Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Pharmacognosy
Compiled By
Syed Bilal Hussain
Lecturer
Lahore College of Pharmaceutical Sciences
Under Supervision of
-1-
PHARMACOGNOSY
Dedication
To
-2-
PHARMACOGNOSY
Acknowledgement
I am very grateful to Ch. Muhammad Shamoon, Secretary, Punjab Pharmacy Council, Lahore, who give
I am very thankful to my teachers Dr. Shehla Akbar who generously contributed their time and efforts to
Special thanks to Hafiz Muhammad Zubair & Haroon Shahzad and Dr. Sara for providing help in
-3-
PHARMACOGNOSY
Contents
PHARMACOGNOSY 9
INTRODUCTION OF PHARMACOGNOSY 9
SCOPE OF PHARMACOGNOSY 9
CRUDE DRUGS 11
CLASSIFICATION OF CRUDE DRUGS 11
Alphabetical Method 11
Morphological Method 11
Taxonomical Method 11
Pharmacological Method 12
Chemical Method 12
TERMINANOLOGY AND DIFFERENT PARTS OF PLANT 12
Leaves 12
Leaflets 13
Stems 13
Flowers 13
Fruit 14
Pulp 14
Seeds 14
Roots 15
Bark 15
Wood 15
Bulb 16
Rhizomes 16
Herb 16
Medicinal Herb 16
Essential Oil (volatile oils) 17
Fatty Oil (non-volatile vegetable oils) 17
Gum 17
Resins 17
EVALUATION OF CRUDE DRUGS 18
Organoleptic Evaluation or Morphological Evaluation 18
Microscopic Evaluation 18
Chemical Evaluation 19
Physical Evaluation 19
Biological Evaluation 19
-4-
PHARMACOGNOSY
-5-
PHARMACOGNOSY
PROPERTIES OF ENZYMES 28
Catalytic Property 29
Enzymatic Property 29
Solubility 29
pH 29
Temperature 29
Specificity 29
Protein Nature 30
CLASSIFICATION OF ENZYMES 30
Oxidoreductases 30
Transferases 30
Hydrolases 31
Lyases 31
Isomerases 31
Ligases 31
FUNCTIONS OF ENZYMES 31
BROMELAIN 33
PAPAIN 34
SEPARATION AND ISOLATION OF PLANT CONSTITUENTS 35
Difference Between Extraction and Chromatography 35
CHROMATOGRAPHY 35
Applications of Chromatography 35
Stationary phase 36
Mobile Phase 36
Rf value 36
STYLE OR TECHNIQUES OF CHROMATOGRAPHY 36
Ascending Chromatography 37
Descending Chromatography 37
Circular or Radial Chromatography 37
TYPES OF CHROMATOGRAPHY 37
PAPER CHROMATOGRAPHY 37
Stationary Phase in Paper Chromatography 37
Mobile Phase in Paper Chromatography 37
Procedure of Paper Chromatography 37
Styles of Paper Chromatography 38
Application of Paper Chromatography 38
THIN LAYER CHROMATOGRAPHY (TLC) 38
Stationary Phase in Thin Layer Chromatography 38
-6-
PHARMACOGNOSY
-7-
PHARMACOGNOSY
Alkaloids 54
Volatile Oils (essential oils) 54
Resins and Resin Combination 54
Carbohydrates 54
Tannins 54
Lipids (Fixed oils, fats and related compounds waxes) 54
GLYCOSIDES 54
Medically Important Glycoside Containing Plants 55
ALKALOIDS 56
Medically Important Alkaloids Containing Plants 56
VOLATILE OILS (ESSENTIAL OILS) 57
Medically Important Volatile Containing Plants 57
RESINS 58
Medically Important Resins Producing Plants 58
CARBOHYDRATES 59
Medically Important Carbohydrates Containing Plants 59
TANNINS 59
Medically Important Tannins Containing Plants 60
FIXED OILS 60
Medically Important Fixed Oils Containing Plants 60
-8-
PHARMACOGNOSY
PHARMACOGNOSY
INTRODUCTION OF PHARMACOGNOSY
The word “Pharmacognosy” is derived from the Greek words Pharmakon (drug) and gnosis or
(knowledge). The term Pharmacognosy was used for the first time by the Austrian physician
Schmidt in 1811. Originally during the 19 th century and the beginning of the 20 th century
“Pharmacognosy” was used to define the branch of medicine which deals with drugs in their
crude, or unprepared, form.
Crude drugs are the dried, unprepared material of plant, animal or mineral origin used for
medicine. Although most Pharmacognostic studies focus on plants and medicines derived from
plants other types of organisms are also regarded as Pharmacognostically interesting in
particular various types of microbes (bacteria, fungi, etc.) and recently various marine
organisms.
SCOPE OF PHARMACOGNOSY
The Pharmacognosy has played an important role in the
development of various departments of the science.
Pharmacognosy gives a sound knowledge of the vegetable
drugs under botany and animal drugs under zoology.
-9-
PHARMACOGNOSY
In short Pharmacognosy is an important link between pharmaceuticals and basic science as well
as ayurvedic and allopathic system of medicines. So Pharmacognosy is a science of active
principles of crude drugs and which can be help in dispensing, formulating, and manufacturing
of dosage forms.
In other way the complete knowledge of Pharmacognosy will help in the recent trend that is in
industries, as a research tools and in new drug delivery systems, and all the departments of
pharmaceuticals and one can improve the healthcare facilities across the world.
- 10 -
PHARMACOGNOSY
CRUDE DRUGS
A crude drug is any naturally, occurring, unrefined substance derived from organic or inorganic
sources such as plant, animal, bacteria, organs or whole organisms intended for use in the
diagnosis, cure treatment or prevention of disease in man or other animals. Or
Crude drugs are vegetable or animal drugs that consist of natural substances that have
undergone only the process of collection & drying.
1. Alphabetical Method
2. Morphological Method
3. Taxonomical Method
4. Pharmacological Method
5. Chemical Method
ALPHABETICAL METHOD
In this method drugs are classified according to initial letter of their names e.g.
MORPHOLOGICAL METHOD
In this method drugs are classified according to their part used e.g.
TAXONOMICAL METHOD
In this method, drugs are classified according to their distinguishing characteristics (i.e.
