water  ______ shaped, with polar flagellum
 MOT: fecal-oral route  Exotoxin: cholera toxin ( cAMP, causing
 Diseases: UTI, neonatal secretion of electrolytes from intestinal
ETEC (enterotoxigenic E. coli) Traveler’s diarrhea epithelium to intestinal tract)
(Montezuma’s revenge)  “rice-watery diarrhea”
EPEC (enteropathogenic E. coli) Children’s diarrhea
EHEC (enterohemorrhagic E. coli) Bloody diarrhea without
 Treatment: Tetracycline, ORS
STEC (Shiga-toxin E. coli)/verotoxin pus and fever  Not invasive infection
EIEC (enteroinvasive E. coli) Bloody diarrhea with pus
and fever
EAEC (enteroaggregative E. coli) Watery diarrhea, 2nd to ii. Vibrio parahemolyticus
ETEC  MOT: contaminated raw fish ingestion
meningitis, HAP and diarrhea (sushi)
 Virulence factors  Halophilic
o LT (heat-labile)  Disease: Food poisoning
o ST (heat stable)  DOC: __________
o Shiga-like toxin/verotoxin:
inhibits protein synthesis iii. Campylobacter jejuni
o Pili/adhesins  Zoonotic
o Endotoxin  MOT: uncooked poultry, unpasteurized
milk, fecal-oral
ii. Klebsiella pneumoniae  Common cause of bloody diarrhea
 Treatment: Quinolones

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iv. Helicobacter pylori
 Urease (+), no toxin
 Causes duodenal ulcers, chronic gastritis
 Treatment: TeAM B (Tetracycline,
Ampicillin, Metronidazole, Bismuth); ClarO
(Clarithromycin with Omeprazole)
c. Pseudomonaceae
i. Pseudomonas aeroginusa
 Non-lactose fermenter
 Has exotoxin A (diphtheria-like); inhibits
protein synthesis by inhibiting EF2
 Opportunistic pathogen (________)
 Diseases: pneumonia, osteomyelitis, burn
wound infections, UTI, sepsis, blindness
 Oxidase (+)
d. Bacteroidaceae (anaerobes)
i. Bacteroides fragilis
 Part of the normal flora of the colon (most
predominant)
 Diseases: abscesses in GIT, pelvis and
lungs
 Treatment: Metronidazole, clindamycin,
chloramphenicol
ii. Fusobacterium
 Disease: necrotizing anaerobic
pneumonia, periodontal disease, otitis
media
 Treatment: Penicillin G
2. Acquired via Respiratory Tract
a. Haemophilus spp.
i. Haemophilus influenza
 Aerobic or facultative anaerobe
 Encapsulated
 Required blood factors (X and V) for
growth (haemo: blood; philus: love)
 Diseases: meningitis (most common
cause in children 4 yo and below), septic
arthritis (infants)
 Treatments: 2nd and 3rd gen
cephalosporins, Hib vaccine
 Lab diagnosis: Chocolate agar
ii. Haemophilus ducreyi
 MOT: sexual transmission
 Needs only V factor
 Causes chancroid: painful genital ulcer
with swollen lymph nodes and releasing
pus
 Treatment: _________n / Erythromycin,
Ceftriaxone
iii. Haemophilus vaginalis (New name:
Gardnerella vaginalis)
 MOT: sexual transmission
 Does not need X or V factos
 Disease: bacterial vaginitis: foul smelling
vaginal discharge (fishy)
 Treatment: Metronidazole
b. Bordetella pertussis
 Virulence: Filamentous Hemagglutinin pili
 Pertussis toxin
 Disease: __________: burst of non-
productive cough
 Prophylaxis: _________, DPT vaccine
(pertussis heat-killed whole bacteria)
c. Legionella pneumophila
 MOT: air conditioning systems, cooling
towers
 Causes Legionnaire’s disease: severe
pneumonia, fever, non-productive cough
 Treatment: Erythromycin, Rifampicin
d. Coxiella burnetii
 MOT: aerosols, contaminated milk
 Acidophilic
 Causes _______
 DOC: doxycycline and chloroquine
3. Zoonotic diseases
a. Yersinia spp
i. Yersinia pestis
 Reservoir: wild rodents, city rats,
squirrels
 MOT: flea bite, contact with
infected animal, inhaled
aerosolized organisms
 Disease: __________ (regional
lymph node swell); sepsis,
pneumonia
 Treatment: streptomycin,
gentamicin, doxycycline
ii. Yersinia enterocolitica
 MOT: unpasteurized milk
 Causes enterocolitis, arthritis,
rash, diarrhea
 Treatment: ORS,
Fluoroquinolones, Cotrimoxazole
b. Francisella tularensis
 Reservoir: rabbits and squirrels
 MOT: bite of tick, deerfly or infected
animals
 Disease: Tularemia
o Ulceroglandular – tick bite
o Pneumonia – inhalation of
organisms
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 Microbiology & Public Health
San Pedro College
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Oculoglandular – direct
o i. Brucella melitensis: _______
inoculation to eyes ii. Brucella abortus: ________
o Typhoidal – ingestion results iii. Brucella suis: _____
in GI symptoms iv. Brucella canis: dog
 Treatment: Streptomycin d. Pasteurella multocida
 NOT a facultative intracellular
c. Brucella spp. parasite
 MOT: direct contact, ingestion of milk  MOT: bite from dog or cat
products  Causes wound infections (after bites)
 Disease: Brucellosis: undulating fever, may infect nearby joints and bones
weakness and loss of appetite  DOC: Penicillins
 Treatment: Doxycycline with
gentamicin

F. Atypical bacteria
 Show comparisons between bacteria and virus
 Small, obligate, intracellular
 Contains DNA and RNA
 Can synthesize own proteins