Families) e.g.
- 11 -
PHARMACOGNOSY
PHARMACOLOGICAL METHOD
In this method drugs are classified according to their therapeutic effects e.g.
CHEMICAL METHOD
In this method drugs are classified according to their principle constituents e.g.
LEAVES
Flattened structures of a higher plant, typically green and blade-like, that are attached to a stem
- 12 -
PHARMACOGNOSY
LEAFLETS
One segment of a compound leaf is called leaflet
STEMS
Stems do many things. Support the upper parts of plants, They act like the plant's plumbing
system, conducting water and nutrients from the roots and food in the form of glucose from the
leaves to other plant parts. All plants have stems. Stems grow up into the air and towards the
FLOWERS
A flower is the reproductive structure found in plants. The flowers of plants have always been
- 13 -
PHARMACOGNOSY
FRUIT
A "fruit" is the seed-bearing part of a plant; Fruits have been heavily used for medicinal
purposes. Dried whole fruits or portions of fruits can be used. Many members of the carrot family
have fruits that are used in medicine including fennel fruit and anise.
PULP
The soft, juicy, edible part of a fruit is called pulp.
SEEDS
A seed is a small embryonic plant enclosed in a covering called the seed coat, usually with
some stored food. The seeds of many plants are used for their medicinal properties. Seeds may
- 14 -
PHARMACOGNOSY
ROOTS
The part of a plant which attaches it to the ground or to a support, typically underground,
conveying water and nourishment to the rest of the plant via numerous branches and fibers. The
fleshy or woody roots are used for medicinal purposes. Roots may be solid (ginseng), fibrous
BARK
The protective outer layer of a tree trunk that is formed by layers of living cells above the wood.
Active ingredients are often found in higher concentrations in the bark. Examples of bark used
WOOD
The hard fibrous material that forms the main substance of the plant is called wood. Thick stems
- 15 -
PHARMACOGNOSY
BULB
A bulb is defined as a fleshy structure comprised of numerous layers of leaf bases otherwise
known as bulb scales. Onion species and garlic bulbs are popular for medicinal uses.
RHIZOMES
A rhizome is defined as a fleshy or woody elongated stem that usually grows horizontally below
the ground. Rhizomes often produce leaves above the ground and roots into the ground.
Several medicinal plants are used primarily for their rhizomes including: ginger, wild columbine,
and bloodroot.
HERB
Herb, in botany, is a plant that does not form a woody stem, and in temperate climates usually
dies, either completely (annual herb) or back to the roots (perennial herb) by the end of the
growing season.
MEDICINAL HERB
A medicinal herb is different from botanic term “herb”. It refers to any plants used for medicinal
purposes.
For example, a medicinal herb can be a real herbal plant, a shrub (bush), other woody plant, or
a fungus. The used part may be the seeds, berries, leaves, barks, roots, fruits, or other parts of
a plants, or mushroom, which may be considered "herbs" in medicinal use.
- 16 -
PHARMACOGNOSY
GUM
Gums are solids that are mixtures of polysaccharides (sugars). They are water-soluble and are
in part digestible by humans.
RESINS
Resins are a mixture of essential oils and terpenes that are usually not soluble in water. They
are excreted by specialized cells or in ducts of plants. Examples include frankincense, myrrh,
and mastic.
- 17 -
PHARMACOGNOSY
Following method are frequently employed for the determination of quality and purity of Crude
Drugs.
For example
Color means external color which varies from white to
brownish black are important diagnostic characters.
General appearance (external marking) of the weight of a crude drug often indicates
whether it is likely to comply with prescribed standard
Taste is specific type of sensation felt by epithelial layer of tongue. It may be acidic
(sour), saline (salt like), saccharin (sweetish), bitter or tasteless (possessing no taste).
Aromatic odor of umbelliferous fruits and sweet taste of liquorices are the examples of
this type of evaluation
Odor of drug depends upon the type and quality of odorous principles (volatile oils)
present.
MICROSCOPIC EVALUATION
It involves detailed examination of the drug and it can be used to identify
the organized drugs by their known histological characters. It is mostly used
for qualitative evaluation of organized crude drugs in entire and powder
forms with help of microscope.
- 18 -
PHARMACOGNOSY
CHEMICAL EVALUATION
Most of drugs have definite chemical constituents to which their biological or pharmacological
activity is attributed. Qualitative chemical test are used to identify certain
drug or to test their purity.
PHYSICAL EVALUATION
Physical constants are sometimes taken into consideration to evaluate certain drugs. These
include moisture content, specific gravity, optical rotation, refractive, melting point, viscosity and
solubility in different solvents. All these physical properties are useful in identification and
detection of constituents present in plant.
BIOLOGICAL EVALUATION
Some drugs have specific biological and pharmacological activity which is utilized for their
evaluation. Actually this activity is due to specific type of constituents present in the plant extract.
For evaluation the experiments were carried out on both intact and isolated organs of living
animals. With the help of bioassays (testing the drugs on living animals), strength of drug in its
preparation can also be evaluated.
- 19 -
PHARMACOGNOSY
ALLERGY
DEFINITION
According to British immunological society the allergy can be
defined as…
“An allergy is sensitivity to a normally harmless substance one that does not bother most
people.
Allergies are abnormal immune system reactions to things that are typically harmless to most
people. When you're allergic to something, your immune system mistakenly believes that this
substance is harmful to your body. (Substances that cause allergic reactions, such as certain
foods, dust, plant pollen, or medicines, are known as allergens.)
In an attempt to protect the body, the immune system produces IgE antibodies to that allergen.
Those antibodies then cause certain cells in the body to release chemicals into the bloodstream,
one of which is histamine.
The histamine then acts on the eyes, nose, throat, lungs, skin, or gastrointestinal tract and
causes the symptoms of the allergic reaction. Future exposure to that same allergen will trigger
this antibody response again. This means that every time you come into contact with that
allergen, you'll have an allergic reaction.
Allergic reactions can be mild, like a runny nose, or they can be severe, like difficulty breathing.
An asthma attack, for example, is often an allergic reaction to something that is breathed into
the lungs by a person who is susceptible.
- 20 -
PHARMACOGNOSY
ALLERGEN
An allergen is any substance (antigen) that is recognized harmful
by the immune system and causes an allergic reaction. The
allergen can be a food, dust particles, drug, insect venom, or mold
spores, as well as pollen. Allergic people often have sensitivity to
more than one substance”.
TYPES OF ALLERGEN
1. Inhalants
2. Contactants
3. Ingestants
4. Injectants
INHALANTS
These allergens affect the body when they come in contact with the lungs or membranes of the
nostrils. Pollen is the most common inhaled allergen, including such substances as dust, pollen,
feathers, and animal dander.
CONTACTANTS
Allergens that come in contact with your skin and produce a reaction, such as the rash and
itching are called contactant allergens e.g. cosmetics, detergents, fabrics, and dyes.
- 21 -
PHARMACOGNOSY
INGESTANTS
Ingestant allergens are those that are swallowed. A variety of foods and medications can act as
ingestant allergens. Common ingestant allergens are milk, eggs, peanuts, chocolate etc.
INJECTANTS
Injectant allergens are substances that penetrate the skin, such as insect venom and drugs that
are injected.
- 22 -
PHARMACOGNOSY
Common Symptoms
Affected Organ Symptom
Nose Swelling of the nasal mucosa (allergic rhinitis)
Sinuses Allergic sinusitis
Eyes redness and itching of the conjunctiva (allergic conjunctivitis)
Sneezing, coughing, bronchoconstriction, wheezing and dyspnea,
Airways sometimes outright attacks of asthma, in severe cases the airway
constricts due to swelling known as laryngeal edema
Feeling of fullness, possibly pain, and impaired hearing due to the lack
Ears
of eustachian tube drainage.
Skin Rashes, eczema and hives (urticaria)
Gastrointestinal
Abdominal pain, bloating, vomiting, diarrhea
tract
TYPES OF ALLERGY
Environmental Allergy
Physical & Psychometric Allergy
Anaphylactic Allergy (Anaphylaxis)
Cytotoxic Allergy
Delayed Hypersensitivity Reaction
ENVIRONMENTAL ALLERGY
Environmental allergy refers to any allergy to pollen, dust, animal dander, smoke etc. Allergic
rhinitis, asthma are common types of reactions to these allergens.
Environmental allergies happen when your body's immune system overreacts to a substance in
the environment. Antibodies in your immune system identify the substance as dangerous even
though it's often not.
AIRBORNE PARTICLES
These are the most common allergens. Examples of airborne particles that can cause allergies
are dust, animal dander and pollen from grass, ragweed, and trees.
POLLEN ALLERGY
Pollen (male sex cells of the plant) is small, light, dry protein particles produced by trees,
grasses, flowers etc that may be spread by the wind. Pollen is a potent stimulator of allergic
responses. It enters into the nose and in other parts of the respiratory tract causing irritation and
histamine reactions.
- 23 -
PHARMACOGNOSY
CYTOTOXIC ALLERGY
This is due to toxic material of allergen when it is ingested by our body. It produces lgG in
response to allergen.
- 24 -
PHARMACOGNOSY
VITAL SIGNS
Some scientific tools are applied to prove the disease. By using following tools the severity of
allergy can be diagnose.
INVESTIGATION
Investigational tests includes scratch test, patch test, intradermal test etc
1. Scratch Test
2. Intradermal Test
3. Patch Test
- 25 -
PHARMACOGNOSY
- 26 -
PHARMACOGNOSY
INTRADERMAL TEST
Intradermal allergy testing is another method of skin testing to help
determine whether an individual is allergic to a specific allergen.
The test involves injection of a small amount of the suspected
allergen under the surface of the skin. After about 20 minutes the
area is examined for a reaction at the site of injection. A typical
reaction looks like a small rash with swelling and redness.
- 27 -
PHARMACOGNOSY
AVOIDANCE
In some cases, like food allergies, avoiding the allergen is a life-saving necessity. That's
because, unlike allergies to airborne particles that can be treated with shots or medications, the
only way to treat food allergies is to avoid the allergen entirely. For example, people who are
allergic to peanuts should avoid not only peanuts, but also any food that might contain even tiny
traces of them.
Avoidance can help protect people against non-food or chemical allergens, too. In fact, for some
people, eliminating exposure to an allergen is enough to prevent allergy symptoms and they
don't need to take medicines or go through other allergy treatments.
Here are some things that can help you avoid airborne allergens:
Keep family pets out of certain rooms, like your bedroom, and bathe them if necessary.
Remove carpets from your room (hard floor surfaces don't collect dust as much as
carpets do).
Clean frequently
- 28 -
PHARMACOGNOSY
Use special covers to seal pillows and mattresses if you're allergic to dust mites.
If you're allergic to pollen, keep windows closed when pollen season's at its peak,
change your clothing after being outdoors and don't mow (plant cutting or grass cutting)
lawns.
If you're allergic to mold, avoid damp areas, such as basements, and keep bathrooms
and other mold-prone areas clean and dry.
VACCINATIONS
After the confirmation of specific Allergy type & kind of allergen a specific vaccine is injested to
the patient & he/she remain save from the attack of this particular allergy for specific period of
time.
- 29 -
PHARMACOGNOSY
DEFINITIONS
Enzymes are organic catalysts produced by living organisms.
Catalysts
A catalyst is an agent, which in minute amount increases the velocity of a reaction without
appearing in the final product of the reaction.
Substrates
Substances on which enzymes act to convert them into products are called substrates.
Enzymes Catalysts
All the enzymes are organic All the catalysts are inorganic
substances substances
Enzymes mostly destroyed Catalysts are not destroyed in the
during the reaction chemical reaction
Enzymes are more specific in Catalysts are non-specific in
Nature Nature
Enzymes are very complex in Catalysts are very simple
Nature compounds or substances
Speed of the enzyme reaction Speed of catalyst reaction will
does not depend on the depends upon the concentration
concentration of catalyst
PROPERTIES OF ENZYMES
Catalytic property
Enzymatic property
Solubility
pH
Temperature
- 30 -
PHARMACOGNOSY
Specificity
Protein nature
CATALYTIC PROPERTY
Small amount of enzyme can catalyzed the large amount of substrate in biological reactions.
ENZYMATIC PROPERTY
The velocity of the enzymatic reaction increase as the concentration of the substrate increases
up to certain maximum. But after certain period of time it decreases.