1. Chlamydia spp.
 Replicate in endosomes or inclusions
 2-phase life cycle
o Elementary body – non-replicating infectious form
o Reticulate body – multiple divisions; non-infectious form

a. Chlamydia trachomatis
 Primarily affects eyes and genitals
 Serotype A-C: trachoma (blindness, inflammation, scarring)
 Serotypes D-K: inclusion conjunctivitis (infant pneumonia, cervicitis)
 Serotype L: lymphogranuloma venereum (sexually)
 Treatment: Doxycycline (adult); erythromycin (child and pregnant)

b. Chlamydia psittaci
 Reservoir: birds, parrots
 Causes psittacosis in bird breeders, atypical pneumonia
 MOT: inhalation of infected dust from feathers or feces

2. Rickettsia spp.
 Infection requires an arthropod vector (except for Q fever)
 Obligate intracellular parasites except Bartonella spp.
Species Reservoir Vector Disease Treatment
Rickettsia rickettsii Dog, rabbit, Wood tick, Tetracycline
rodents dog tick Chloramphenicol
Rickettsia akari House mice Mites
Rickettsia prowazekii Squirrels, Human Tetracycline
humans body louse Chloramphenicol
Rickettsia typhi Rats Rat flea Tetracycline
Chloramphenicol
Rickettsia tsutsugamushi Rats, birds Mite larvae Tetracycline
Chloramphenicol
Bartonella quintana Humans Body louse Antibiotics
Bartonella henselae Domestic Antibiotics
cats
Coxiella burnetti Cattle, Doxycycline and
sheep, goat chloroquine

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G. Spirochetes
1. Treponema spp. (susceptible to Penicillins)
a. Treponema pallidum
 MOT: sexual transmission, causes
syphilis
 Primary state: painless ________
(skin ulcer)
 Secondary stage:
_____________: painless wart-
like lesion, rashes, affects the
CNS, eyes, bones and kidneys
 Latent stage: 25% relapse back to
the secondary stage
 Tertiary stage: _____ of the skin
and bones, CV syphilis,
neurosyphilis
 Congenital syphilis: contracted
through crossing the placenta;
high mortality
 __________________: acute
worsening of symptoms after
antibiotics are started
 Treatment: __________________
b. Treponema pertenue
 Causes yaws: severe facial
disfigurement
 Treatment: __________; plastic
surgery to correct facial
disfigurment
c. Treponema carateum
 Causes ______: flat red or blue
lesions which do not ulcerate
2. Borrelia spp.
a. Borrelia burgdorferi
 Vector: ticks (Ixodes)
 Causes ____________: erythema
chronicum migrans, affects CNS,
CV and causes arthritis
 Treatment: doxycycline and
amoxicillin
b. Borrelia recurrentis
 Vector: louse
 Disease: _________: recurring
after every 8 hours, drenching
seats, rash, splenomegaly
3. Leptospira interrogans
 Spiral shaped, with hooks on both ends
 Zoonotic (dogs, cats livestocks)
 MOT: direct contact with infected urine
or tissue
 Disease: Leptospirosis: bacteremia
causes high fever, muscle aches neck
pain
 Weil’s disease: severe case (renal
failure, hepatitis, mental status changes
and hemorrhage)
 Treatment: Doxycycline
H. Acid-Fast Bacteria
1. Mycobacterium spp.
a. Mycobacterium tuberculosis
 Cell wall: __________
 Acid-fast, non-motile
 Disease: Pulmonary Tuberculosis:
affects bones, kidneys, CNS,
lymph nodes and liver
 First Line agents:
o R
o I
o P
o E
o S
b. Mycobacterium leprae
 Causes leprosy/ _________
 Lepromatous leprosy: infectious,
multibacillary, loss of hair,
madarosis (loss of eyebrow),
copper-colored skin, lion faces
 Tubercoloid leprosy:
Paucibacillary
 Treatment: Dapsone, Rifampin,
Clofazimine
c. Atypical mycobacteria
i. Mycobacterium avium-
intracellulare: AIDS patients (DOC:
_________)
ii. Mycobacterium kansasii –
pulmonary TB
iii. Mycobacterium marinum: skin
granuloma/”swimming pool of fish
tank granuloma”
iv. Mycobacterium scrofulaceum:
cervical lymphadenitis called
scrofula
v. Mycobacterium ulcerans: chronic
skin ulcers with necrotic centers
vi. Mycobacterium fortultum: skin
abscess, corneal ulcer, pulmonary
infection
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I. Cell wall lacking bacteria  Treatment: _________

 Tiniest free-living organisms capable of
self-replication
 Lack cell wall, has cell membrane packed
with sterols
 Pleomorphic (many shapes)
1. Mycoplasma pneumonia
 Causes mycoplasmal pneumonia or
“_____________”: fever with dry
nonproductive hacking cough
2. Ureaplasma urealyticum
 Urease (+)
 Causes non-gonococcal urethritis,
burning on urination, yellow mucoid
discharge
 Treatment: ___________, erythromycin

III. MYCOLOGY
A. Definition & Some Terms 4. Mycotoxicosis: infection caused by a
1. Mycology: study of fungi (eukaryotic fungal toxin
organisms; lack chlorophyll; aerobic) B. Morphology
2. __________: those that feed on  Cell membrane: ____________
dead organic matter  Cell wall: _________
3. ________: infection caused by a  Capsule: _____________________
fungus  Others: cytoplasm, nucleus, ER,
Golgi apparatus, mitochondria
C. Classification of fungi
Phyla Asexual spores Sexual spores Examples
Ascomycota Conidiospores Ascospores Candida, Penicillium
Basidiomycota Conidiospores Basidiospores Mushroom
Zygomycota Sporangiospores Zygospores Breadmold
Dueteromycota Chlamydiopores None Coccidioides
Arthrospores
Conidiospores

1. Molds D. Sexual and Asexual Reproduction

 Multicellular
 Can develop tiny spores that ride in the air
and spread by air currents
 Proliferate by ___________
 Prefer neutral pH
 Prefer room temperature
a. _________ – long filaments of cells
joined together
b. _________ – cross-walls (component of
hyphae)
c. _________ – intertwined mass
2. Yeast
 Unicellular
 Simplest form of fungi
 Reproduction: proliferate by _________
 Pseudohyphae: short chains of yeast cells
 Capsule: negative stain (india ink)
1. Sexual spores
a. Zygospores: diploid cell zygote
b. Basidiospores: club-shaped cells
c. Ascospores: ascus
2. Asexual spores
a. Sporangiospores: sac
b. Conidiospores: at tips of the hyphae
c. Blastospores: budding directly of a vegetative
cell
d. Anthrospores: septate hyphae segments at
cross wall
e. Chlamydospores: thick walls

3. Mushrooms

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 Microbiology & Public Health
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E. MEDICALLY IMPORTANT FUNGI
1. Superficial mycoses
a. Pityriasis versicolor
 Patches remain white even with sunlight
exposure
 _______________ (spaghetti and
meatballs under microscope) – grows in
oily secretion  may cause dandruff also
 Lab diagnosis: skin scraping
b. Tinea nigra
 Dark brown to black painless patches on
the skin
 Exophilia werneckii
 Treatment: topical imidazoles
(Ketoconazole, Clotrimazole), Selenium
sulfide
c. Black piedra
 Nodular infection of the shaft
 Piedraia hortai
d. White piedra
 Affects pubic, axillary hair, beard, scalp
 Trichosporon beigeli
 Larger, softer yellowish nodules on the
hairs
2. Cutaneous mycoses
a. Dermatophytes
 Caused by Tinea (ringworms)
 Named according to where they are
found:
 ______: Tinea pedis  _________
 ______: T. capitis  scalp. Scaly
red regions with loss of hair)
 ______: T. corporis  _______
 ____________: T. cruris 
_______
 ______ : T. ungium  nailbeds are
thickened)
b. Candida albicans (Cutaneous Infection)
 Can become opportunistic
 Oral thrush (Drug: _______)
 Diaper rash
 Vaginal candidiasis
 Generalized candidiasis
3. Subcutaneous mycoses
 Entrance through trauma to skin
 Manifested by ulceration
 Fungi are normal soil inhabitants, with low
virulence
a. Sporothrix schenckii
 Sporotrichosis (necrotic, ulcerative
nodules)
 Lymphocutaneous sporotrichosis
 Affects farmers and gardener by direct
implantation of mycelial fragments
 Treatment: _______ (dilute solution),
amphotericin B
b. Phialophora and cladosporium
 Cause chromoblastomycosis
 Found in rotting wood: cauliflower-like
warts
 Diagnosis: copper-colored sclerotic bodies
in KOH solution
 Treatment: Itraconazole, local excision
4. Systemic mycoses
 Cultured in ________ agar (molds with
spores at 25OC);_______ agar (yeast 37OC)
 Treatment: ___________/Fluconazole
 Mechanism of Disease
 Similarity to TB infection
o Via inhalation of spore 
primary infection in lungs
o Maybe asymptomatic, may be
from mild to severe or chronic
o Lung granulomas, calcification
 Difference from TB infection
o No direct transmission
o Agents are fungi with spores, not
acid fast bacteria
a. Histoplasma capsulatum
 Nonencapsulated
 Causes ___________/
Histoplasmosis
 MOT: bird and bad droppings (cave
exploring and spelunking)
 Symptoms: respiratory infection,
pulmonary calcification
 African Histoplasmosis: Histoplasma
capsulatum var duboisii
b. Blastomyces dermatitidis
 “North American Blastomycosis”
 Hardest to get and hardest to have
 Symptoms: night sweats, lung
infection, skin ulcer, weight loss
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c. Coccidioides immitis  Treatment: __________ or

 Mild pneumonia; opportunistic ________
infection in AIDS patients b. Candida albicans
 Causes candidiasis; in
5. Opportunistic infections immunocompromised: Esophagitis
a. Crypstococcus neoformans
 Capsulated yeast  transmission c. Aspergillus flavus
via inhalation from pigeon droppings  Causes aspergillosis  asthma like
 Maybe asymptomatic; major disease
infection: meningoencephalitis (fatal)  Formation of fungal ball in the lung
 Diagnosis: india ink stain of CSF (aspergilloma)
after lumbar puncture  Source of _________

IV. PARASITOLOGY
 Area of biology concerned with dependence of one living organism to another
 Parasites: protozoans (unicellular); metazoans (multicellular)
A. Protozoans
 Kingdom Protista; free living unicellular eukaryotes
 Infective state: cysts ingestion  cell shrink into a round armored form
 Active, feeding form, growing stage of protozoa: trophozoite (after ingestion)
1. Classifications (based on locomotion)
 Phylum sarcomastigophora
1.1. subphylum sarcodina
 amoeboid movement (pseudopods – false feet)
Entamoeba histolytica
 MOT: fecal-oral
 Causes amoebiasis (bloody diarrhea)
 Structure: has ingested RBC, 2-4 nuclei, _____ shaped
 Treatment:
a. Asymptomatic: diloxanide furoate, Iodoquinol
b. Symptomatic: DOC: Metronidazole

Free living amoebas

 Naegleri fowleri and acanthamoeba
 Seen in fresh water, moist soil, swimming pools, lakes
 Naegleri: _______ meningitis, sudden death
 Acanthamoeba: ________ infection (AIDS Keratitis, uveitis, blindness)

1.2. subphylum mastigophora: flagellated

Giargia lamblia
 Giargia intestinalis (New name)
 Causes Giargiasis/ ______________
 Only protozoan found in both jejunum and duodenum
 Transmission:
a. Drinking from clear streamwater (campers)
b. Sewage contaminated drinking water
 Cyst ingested  SI wall adherence  no fat absorption: greasy (steatorrhea),
frothy diarrhea, rotten egg odor
 First intestinal microorganism to be observed under the microscope (Antoine van
Leeuwenhoek): looks like old man’s eyeglasses/kite
 DOC: Metronidazole; alternative: quinacrine, furazolidone

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Trichomonas vaginalis
 Structure: flagellated, with axostyle
 Causes Trichomoniasis
 Males: asymptomatic
 Female: burning urination: thin, watery, frothy, malodorous discharge (greenish
yellow)
 Treatment: Metronidazole

Hemoflagellates (blood-borne flagellates)