SOLUBILITY
Enzymes are mostly soluble in water and diluted alcohol solution. The enzymes ca precipitate in
concentrated Alcohol, Ammonium Sulphate, Tricholoro Acitic Acid.
PH
Acid:
Acid deactivates those enzymes that act at alkaline pH, e.g Trypsin. At acidic pH, it will destroy,
(Trypsin is very important enzyme that secreted by Pancreas and very important for proper
digestion of food).
Base:
Base deactivates the enzymes that act at acidic pH, e.g. Pepsin, at alkaline pH, it will destroy.
TEMPERATURE
Optimum temperature for enzymatic activity is 35 o C to 40o C.
At 0 o C inactive
o o
At 10 C to 20 C very little active
At 35 o C to 40 o C max. Active
At 50 o C inactive
At 60 o C destroy
SPECIFICITY
Enzymes are usually very specific as to which reactions they catalyze and the substrates that
are involved in these reactions.
- 31 -
PHARMACOGNOSY
PROTEIN NATURE
In general with the exception of “Riboizymes, which are few RNA molecules with enzymatic
activities” all enzymes are protein in nature with large molecular weight.
CLASSIFICATION OF ENZYMES
Enzymes are generally named after adding the suffix “ase” to the name of the substrate, e.g.
enzymes acting on “nucleic acid” are known as “nuclease”. Even-though few exceptions such as
Trypsin, Pepsin, and Chymotrypsin are still in use. Further, few enzymes exist in their inactive
forms and called as Proenzymes or Zymogens e.g. Pepsin has Pepsinogen as its zymogen.
1. Oxidoreductases
2. Transferases
3. Hydrolases
4. Lyases
5. Isomerases
6. Ligases
OXIDOREDUCTASES
These enzymes catalyze oxidation-reduction reactions, e.g. Alcohol dehydrogenase, Lactate
dehydrogenase.
Examples…
Oxidases
Reductases
TRANSFERASES
Enzymes that catalyze the transfer of a functional group (e.g., a methyl or phosphate group)
from one molecule (called the donor) to another (called the acceptor).
In this example, A would be the donor, and B would be the acceptor. The donor is often a
coenzyme.
There are many types of transferases, some important are
- 32 -
PHARMACOGNOSY
Transaminases
Phosphotransferases
Transmethylases
Transpeptideases
HYDROLASES
These enzymes catalyze hydrolysis, e.g Pepsin, Trypsin
They have many subgroups some important are
Carbohydrases
Aminohydrolases
Lipids Hydrolyzing Enzymes
LYASES
Enzymes that facilitate removal of small molecules from a large substrate, e.g. Histidine
Decarboxylase, Carbonic Anhydrase.
ISOMERASES
Enzymes involved in isomerization of substrate, e.g. Retinal Isomerase.
LIGASES
Enzymes involved in joining together two substrates, e.g. RNA synthetase, Glutamine
Synthetase.
FUNCTIONS OF ENZYMES
Enzyme plays a vital role in our daily life. They perform following important functions.
- 33 -
PHARMACOGNOSY
Digestion
Enzymes play important role in digestion for the conversion of large complex and non-
diffusible molecules into smaller, simple and diffusible molecules, e.g. Trypsin, Lipase,
Amylase.
Cheese Making
Enzymes are also used in the manufacturing of cheese.
Sweetener
Some enzymes are used as sweetener,
e.g. Sucrose (glucosidase enzyme) Glucose + Fructose
Glucose is 72% sweeter while fructose is 132% sweeter than sucrose.
As Detergent
Carbohydrate and protein breaking enzymes are heat stabilizer and are used as detergent,
e.g. Proteases
As Drug
Some enzymes are used as drugs if there is any disturbance in the digestive system.
For cancer Treatment
Some enzymes are used for cancer treatment, e.g. L. Asparginase
Curing of Diseases
Enzymes are also play important role in curing of diseases such as rickets and jaundice,
for heart problem Lactate Dehydrogenase, and for liver problem certain Kinases are used.
Blood Clotting
Enzymes also cause blood clotting by protein thrombin.
Alcoholic Beverages
Amylase is used in manufacturing of alcoholic beverages.
Meat Tenderizing
- 34 -
PHARMACOGNOSY
Trypsin, Pepsin and Papain are meat tenderizing to facilitate the process of digestion.
- 35 -
PHARMACOGNOSY
BROMELAIN
Bromelain belongs to a group of a protein digesting enzymes
obtained commercially from the fruit or stem of pineapple plant that
helps digest protein when taken with food. However, When taken
without food (that is, with plain water on an otherwise empty stomach),
bromelain have natural antihistamine properties and as such is
believed to help support the normal function of the respiratory tract.
Sources of Bromelain
Bromelain is an enzyme derived from the stems of pineapples
Color
Yellowish-white to tan powder
Solubility
Readily soluble in water, insoluble in most organic solvents such as acetone, ether, ethanol
and methanol.
Molecular Weight
Approximately 33,000
Uses
Bromelain a potential anti-inflammatory agent
It is used as a supporting agent in the treatment of inflammation and edema
It is widely used in leather factory
It is used in the production of protein
Along with papain, bromelain is one of the most popular substances to use for meat
tenderizing.
Bromelain can prevent aggregation of human blood platelets in vivo and in vitro.
- 36 -
PHARMACOGNOSY
PAPAIN
Papain, enzyme present in the leaves, roots, and fruit of the
papaya plant that catalyzes the breakdown of proteins by hydrolysis
(addition of a water molecule).
Source
It is obtained from the leaves, roots, and fruit of the papaya plant
Color
It has amorphous light whitish color powder
Solubility
It is easily soluble in water but insoluble in alcohol, ether and acetone
Molecular Weight
The pure crystalline enzyme, papain, has a molecular weight of 21000
Uses
Papain is used in biochemical research involving the analysis of proteins
Tenderizing of meat
Clarification of beverages (soft and hard drinks)
Papain is used in enzyme-action cleansing agents for soft contact lenses
It is used to remove the protein molecules
It is also used in toothpastes and cosmetics and in preparations of various remedies for
indigestion, ulcers, fever, and swelling
- 37 -
PHARMACOGNOSY
- 38 -
PHARMACOGNOSY
STATIONARY PHASE
The phase or components of Chromatographic procedure that are non-mobile phase or
fixed is known as stationary phase.
For example
Chromatography paper
Tale
Mg-oxide
Al-oxide
Activated charcoal
MOBILE PHASE
This is the phase or components of Chromatography procedure which has ability to move
e.g. solvent used in paper Chromatography.
The most popular mobile phase is used Chromatography are…
Petroleum ether
Propanol
Ethanol
Acetone
RF VALUE
The retention factor, Rf, is a quantitative indication of how far a particular compound travels
in a particular solvent. If the Rf value for the unknown compound is close or the same as the Rf
value for the known compound then the two compounds are most likely similar or identical.
We can say that, Rf value is the ratio between the distance covered by any substances to
the distance covered by the Mobile Phase/ Solvent
Rf = Distance covered by substance / Distance covered by solvent
STYLE OR TECHNIQUES OF CHROMATOGRAPHY
1. Ascending Chromatography
2. Descending Chromatography
3. Circular or Radial Chromatography
- 39 -
PHARMACOGNOSY
ASCENDING CHROMATOGRAPHY
In ascending Chromatography the solvent are tends to move upward and the components
of mixture are separated in the form of spot.
DESCENDING CHROMATOGRAPHY
In descending Chromatography the solvent tends to move downward. The compounds of
mixture separated in the form of spots.
CIRCULAR OR RADIAL CHROMATOGRAPHY
In circular Chromatography the solvent tends to move in circular form and the different
compounds of mixture are separated in the form of rings.
TYPES OF CHROMATOGRAPHY
1. Paper Chromatography
2. Thin Layer Chromatography
3. Column Chromatography
PAPER CHROMATOGRAPHY
Paper Chromatography is one of the most common types of
chromatography. It uses a strip of paper as the stationary phase.
Capillary action is used to pull the solvents up through the paper
and separate the solutes.
STATIONARY PHASE IN PAPER CHROMATOGRAPHY
Chromatographic paper is used as stationary phase in paper
Chromatography.
MOBILE PHASE IN PAPER CHROMATOGRAPHY
Mostly ethanol, water, acetone or their mixture is used as mobile phase.
PROCEDURE OF PAPER CHROMATOGRAPHY
1. First of all we will take Chromatographic paper and cut it down according to the style of
Chromatography e.g. redial , ascending, or descending
2. In case of ascending a line has been drawn on the bottom sides in case of descending
the line is drown on upper of Chromatographic paper. The line is called baseline. The
distance of this baseline from the final edge is 1.5 cm.
- 40 -
PHARMACOGNOSY
3. The sample is applied in the center of baseline and the paper is applied into mobile
phase in a Chromatographic tank. After the appropriate time the components of sample
will separate and finally Rf value of each component is calculated.
4. In case of radial Chromatography the sample is applied in the center and thread has
been passed in through the center the mobile phase will move under the papillary action
and components of sample will separate in the form or rings finally Rf value of all the
components is calculated.
STYLES OF PAPER CHROMATOGRAPHY
Paper Chromatography can be done by following styles
Ascending Chromatography
Descending Chromatography
Redial Chromatography
APPLICATION OF PAPER CHROMATOGRAPHY
It is used in pharmaceutical industries to separate different kinds of (API)
It is used to determine the polarity and evaporation power of any given compound
It is used in the identification of poison
It is used in the analysis of different medicine
It is used in the separation of different body tissue
It is used in forensic medicine for investigational purpose
THIN LAYER CHROMATOGRAPHY (TLC)
Thin-layer Chromatography uses an absorbent
material on flat glass or plastic plates.
STATIONARY PHASE IN THIN LAYER CHROMATOGRAPHY
The layer of adsorbent is known as the stationary
phase.
MOBILE PHASE IN THIN LAYER CHROMATOGRAPHY
Mostly ethanol, water, acetone or their mixture is used as mobile phase.
- 41 -
PHARMACOGNOSY
PROCEDURE OF THIN LAYER CHROMATOGRAPHY
First of all we will take special thin layer chromatographic paper coated with the
absorbent and cut it down according to the style of chromatography e.g. radial, circular
ascending descending
In case of ascending a line has been drawn on the bottom side which case of
descending the line is drawn on upper of chromatographic paper. The line is called
baseline. The distance of this baseline from the final edge is 1.5 cm.
After drying the plate, the sample is applied in the center of baseline and the plate
enclosed into mobile phase in a chromatographic tank. After the appropriate time, the
components of sample will separate and finally Rf value of each component is
calculated.
STYLES OF THIN LAYER CHROMATOGRAPHY (TLC)
Paper Chromatography can be done by following styles
Ascending Chromatography
Descending Chromatography
Redial Chromatography
APPLICATION OF THIN LAYER CHROMATOGRAPHY (TLC)
This is a simple and rapid method to check the purity of an organic compound
Thin-layer chromatography is also used in forensics to analyze the dye composition of
fibers.
Determination of the components a plant contains
Detection of pesticides or insecticides in food and water
Analyzing the dye composition of fibers in forensics sciences
Identifying compounds present in a given substance
Assaying the radiochemical purity of radiopharmaceuticals
- 42 -
PHARMACOGNOSY
COLUMN CHROMATOGRAPHY
In column chromatography, the stationary
phase, a solid adsorbent, is placed in a vertical
glass (usually) column. The mobile phase, a
liquid, is added to the top and flows down
through the column by either gravity or external
pressure.
STATIONARY PHASE IN COLUMN
CHROMATOGRAPHY
The stationary phase or adsorbent in column chromatography is a solid. The most common
stationary phase for column chromatography is silica gel, alumina, cellulose powder has often
been used.
MOBILE PHASE COLUMN CHROMATOGRAPHY
Mostly ethanol, water, acetone or their mixture is used as mobile phase.
PROCEDURE OF COLUMN CHROMATOGRAPHY
The classical preparative chromatography column is a glass tube with a diameter from
50mm and a height of 50cm to 1m with a tap at the bottom. The stationary phase is a
powdered adsorbent which is placed in a vertical glass column. The mixture to be analyzed is
loaded on top of this column.