1. Leishmania spp
 Zoonotic disease (reservoir: rodents, dogs, foxes)
 Vector: blood-sucking sandfly
 Phlebotomous fly
 Treatment: Stibogluconate, Antimony Na gluconate, Pentamindine
a. Visceral Leishmaniasis/ _____________
 L. donovani  affect visceral organ, fatal
b. Mucocutaneous Leishmaniasis/ __________________
 L. braziliense  ulceration of naso-oral region
c. Cutaneous Leishmaniasis/ “___________”
 L. tropica  chronic ulceration of exposed skin areas
2. Trypanosoma spp
a. T. brucei gambiense (West ASS)
b. T. brucei rhodesiense (East ASS): more severe
 Vector: __________
 Disease: African sleeping sickness
 Red, painful skin ulcer, fever, headache, lymph swelling
 CNS: daytime sleep, behavior changes, walking difficulty, slurred
speech
 Treatment: suramin (w/o CNS involvement); Melarsoprol (w/ CNS
involvement)
 Alternative: pentamidine, efflornithine
c. Trypanosoma cruzi
 Vector: Reduviid bug (“__________”)
 Disease: American Sleeping Disease/______________
 Chagoma: red area at skin site  systemic spread, CNS and heart
 Treatment: __________ (for acute case); Benznidazole
 No antibiotic for chronic Chaga’s disease

 Phylum ciliophora – ciliated protozoans

Balantidium coli
 Balantidiasis
 __________________________________
 MOT: Food or water with pig feces
 Some asymptomatic, some develop diarrhea
 Treatment: Tetracycline, metronidazole

 Phylum apicomplexa/sporozoa

Cryptosporidium and Isospora

 Outbreak of diarrhea among immunocompromised patients
 Immunocompetent: self-limiting only
 MOT: contaminated municipal water
 Treatment: Isospora (Cotrimoxazole); Cryptosporidium (Spiramycin)

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Toxoplasma gondii
 MOT: cat feces (ingestiong of oocyte)
 Toxic to brain and eyes
 Transplacental transmission  Big no, no for pregnant
a. To
b. R
c. C
d. He
e. S
 Fetus: encephalitis, retinitis, congenital defects
 Treatment: Fansidar (Sulfadiazine + pyrimethamine)

Pneumocystis carinii
 Fungus previously classified as protozoan
 Latent in lungs: causes severe interstitial pneumonia
 AIDS: patients with CD4 count of <200
 Fever, shortness of breath, dry nonproductive cough, eventually death
 Treatment: ____________; Alternative: Pentamidine

Plasmodium spp
 Vector: Female anopheles mosquito
 Definitive host: ___________  sexual reproduction (Sporogeny)
 Intermediate host: ____________  asexual reproduction (Schizogeny)
 Malarial diseases
a. Periodic episodes of fever, chills and sweating
b. Anemia, sticky RBC  plug capillaries  blocked delivery to tissues  renal
failure  lung edema  coma
c. Hepato-splenomegaly: accumulation of dead RBC in the spleen
P. falciparum
P. malariae 72 hours
P. ovale and P. vivax 48 hours

 Control of malaria among travelers: prevent mosquito bite, chemical prophylaxis:

chloroquine (if resistant: Mefloquine)
 Treatment:
a. Erythrocytic stage: ___________
b. Exoerythrocytic stage (liver): ___________
c. Radical cure (vivax & ovale): ___________
d. P. falciparum: __________
e. Chloroquine resistant strains: quinine, mefloquine, fansidar, artemisinin
(quinghaosu / wormwood)
 Note: G6PD patients: _______________!

B. Metazoans / helminthes
 Multicellular, helminthes/worms
 Usually macroscopic (eggs: microscopic)
 Immune response in humans: eosinophils in blood (IgE)
1. Phylum nematoda / Roundworms
 Cylindrical, males smaller than females
 Method of laying
o Larviparous/ Viviparous: lay the larva
 Trichinella spiralis (acquired via ingestion of larva)
o Oviparous: lay immature, unsegmented eggs
o Oviviparous: lay segmented eggs (larva inside)
 Ascaris lumbricoides, Trichuris trichuira, Enterobius
vermicularis (acquired by ingestion of eggs)

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Intestinal Nematodes – (all mature in the intestinal tract)

Ascaris lumbricoides
 “____________________”
 Infection may be:
a. Mild asymptomatic
b. Severe (invasion of appendix or liver)
c. Dry cough, fever (larva in lungs)
d. Children: malnutrition (worm competes with food  growth retardation, lactose
intolerance, decrease fat absorption), otitis media
 Migrate out of the GI tract
 Most common intestinal roundworm of man
 Diagnosis:
a. Qualitative: Direct fecal smear, _______ Technique
b. Quantitative: ________ Technique
 Treatment: ____________, albendazole

Trichuris trichiura
 “whipworm”/”threadworm”
 Eggs: football-like, bumps on end
 Clinical findings: abdominal cramping, diarrhea
 Rectal prolapse: walls of the rectum protrude through the anus
 No eosinophilia, no invasion
 Treatment: Mebendazole, albendazole

Hookworms
 Necator americanus: __________________
 Ancylostoma duodenale:___________________
 Larvae penetrate between the toes of shoeless human
 Symptoms: diarrhea, abdominal pain, weight loss
 Sucks blood from the wall of intestine, causes _________
 Treatment: mebendazole

Enterobius vermicularis
 __________
 Female worm goes to anus at night to lay eggs (warm place)  severe perianal
itching
 Diagnosis: _______________
 Treatment: mebendazole, pyrantel pamoate, albendazole

Capillaria philippinensis
 _______
 1963: epidemic in Pudok West, Ilocos Sur
 Causes capillariasis
 Symptoms: borborygmi (gurgling stomach), abdominal pain, diarrhea, weight loss,
muscle wasting, weakness and edema

Strongyloides stercoralis
 Cochin china diarrhea, Vietnam diarrhea  vomiting, diarrhea, anemia weight loss
 They can multiply asexually  autoinfection
 Treatment: _________

Trichinella spiralis
 Found in raw pork; cysts in skeletal muscles
 Viviparous organism
 Fever, diarrhea, muscle aches, larvae migrate to heart and brain
 Diagnosis: ___________
 Treatment: mebendazole, thiabendazole, always cook pork products well