The mobile phase is a solvent poured on top of the leaded column. The solvent flows down
the column causing the components of the mixture to distribute between the powdered
adsorbent and the solvent thus separating the components of the mixture so that as the
solvent flows out of the bottom of the column some components elute with early collections
and other components elute with late fractions.
APPLICATION OF COLUMN CHROMATOGRAPHY
It is used in the separation of benzodiazepines
It is used in the Analysis of medicine
It is used for the purification of water & other organic solvents in pharmaceutical industry
It is used in the separation of different body tissue
- 43 -
PHARMACOGNOSY
EXTRACTION
Extraction is a very common laboratory procedure used when isolating or purifying a
product. Plants contain a broad range of bioactive compounds such as lipids; Phytochemicals,
pharmaceutics, flavors, fragrances and pigments.
Extraction Techniques are used to obtain such valuable natural compounds from plants for
commercialization.
EXTRACTION DEFINITION
Separation of medicinally active portions of plant or animal tissues from the inactive or inert
components by using selective solvents is called extraction procedures. Or
It is the specialized type procedure that involves the separation of different compounds on
the basis of their relative solubility in two different immiscible solvent. OR
The extraction is a complex pharmaceutical procedure in which the active pharmaceutical
ingredient (API) is removed from crude drug (animal or plant origin).
THEORY OF EXTRACTION
Any extraction procedure depends upon some fundamental principles and these are very
much common on all types of extraction.
Suitable size reduction of crude drug
Selection of suitable solvent
Penetration of solvent into the crude drug
The cell should be at right position to collect to solution
Supply of appropriate heat
Separation of solvent from marc
Evaporation technique is applied to get purified solid drug
MANSTRUM
Any liquid that is used for extractions procedure is called manstrum.
MARC
The waste material that left after extraction is called marc.
- 44 -
PHARMACOGNOSY
EXTRACTION TECHNIQUES/ METHODS
1. Infusion
2. Decoction
3. Maceration
4. Percolation
5. Digestion
6. Continuous Hot Extraction
INFUSION
Infusion is the process of extracting chemical compounds or flavors from plant material in a
solvent such as water, oil or alcohol, by allowing the material to remain suspended in the
solvent over time.
This process or technique is usually used for soft nature of drug. The extracts that are
formulated through infusion process have shelf life of only 24 hours, so it is recommended to
use these kinds of extracts freshly.
A common example of an infusion is tea, and many tisanes (herbal tea) are prepared in the
same way. Herbal infusions in water and oil are both commonly used as herbal remedies.
Coffee can also be made through infusion, but is more often made through percolation.
PROCEDURE FOR INFUSION EXTRACTION
First of all the nature of the drug is checked
If the nature of the drug is soft, no need to cut or crush it into pieces
if drug has little harder, then cut or crush it in to pieces
place the drug into the infusion pot
Now heat the manstrum up to 200c to 250c
Pour the hot manstrum on the drug and allow to settle for 15 minutes or according to the
requirement
Finally filter it and the extract is ready to use
DECOCTION
It is the techniques of extraction in which the drug is used in the form of powder or coarse
particles. Drugs are together boiled with water for certain are given period of time then cooled
and filtered. Decoction preparation always used freshly because their half life is about 24
hours.
- 45 -
PHARMACOGNOSY
Decoctions are suitable for roots, barks, large seeds & berries, and other dense material,
or for lighter materials where maximum extraction is required of constituents (such as tannins)
that are stable to heat.
PROCEDURE FOR DECOCTION EXTRACTION
Decoction is the technique of extraction in which water is used as manstrum.
The drug that is selected for decoction procedure should be hard.
The drug should be in powder or coarse particles form
Put the entire drug in large beaker (1000ml) and poured the manstrum on the drug.
Heat the drug and manstrum mixture to boil.
After the definite period of time the burner should be closed and allow the mixture to cool
down.
After the cooling phase filter the mixture.
The filter mixture is now ready to use as an extract.
MACERATION
This method requires prolong time. In this method drug is powdered and cover up in the
porous cloth then it is dipped in the manstrum for 2 to 14 days as required.
PROCEDURE FOR MACERATION EXTRACTION
Drugs are triturate to fine powders
Cover up the drug in the porous cloth or pouch.
Select suitable manstrum
After this the pouch containing drug powder is suspended in to the manstrum for 2 to 14
days.
The pouch is removed after the definite time
Finally adjust the volume of extraction as required.
MULTIPLE MACERATION
Multiple maceration is very important and effective procedure as far as its accuracy is
concern. The basic aim of this procedure is to remove the remaining (API) in to manstrum.
In multiple maceration, we prefer the alcohol as manstrum on other manstrum like wise
water.
PROCEDURE FOR DOUBLE MACERATION
Drugs are triturate to fine powders
Cover up the drug in the porous cloth or pouch.
Select suitable manstrum
- 46 -
PHARMACOGNOSY
- 47 -
PHARMACOGNOSY
POISONOUS PLANTS
(WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO PAKISTAN)
There are many plants available in northern areas & ground areas of Pakistan. Theses
plants have the ability to produce some harmful and long-term effects on the human body.
These poisonous plants can be classified as
Plants Causing GIT Toxicity
Plants Causing CNS Toxicity
Plants Causing CVS Toxicity
Cyanogenetic Plants
PLANTS CAUSING GIT TOXICITY
1. Mouth or Oral Cavity Toxic Plants
Arisaema triphyllum
Colocasia esculenta
2. Plants Toxic to Gastric Mucosa
Narcissus tazetta
Amaryllis
3. Plants Causing Dryness of Mouth
Datura stramonium
Atropa belladonna
4. Plants Causing Intestinal Motility
Conium maculatum
Nicotiana tobaccum
MOUTH OR ORAL CAVITY TOXIC PLANTS
Name of Plants: Arisaema triphyllum, Colocasia esculenta
Family: Araceae
Habitat: sindh, Gilgit, Swat, Ayubia and Nathiagli
- 48 -
PHARMACOGNOSY
Toxicology
The fundamental compound due to which mouth or oral cavity toxicity occur is calcium
oxalate.