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Dracunculus medinensis
 “Guinea worm”
 Human: allergy, N&V, breathlessness
 Management: stick winding

Blood and Tissue Nematode

 Threadlike worms belonging to Filaroidae, hence “filariae”
 Spread by a vector, an anthropod

Onchocerca volvulus
 Vector: black flies, Simulium flies
 Flies breed in rivers and waters hence named as “___________”
 Microfilariae migrate to eye
 Skin nodules: contain adult worms  pruritic rash, “lizard skin”, granulomas
 Treatment: _____________

Wuchereria bancrofti and Brugia malayi

 Vector: mosquito
 Lymphatic infection (genitals, lower extremeties)
 _______________  chronic leg swelling, orchitis, filarial fever, pulmonary
eosinophilia
 Treatment: Diethylcarbamazine

Ancylostoma caninum
 Causes cutaneous larval migrans/”dog, cat hookworm”
 Pruritic, migratory skin infection

2. Phylum Platyhelminthes / Flatworms

 Cestodes/Tapeworms
 Live in human digestive tract, suck up host nutrient
 Hermaphrodites (both male and female)  long and flat (typewriter ribbon)
 DOC: Praziquantel; Alternative: Niclosamide
Taenia saginata
 “_____ tapeworm”
 Ingestion of larvae in infected undercooked beef
 Usually asymptomatic  abdominal discomfort, N&V

Taenia solium
 “_____ tapeworm”
 Ingestion of larvae in infected undercooked pork
 Eggs hatch in SI  larvae migrate to muscle  to CNS  to eye  form calcified
cysts  inflammatory response
 Result: blindness, neurologic manifestations

Diphyllobotrium latum
 “_____ tapeworm”
 Abdominal symptoms: ________ deficiency  Megaloblastic anemia

Hymenolepis nana
 “_____ tapeworm”
 Smallest tapeworm
 No intermediate host
 Usually asymptomatic  occasional GI discomfort

Echinococcus granulosus
 Causes “__________”  extra intestinal tapeworm infection
 Treatment: surgical removal (caution for analylaxis); Mebendazole, albendazole

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 Trematodes/Flukes
 Leaf-like appearance
 Hermaphrodite except Schistosomes
 Stages: egg  larva  adult
 Larval stage
 Miracidium: the form that enters the mollusk and becomes sporocyst
 Sporocyst: produces more sporocysts or rediae (or cercaria)
 Redia: produces either more rediae, or cercaria
 Cercaria: form that infects human; small sdult
Schistosomes
 Cercaria penetrate skin, invade the venous system
 Cannot multiple in human (needs freshwater)
 Disease:
a. Dermatitis and rash
b. Katayama fever (as the adults begin lay eggs)
c. Chronic fibrosis
 Treatment: Praziquantel

Species Other name Resides in veins Deposits eggs in

surrounding
S. japonicum Intestinal tract Feces
S. mansoni Intestinal tract Feces
S. haematobium Bladder Urine

Fasciolopsis buski
 “______________”
 Habitat: duodenum
 Diarrhea, edema, abdominal pain
 From eating water chestnuts, lotus and vegetables

Clonorchis sinensis
 “______________”
 From freshwater fish
 Indigestion, hepatomegaly

Fasciola hepatica
 “_____________” / “____________”
 Carrier: sheep, cattle, rabbits

Paragonimus westermanii
 “________________”
 Habitat in lungs
 Paragonomiasis: hemoptysis, cough (TB like), abdominal pain, fever
 Tx: Bithionol, Praziquantel

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V. VIROLOGY
Virology
 study of viruses  acellular, energy-less, float
around until they come in contract with the
appropriate host
 viral infections usually, they are self-limiting
diseases
 Structure
o with either DNA or RNA (NEVER BOTH)
o surrounds genetic material
o no organelles, no ribosomes parasites
 Obligate intracellular parasites
 Replication: No binary fission or mitosis; they
use host to produce millions of progeny viruses
A. CLASSIFICATION OF VIRUSES
1. according to Nucleic Acid
a. type of nucleic acid: either DNA or RNA
b. Double versus Single stranded
2. According to shape of Capsid (protein coat)
a. Icosahedral
b. Helical
3. according to presence of envelope
a. naked/ non-enveloped
b. enveloped
B. STEPS IN VIRAL REPLICATION:
1. Attachment and penetration of host cell
2. Uncoating or viral genome
3. Early viral m RNA synthesis
4. Early viral protein synthesis
5. Viral genome replication
6. late viral mRNA synthesis
7. late viral protein synthesis
8. Progeny virion assembly
9. Progeny virion release from host cell
C. ATYPICAL VIRUS-LIKE AGENTS:
1. Defective virus - cannot replicate without a
helper virus
2. Pseudovirion - contain host cell DNA instead of
viral RNA; can reflect but cannot replicate
3. Viroid - consist of single molecule of RNA
without a capsid or lipoprotein coat
4. Prions - proteinaceous infections particles;
cause spongiform degeneration of brain
DNA VIRUSES: (6 viruses)
 Pap Par Ade- Naked , Icosahedral
 Hep Her Pox- enveloped, Icosahedral except
________ which is complex
 All DNA viruses are double stranded except
___________, which is single stranded
 All DNA viruses replicate in the nucleus except
_________
A. Pap (Papovaviridae)
1. Papilloma virus
 human warts /genital warts and
cervical cancer
 treatment of warts: podophyllin, liquid
nitrogen, a-interferon
B. Par (Parvoviridae)- smallest DNA virus
1. Parvovirus B19
 erythema infectiosum  fever,
"slapped cheek rash”
 transient aplastic anemia crisis
C. Ade (adenoviridae)
1. Adenovirus
 URTI in children (rhinitis, sore throat,
fever) pharyngitis, pneumonia,
diarrhea, epidemic keratoconjuctivitis
(pink eye)
D. Hep (Hepadnaviridae)
1. Hepatitis B virus
 BIG and BAD  infectious “Dane
Particle”
 HBsAg (surface), HBcAg (core),
HbeAg (soluble component of core)
 Disease: acute & chronic hepatitis,
primary hepatocellular carcinoma,
cirrhosis
 MOT: blood transfusion, parenteral
transmission (non-oral)
 Serology
o HBsAg - LIVE VIRUS;
o anti HBsAg-protective
o Anti-HBcAg - ________
o IgM anti-HBcAg – ___ infection
o IgG anti-HBcAg – ____
infection
o HBeAg – _____ infectivity;
marker of active disease
 Treatment: active immunization,
alpha-interferon, lamivudine
 first vaccine in human used to be
made by recombinant DNA technology
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E. Her (Herpesviridae)
1. Herpes Virus
 Herpes Simplex Virus 1 (HSV-1)
o Herpes ______, oral cold sores
o MOT: saliva
o Location of lesion: above waist
o DOC: _______
 HSV-2
o Herpes ________
o MOT: sexual contact,
transplacental delivery
o Location of lesion: below waist
o DOC: _______
2. Varicella-Zoster Virus
 Varicella – “___________”
o Invades respiratory tract,
replicates produces viremia
o Manifestation: rashes from
face to trunk to body
 Zoster – “________”
o Latent  painful lesion
3. Epstein Barr Virus
 “__________”
 Disease: “Burkitt’s Lymphoma”
(cancer of B-cells); infectious
mononucleosis
4. Human Herpes Virus 8 (HH 8)
 Disease: “Kaposi’s sarcoma” in AIDS
patient
F. Po (Poxviridae)
 Most complex, largest
1. Smallpox virus/Variola
 spread via respiratory tract, but is
already eradicated completely
 treatment live attenuated vaccine ( has
vaccinia virus, avirulent form)
2. Molluscum contagiosum
 disease small pink papule wart-like
tumor on the skin (AIDS)
 treatment: Cidofovir
RNA VIRUSES
 Picor Cali Reo
o icosahedral naked
 Fla Toga Retro
o icosahedral enveloped
 Ortho Para Rhab Corona
o helical and enveloped
 Filo Arena Bunya Delta
o helical and unenveloped
 All RNA viruses are single stranded (SS) except
Rheovirus which is DS
 all replicate in cytoplasm, except Orthomixovirus,
mixovirus, which replicates in the nucleus
A. CLASSIFICATION OF RNA VIRUSES
1. (+) stranded RNA --translationprotein, enzymes
2. (-) Stranded RNA --transcriptionPositive (+) RNA --
translation protein, enzymes
3. Retrovirus RNA: RNA –reverse transcriptase DNA –
transcriptionmRNA – translation  proteins, enzymes
B. IMPORTANT RNA VIRUSES TO REMEMBER
1. Picor (Picornaviridae)
a. Enterovirus
i. Poliovirus
 MOT fecal-oral
 replicate in tonsils and Peyer’s
patches, moves to the blood, CNS
to the anterior horn of spinal cord
 Disease: paralytic poliomyelitis,
aseptic meningitis
 Formalin killed polio vaccine (Salk,
SC); live attenuated (Sabin, oral)
ii. Coxsackie virus (A and B)
 aseptic meningitis
 Coxsackie A: Herpangina (fever,
sore throat, vesicles over the back
of the throat)
 Coxsackie B: less severe, but
multiple organ damage
iii. Hepatitis A virus (HAV)
 MOT fecal-oral; infected food or
water ingested
 Disease: acute hepatitis
b. Rhinovirus
 disease common colds, hand to hand
spread
2. Cali (Caliciviridae)-
 cause diarrhea, gastroenteritis in
children, infants
a. Norwalk virus- leading cause of food
borne disease
b. Hepatitis E virus (HEV)
 MOT fecal-oral route
 Disease similar to Hepatitis A
3. Reo (Reoviridae)- respiratory Enteric Orphan
viruses
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a. Rotavirus- #1 cause of gastroenteritis/
acute infectious diarrhea; major cause of
infant mortality
4. Fla (Flaviviridae)- spread by mosquito vector
(arbovirus)
a. yellow fever- workers- hepatitis with
jaundice (yellow)
b. West Nile fever
 mosquitoes, or blood transfusions
 flu like illness, may present
encephalitis, death
c. Dengue fever
 symptoms painful backache muscle
and joint pain, severe headache
 vector: Aedis aegypti
 Dengue hemorrhagic fever (septic
shock, hemorrhage,
thrombocytopenia)
d. ____________ fever
 High fever, crippling joint pains (wrist,
ankles, fingers) that can persist from
weeks to months
 Vector: Aedis aegypti
5. Toga (Togaviridae)
a. alpha viruses (mosquito borne
encephalitis), SLE (St. Louis Encephalitis)
b. Rubivirus- Rubella virus
 German measles
 mild, febrile disease with rash
 3-day measles fever + flu + arthritis
 rash from forehead to face to torso to
extremities; self-limiting arthritis
 can cause congenital defects (cross
placenta)
 Rash at birth, low birth weight, small
head size, heart abnormality, visual
problems and bulging fontanelle.
6. Retro (retroviridae)
 Humans and animals affected.
 has reverse transcriptase enzyme
(create DNA from viral RNA)
 cause cancer--"Leukemia sarcoma
virus"--oncogenic virus
a. HTLV-1 (human T-cell virus)
 leukemia and lymphoma
b. HIV-2(human immunodeficiency
virus 2)
 Western Africa
c. HIV-1 (human immunodeficiency
virus 1)
 leading cause of AIDS all over
the world
 bind to CD4 receptor in helper
T-lymphocytes (for host
immunity)
 Common opportunistic
infections: PCP, Candida
albicans (oral thrush), Kaposi's
sarcoma, M. tuberculosis
 treatment: NRTI, NNRTI's,
Protease inhibitors
7. Ortho (Orthomyxoviridae)
a. Influenza virus (flu)
 2 glycoproteins:
o Hemagglutinin activity—
adsorption
o Neuraminidase activity --
cleaves neuraminic acid and
disrupts mucin barrier,
exposing sialic acid binding
sites
 ANTIBODIES TO BOTH ARE
PROTECTIVE
 Forms:
o Influenza A - humans,
mammals, birds
o Influenza B--human only
o Influenza C--human only
 Antigenic _____: small changes,
mutation in the antigens (epidemic)
 Antigenic _____ (for influenza A only):
major (or complete) genetic change in
influenza viruses causing changes in
H and N antigens (pandemic)
 complications: Pneumonia, lowers
host defenses against many bacteria
 ___________: viral infection + aspirin
 severe liver and brain disease
 treatment Amantadine, rimantadine
(prevent uncoating) oseltamivir,
zanamivir (NA inhibitors)
8. Para (Paramyxovirus)
 antigenic has NA and HA in 1 spike; has
fusion (F) protein--syncytial cells
 lungs (adsorption, replication), children
viremia
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a. Parainfluenza virus  only viral disease where post-