Symptoms
Intense burning sensation Blister on tongue
Mouth less of sensation Increase salivation
Dermatitis Loss of voice is also reported
Colocasia esculenta
Arisaema triphyllum
PLANTS TOXIC TO GASTRIC MUCOSA
Name of Plants: Narcissus tazetta, Amaryllis
Family: Amaryllidaceae
- 49 -
PHARMACOGNOSY
Narcissus tazetta
Amaryllis
PLANTS CAUSING DRYNESS OF MOUTH
Name of Plants: Datura stramonium
Family: Solanaceae
Habitat: swat, Gilgit, chitral, muree and Kashmir.
- 50 -
PHARMACOGNOSY
Toxicology
There are different compound present in Datura stramonium mainly hyoscine and
hyocyamine if any human ingested there raw plants they can cause toxicity
If leaves and flowers of this plant eaten by some animal and their meat is used by human
can caused toxicity
Symptoms
Dryness of mouth Eye sight weakness
Dyspnea Muscular weakness
Fatigue
Datura stramonium
- 51 -
PHARMACOGNOSY
Atropa belladonna
PLANTS CAUSING INTESTINAL MOTILITY
Name of Plants: Conium maculatum
Family: Umbelliferae
Habitat: Hazara, Abottabad, and hills of muree and Chitral
Toxicology
There are many alkaloids present in Conium maculatum that cause multiple symptoms
Symptoms
Increase the intestinal motility Respiratory Depression
Paralysis of motor Nerve ending Drowsiness
Paralysis of spinal card
Conium maculatum
Name of Plants: Nicotiana tobaccum
- 52 -
PHARMACOGNOSY
Family: Solanaceae
Habitat: it is widely available in rural sindh, Punjab and N.W.F.P.
Toxicology
There are mainly alkaloids available in Nicotiana tobaccum. But the most effective is
nicotine.
Symptoms
Enhance the motility of intestine
Diarrhea
Nicotiana tobaccum
PLANTS CAUSING CVS DISTURBANCES
1. Digitalis purpurea
2. Digitalis lanata
3. Nerium indicum
Name of Plants: Digitalis purpurea, Digitalis lanata
Family: Scrophulariaceae
Habitat: Hazara, Azad Kashmir
Toxicology
These are two plants contain many glycosides. In which the most active are Digoxin,
Digitoxin and Gitoxin.
- 53 -
PHARMACOGNOSY
Symptoms
Ventricular tachycardia shortness of breath
Vomiting Drowsiness
Sinus arrhythmia Fatigue
Digitalis purpurea
Nerium indicum
- 54 -
PHARMACOGNOSY
PLANTS CAUSING CNS DISTURBANCES
1. Cannabis sativa
2. Cicuta virosa
Name of Plants: Cannabis sativa
Family: Cannabinaceae/ Moraceae
Habitat: it is widely available in NWFP and Punjab
Toxicology
The glandular trichomes of Cannabis sativa is secreted a resin which usually a waste
material called as Narcotic resin.
Symptoms
Shrinkage of mouth The addict person will not enjoy the
Dryness of mouth color of life
Dry cough Vomiting
Constipation Headache
Depression Hallucination
Cannabis sativa
- 56 -
Cicuta virosa
CYANOGENETIC PLANTS
Name of Plants: Manihot esculenta
Family: Euphorbiaceae
Habitat
It is easily available in the forests of Northern area
Toxicology
There is a toxic substances name cyanogenocyte which can produce harmful effect on
the living systems
Symptoms
Convulsion
Muscular weakness
Liver damage
Vomiting
Manihot esculenta
GENERAL INTRODUCTION, CLASSIFICATION AND MEDICINAL USES OF IMPORTANT PLANTS
1. Cassia angustifolia
2. Cassia fistula
3. Aloe barbadensis
4. Urginea maritima
ALKALOIDS
1. Rauwolfia serpentina
2. Catharanthus roseus
3. Ephedra sinica
CARBOHYDRATES
1. Acacia senegal
2. Astragalus gummifer
TANNINS
1. Acacia catechu
2. Quercus infectoria
1. Cassia angustifolia
2. Cassia fistula
3. Aloe barbadensis
4. Urginea maritima
Botanical Name: Cassia angustifolia
Drug: Senna, Senna is a natural medicine containing Sennosides that are derived from
the leaves of the Senna plant.
Chemical Class: Glycoside
Family: Leguminosae
Chemical Constituent: Sennosides
Medicinal Uses: Cathartic, Laxative, Senna is also used for weight loss.
Botanical Name: Cassia fistula
Drug: Cassia
Chemical Class: Glycoside
Family: Leguminosae
Chemical Constituent: Sennosides
Medicinal Uses: Cathartic, the fruit pulp is considered a purgative
Botanical Name: Aloe barbadensis
Drug: Aloe
Chemical Class: Glycoside
Family: Liliaceae
Chemical Constituent: Aloin
Medicinal Uses: Cathartic, speed up the process of healing to burns and other wounds,
moisturizes and softens your skin
Botanical Name: Urginea maritima
Drug: Squill
Chemical Class: Glycoside
Family: Liliaceae
Chemical Constituent: Scillaridin-A
Medicinal Uses: Diuretic, Anti-emetic, Squill is a cardio tonic similar to digitalis. It also
has been used in hair tonics to treat dandruff
ALKALOIDS
Alkaloids are naturally occurring chemical compounds containing basic nitrogen atoms.
The name derives from the word alkaline and is used to describe any nitrogen-containing
base and organic compounds.
MEDICALLY IMPORTANT ALKALOIDS CONTAINING PLANTS
1. Rauwolfia serpentina
2. Catharanthus roseus
3. Ephedra sinica
Botanical Name: Rauvolfia serpentina
Drug: Rauwolfia
Chemical Class: Alkaloids
Family: Apocynaceae
Chemical Constituent: Reserpine
Medicinal Uses: Alkaloids present in this plant reduce blood pressure, depress activity
of the central nervous system and act as hypnotics and Sedative.
Botanical Name: Catharanthus roseus
Drug: Catharanthus
Chemical Class: Alkaloids
Family: Apocynaceae
Chemical Constituent: Vinblastine and Vincristine
Medicinal Uses: Anti Cancer, the leaf juice or water decoction of Catharanthus roseus is
used for the treatment of diabetes.
Botanical Name: Ephedra sinica
Drug: Ephedra
Chemical Class: Alkaloids
Family: Ephedraceae
Chemical Constituent: Ephedrine
Medicinal Uses: Anti asthmatic, Bronchodilator. Ephedra is widely used by athletes as a
performance-enhancing drug. Ephedra has been used as a weight-loss aid, sometimes
in combination with aspirin and caffeine.
VOLATILE OILS (ESSENTIAL OILS)
Volatile oil is a concentrated hydrophobic liquid containing volatile aroma compounds
(fragrance) from plants. Volatile oils are also known as Essential oils.
Essential oils are generally extracted by distillation, often by using steam. Essential oils
have been used medicinally in history. Medical applications proposed by those who sell
medicinal oils range from skin treatments to remedies for cancer.
MEDICALLY IMPORTANT VOLATILE CONTAINING PLANTS
1. Foeniculum vulgare
2. Carum carvi
3. Curcuma longa
Botanical Name: Foeniculum vulgare
Drug: Fennel
Chemical Class: Volatile oil
Family: Umbelliferae
Chemical Constituent: Fenchone
Medicinal Uses: Carminative, Flavoring agent
Botanical Name: Carum carvi
Drug: Caraway
Chemical Class: Volatile oil
Family: Umbelliferae
Chemical Constituent: Limonene
Medicinal Uses: Carminative, Flavoring agent
Botanical Name: Curcuma longa
Drug: Curcuma
Chemical Class: Volatile oil
Family: Zingiberaceae
Chemical Constituent: Curcumin
Medicinal Uses: Anti inflammatory, Use in jaundice, Use in gall stones
RESINS
A natural or synthetic organic compound, consisting of non-crystalline, solid, viscous
liquid substance or mixture. Natural resins are usually transparent or translucent yellow
to brown and can melt and burn.
The resin produced by most plants is a viscous liquid, composed mainly of volatile fluid
terpenes, with lesser components of dissolved non-volatile solids which make resin thick
and sticky.
MEDICALLY IMPORTANT RESINS PRODUCING PLANTS
1. Citrullus colocynthis
2. Styrax benzoin
Botanical Name: Citrullus colocynthis
Drug: Colocynth
Chemical Class: Volatile oil
Family: Cucurbitaceae
Chemical Constituent: corocynthix, peciten phosphate
Medicinal Uses: Cathartic
Botanical Name: Styrax benzoin
Drug: Benzoin
Chemical Class: Volatile oil
Family: Styraceae
Chemical Constituent: Coniferyl benzoate
Medicinal Uses: Antiseptic, Expectorant
CARBOHYDRATES
A carbohydrate is a large biological molecule, or macromolecule, consisting of carbon
(C), hydrogen (H), and oxygen (O) atoms.
Carbohydrates perform numerous roles in living organisms. Polysaccharides serve for
the storage of energy (e.g., starch and glycogen), and as structural components (e.g.,
cellulose in plants).
MEDICALLY IMPORTANT CARBOHYDRATES CONTAINING PLANTS
1. Acacia senegal
2. Astragalus gummifer
Botanical Name: Acacia senegal
Drug: Acacia Gum
Chemical Class: Carbohydrate
Family: Leguminosae
Chemical Constituent: Arabic acid
Medicinal Uses: Acacia gum is used as a demulcent (a substance that relieves irritation
of the mucous membranes in the mouth by forming a protective film). It is used topically
for healing wounds and has been shown to inhibit the growth of some bacteria. It is also
used as a binding agent.
Botanical Name: Astragalus gummifer
Drug: Tragacanth
Chemical Class: carbohydrate
Family: Leguminosae
Chemical Constituent: Tragacanthin
Medicinal Uses: Tragacanth has been used for constipation; Modern pharmaceutical
uses include an adhesive agent for pills and tablets, and for emulsifying oil droplets in
lotions, creams and pastes. Its superior water absorbing qualities make it an excellent
thickening agent.
TANNINS
Any of a class of yellowish or brownish solid compounds found in many plants and used
as tanning agents, mordents, or medical astringents.
(Tanning is the process of treating skins of animals to produce leather)
(A mordant is a substance used to set dyes on fabrics or tissue)
(An astringent substance is a chemical compound that tends to shrink or constrict body
tissues)
The tannin compounds are widely distributed in many species of plants, where they play
a role in protection from predation, and perhaps also as pesticides, and in plant growth
regulation.
MEDICALLY IMPORTANT TANNINS CONTAINING PLANTS
1. Acacia catechu
2. Quercus infectoria
Botanical Name: Acacia catechu
Drug: Catechu
Chemical Class: Tannin
Family: Leguminosae
Chemical Constituent: Catechin
Medicinal Uses: Catechu is used in traditional medicine for sore throats and diarrhea; it
is also used as anti-inflammatory, anti-diuretic. It enhance digestion and curing skin
disorders.
Botanical Name: Quercus infectoria
Drug: Nut gall
Chemical Class: Tannin
Family: Fagaceae
Chemical Constituent: Gallic acid
Medicinal Uses: Nut gall extracts are widely used in pharmaceuticals, food and feed
additives, dyes and inks manufacturing.
FIXED OILS
Non-volatile oils especially fatty oils of vegetable origin are called fixed oils. Fixed oils do
not evaporate like essential oil and are often called carrier oils.
MEDICALLY IMPORTANT FIXED OILS CONTAINING PLANTS
1. Prunus amygdalus
2. Aloe barbadensis
Drug: Almond
Botanical Name: Prunus amygdalus
Chemical Class: Lipids (Fixed oil)
Family: Rosaceae
Chemical Constituent: Sphingolipid
Medicinal Uses: Regulation of cholesterol, Immune System Strength, Anti-Inflammation,
Regulation of blood pressure, Prevention of cancer
Botanical Name: Aloe barbadensis
Drug: Aloe vera
Chemical Class: Lipids (fixed oil)
Family: Asphodelaceae
Chemical Constituent: Saponins & salicylic acid
Medicinal Uses: Used for moisturizing skin, it is used in creams & lotions, It is a well
known healing and soothing agent for damaged and dry skin, It is soothing and healing
for burns skin irritations.
Course Outlines
PHARMACOGNOSY (WRITTEN)
a) Glycosides
b) Alkaloids
e) Carbohydrates
f) Tannins