 URTI in adults (colds to bronchitis) exposure vaccination is successful
b. Respiratory Syncytial Virus (RSV) due to its long incubation period
 no HA NA but has F protein 10. Corona (Coronaviridae)
(Syncytial cells)  cold indistinguishable from Rhinovirus
 #1 cause of pneumonia in children infection respiratory illness (common
6 mos. colds)
 Treatment: Ribavirin Palivizumab  severe acute respiratory syndrome
(monoclonal Ab) (SARS)
c. Mumps virus 11. Filo (Filoviridae)
 replicates in URT and lymph a. Ebola Virus- viral hemorrhagic fever,
nodes blood parotid gland contact with monkeys
(orchitis) b. Marburg virus- acute hemorrhagic fever
 leading to meningitis and
encephalitis 12. Arena (Arenaviridae)
d. Measles virus (Rubeola) a. Lymphocytic Choriomeningitis virus
 MOT highly contagious, by air (LCM)
direct contact  Causes influenza like illness & with
 prodrome: conjunctivitis, meningitis.
photophobia, high fever, rhinitis, b. Lassa fever
malaise  fever sore throat, abdominal pain,
 Koplik’s spot: oral lesions (mouth) intractable vomiting and hypotension
rash treatment
 treatment MMR vaccine protective 13. Bunya (Bunyavirus)
a. Hanta virus
9. Rhab (rhabdovirus)  Korean hemorrhagic fever with renal
a. Rabies virus (_______-shaped) failure, hantavirus pulmonary
 infect all warm blooded animals syndrome
 bite--wound site  deer mouse reservoir
replicationmigrate (years) up to  MOT: droppings
nerve axonsCNS b. California encephalitis virus/ La crosse
 __________: diagnostic virus
 painful nerves around bite; 14. Delta (delta virus)
hyperactivity, agitation, brainstem, a. hepatitis D virus (HDV)
infection (pain in  parenterally transmitted cause acute
swallowing/hydrophobia) / hepatitis
"foaming of the mouth”, death  defective virus  only replicate in
 treatment: vaccine + Ig the presence of Hepatitis B virus (it
uses HBsAg)
VI. PUBLIC HEALTH & IMMUNOLOGY
 Health - successful defense of the host against forces tending to disturb body equilibrium
 Public Health - science and art of preventing disease, prolonging life and promoting
physical and mental health and efficiency through organized community efforts
 Disease failure of the body defense mechanism to cope with forces tending to disturb
equilibrium
 Natural History of Disease - complete disease process starting from without or within the
individual, resulting in changes in body form and function, until equilibrium is reached, or
recovery or of the individual
 Carrier - persons who harbor a specific infectious agent in the absence of discernible
disease and serves as potential sources of infection for man
 Immunology – study of host's defenses to a pathogen.
A. Immunity – ability of the body to specifically
counteract foreign organisms or substances called

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antigens.
Types of Acquired Immunity:
1. Naturally acquired immunity
a. Naturally acquired active immunity:
immunity resulting from infection
b. Naturally acquired passive immunity:
antibodies transferred from a mother to
a fetus (transplacental transfer);
antibodies transferred from a mother to
a newborn in colostrum
2. Artificially acquired immunity
a. Artificially acquired active immunity
(can be long-lasting): immunity
resulting from vaccination (attenuated,
inactivated, killed)
b. Artificially acquired passive immunity
(lasts for weeks only): humoral
antibodies (antiserum,
immunoglobulins) acquired by injection
B. The Immune System
1. Non-specific Host Defense
 1st line of defense : physical barriers
skin, mucus membranes, normal flora
 2nd line of defense :
o Fever
o Inflammation: 5 Cardinal signs
 _____: redness
 _____: heat
 _____: swelling
 _____: pain
 Lose of function
o ___________ : engulfment and
elimination of foreign substances by
WBC
o Macrophages/Monocytes, PMNs
(neutrophils & eosinophils)
o Natural Killer (NK) cells : cytotoxic
cells whose targets are not antigen-
specific; they lyse viral-infected and
tumor cells
2. Specific Host Defenses
 3rd line defense / Adaptive Immunity –
direct responses to initial antigen
presentation and memory (anamnestic)
responses on re-exposure
 2 types:
o Humoral (antibody-mediated) Immunity:
B lymphocytes and antibodies
 mature B cells migrate to lymphoid
organs; recognize Ag with Ag
receptors
 B cells produce new B cells
(Memory cells) and plasma cells
(antibody-forming cells) in response
to specific antigen
 Immunoglobulins / Antibodies:
antigen-binding and class-specific
functions
ANTIBODY CHARACTERISTIC & FUNCTION
IgG  smallest; can cross placenta to enter fetal
circulation; 70% of adult serum Ig
 most predominant
 crosses placenta, protects newborn
 enhances phagocytosis
 neutralizes toxin
 secreted during memory responses, and at
the end of the primary immune responses
IgM  biggest Ig
 first immunoglobulin secreted during
primary immune response
 pentamer: large size; 20% of adult serum Ig
 effective in agglutinating microorganisms
IgA  Secretory Ab (Tears, Saliva, Mucus, Milk)
 Protect mucosa from colonization by
bacteria and other microorganisms
IgE  Trigger inflammatory cascade by binding
to IgE receptor on basophils and mast cells
 Allergic Ab (Herpersensitivity)
IgD  Found in the surface of B cells
 Less than 1% of serum Ig; no known
function
o Cellular (cell-mediated) immunity: T
lymphocytes
 immunity depends on T cells and
does not involve antibody
production
 T cells respond to intracellular
antigens (bacteria, virus, parasite,
cancer cells)
 differentiate into many types of
specialized T cells when stimulated
by Antigen
 have characteristic surface antigens
(surface markers)
 Helper T cells (CD4 cells):
enhances immune system
 Cytotoxic T cells or CD8
cells: target cells that
express foreign antigen
 Delayed hypersensitivity
cells: produce cytokines
 Suppressor T cells (CD8
cells):
 Memory cells
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VII. SEROLOGY
 Science that deals with blood serum and particularly with immune responses evident in
serum
 Involves in vitro antigen-antibody complex

A. Precipitation reactions o Weil-Felix-Test – Rickettsia

 For detection of exotoxins (tetanus, o VDRL – Syphilis (Venereal disease
diphtheria, scarlet) research lab)
 Incorporate antibodies, positive (+) result: C. ELISA (Enzyme linked Immunosorbent
precipitation Assay)
 Three deadliest toxins: Tetanus, D. Immunofluorescence/ Fluorescent Antibody
diphtheria, botolinum technique
E. Opsonization
B. Agglutination reactions positive result: F. Quellung Reaction/ Capsular swelling
clumping, aggregation G. Schick Test – for diphtheria
 Ex. H. Dick Test for scarlet fever
o Widal test – Salmonella typhi I. Schultz-Charlton Test – also for Scarlet fever

VIII. HYPERSENSITIVITY REACTIONS

 exaggerated, inappropriate, prolonged immune response that can cause damage to normal
tissue
 Anaphylaxis is immediate hypersensitivity following exposure of a sensitized individual to
the appropriate antigen

A. Type I Hypersensitivity reaction

 immediate reaction (______); hyper-
secretion of _____ to specific allergens
(inheritable)
 Findings: vasodilation, histamine and
prostaglandin release from mast
 Effect: GI and respiratory smooth muscle
contraction
 Inflammation of upper (rhinitis) and lower
(asthma) respiratory tract GI, and skin
B. Type II Hypersensitivity reaction
 antibody-mediated Cytotoxicity
 time before clinical sign: _____ hours
 Antigen causes formation of IgM and IgG
antibodies that bind to target cell; when
combined with action of complement,
destroys target cells
 allergies:
o transfusion mismatches, RH disease
o drugs causing hemolytic anemia
o self-antigen – autoimmune disease
 MG, Hashimoto`s thyroiditis
C. Type III Hypersensitivity reaction
 persistence of ___________
 Antibodies and antigens form complexes
that cause damaging inflammation
 time before clinical sign: _______ hours
 allergies:
o self-antigen in non-organ specific
autoimmune disorders
o antisera from another species
o chronic infection
o drugs – long term, high dose therapy
D. Type IV Hypersensitivity reaction
 inappropriate and appropriate immune
response
 time before clinical sign: _______ hours
 mediated by: antigen-specific TH1 cells and
macrophages
 allergies:
o infectious allergies
o haptens: substances causing
contact dermatitis
o antigens: tuberculin reaction

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 Microbiology & Public Health
San Pedro College
Batch 2013-2014
IX. MICROBIAL GENETICS
A. Definitions
1. Genetics
 Science of heredity
 Includes the study of what genes are,
how they carry information, how they are
replicated and passed to subsequent
generations of cells or passed between
organisms, and how the expression of
their information within an organism
determines the particular characteristics
of that organism.
2. Genome
 The genetic information in a cell
3. Genes
 Segments of DNA (except in some
viruses, in which they are made of RNA)
that code for functional products.
4. ___________
 Genetic makeup, the information that
codes for all the particular characteristics
of the organism. The genotype
represents potential properties, but not
the properties themselves.
5. ___________
 Refers to actual, expressed properties,
such as the organism's ability to perform
a particular chemical reaction.
Phenotype, then, is the manifestation of
genotype.
B. Mutations & Mutagens
1. Definitions
a. Mutation
 Change in the base sequence of
DNA. Such a change in the base
sequence of a gene will sometimes
cause a change in the product
encoded by that gene.
b. Mutagens
 Agents in the environment, such as
certain chemicals and radiation, that
directly or indirectly bring about
mutations
2. Types of Mutations
a. Base Substitution (or _____________)
 Single base at one point in the DNA
sequence is replaced with a different
base.
 When the DNA replicates, the result
is a substituted base pair
b. __________ mutation
 If the base substitution results in an
amino acid substitution in the
synthesized protein
c. __________ mutation
 base substitution resulting in a
nonsense (stop) codon is thus called
d. __________ mutations
 one or a few nucleotide pairs are
deleted or inserted in the DNA
e. __________ mutations
 Base substitutions and frameshift
mutations may occur spontaneously
because of occasional mistakes
made during DNA replication.
 These apparently occur in the
absence of any mutation -causing
agents.
C. Microbial Genetics Transfer and
Recombination
1. ______________
 taking up of naked DNA fragments from
one cell by another, after cell lysis,
leading to a change in phenotype of the
other
2. ______________
 bacterial DNA is transferred from a
donor cell to a recipient cell inside a
virus that infects bacteria
 Transfer of DNA by means of a
bacterial virus (bacteriophage)
 Bacteriophage infects bacteria, carries
a piece of that bacterial DNA to another
3. _______________
 Direct cell to cell contact, can occur
between unrelated bacteria (antibiotic
resistance)
 Mating of two bacterial cells to initiate
DNA transfer from the donor to the
recipient, by means of sex pilus
 F plasmid/self-transmissible plasmids:
encode proteins needed to carry out
conjugation
o F factor- fertility factor
o R factor – resistance factor
4. ______________
 Transfer of DNA from one site the other
by means of “jumping genes”
(transposons)
 Transposons: (small segments of
DNA that can move (be "transposed")
from one region of a DNA molecule to
another.)
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