Anatomy & Physiology - Lecture

STUDENT ACTIVITY SHEET BS NURSING / FIRST YEAR

Session # 2

LESSON TITLE: CELL STRUCTURES AND THEIR Materials:

FUNCTIONS
Book, pen and notebook
LEARNING OUTCOMES:
Upon completion of this lesson, you can:

1. Describe the cells involving human body and its main Reference:
functions; VanPutte, C., Regan, J., & Russo, A. (2019). Seeley’s
2. Identify the structure of cell membrane; and, essentials of anatomy & physiology (10th ed.).
3. Describe the structure and functions of different New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Education.
organelles.
4. Identify the major organelles contained in generalized cells;
5. Define the two types of movement through the cell
membrane;
6. Define diffusion and concentration gradient;
7. Explain the role of osmosis;
8. Compare hypotonic, hypertonic, and isotonic solutions;
9. Describe the various carrier-mediated transport
mechanisms;
10. Differentiate endocytosis and exocytosis;
11. Describe the cytoskeleton and whole activity of a cell;
12. Identify the process in gene expression;
13. Define cell cycle and its phases;
14. Enumerate the process occurring during mitosis;
15. Define differentiation and apoptosis; and,
16. List down the cellular aspects of aging.

LESSON REVIEW/PREVIEW
Before we start the new chapter, let us take a review first from the previous chapter. Kindly answer the following
items on your own, without looking at your notes. Enjoy!

Identification
1. This is the study of the processes and functions of the body. Answer: Physiology
2. The study of the structures of the body. Answer: Anatomy
3. The condition in which body functions, body fluids, and other factors of the internal environment are
maintained within a range of values suitable to support life. Answer: Homeostasis
4. Enumerate the 11 organ systems of the human body.
▪ Integumentary System
▪ Skeletal System
▪ Muscular System
▪ Nervous System
▪ Endocrine System
▪ Cardiovascular System
▪ Lymphatic System
▪ Respiratory System
▪ Digestive System
▪ Urinary System
▪ Reproductive System

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MAIN LESSON
You must read & study the concepts and refer to figures/tables in Chapter 3 of the book.

Cells – the basic living unit of all organisms; each cell is a highly organized unit.
Organelles – specialized structures in cells that perform specific functions.
Cytoplasm – jelly-like substance that holds organelles and is enclosed by cell membrane (aka plasma
membrane).

Functions of the Cell:

1. Cell metabolism and energy use
2. Synthesis of molecules
3. Communication
4. Reproduction and inheritance

Cell Membrane / Plasma Membrane

▪ It is the outermost component of the cell that forms a selective barrier between intracellular
(materials inside the cell) and extracellular substances (materials outside the cells).

Molecular Structure:

Major Molecules Definition / Function(s)

Form a double layer that contains 2 regions:
Phospholipids 1.
Polar Region – “heads”, exposed to H2O (hydrophilic)
2.
Nonpolar Region – “tails”, away from H2O (hydrophobic)
▪ Float among the phospholipid molecules and in some, extend from inner to the outer
surface of cell membrane
Protein
▪ Function as membrane channels, carrier molecules, receptor molecules,
enzymes, or structural supports in membrane

Other Components Definition / Function(s)

▪ Provide added strength & stability by limiting the amount of movement of
Cholesterol
phospholipids.
Carbohydrates ▪ May be bound to some CHON molecules, modifying their functions.

Organelles and Their Functions:

Organelles Function(s)
▪ Contains genetic material of cell (DNA) and nucleoli
Nucleus ▪ Site of RNA synthesis & ribosomal subunit assembly
Ribosomes ▪ Site of protein synthesis
Rough Endoplasmic ▪ Has may ribosomes attached
Reticulum ▪ Site of protein synthesis
Smooth Endoplasmic ▪ Site of lipid synthesis
Reticulum ▪ Participates in detoxification
Golgi Apparatus ▪ Modifies CHON structure & packages CHON in secretory vesicles
▪ Contains materials produced in cell
Secretory Vesicle ▪ Formed by the Golgi Apparatus
▪ Secreted by exocytosis
Lysosome ▪ Contains enzymes that digest material taken into the cell
Peroxisome ▪ Breaks down fatty acids, amino acids, and hydrogen peroxide
Mitochondria ▪ Site of aerobic respiration and the major site of ATP synthesis
▪ Supports cytoplasm
Microtubule ▪ Assists in cell division and forms components of cilia & flagella
Centrioles ▪ Facilitate the movement of chromosomes during cell division
Cilia ▪ Located on cell surface that move substances over surfaces of certain cells

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 Flagella ▪ Proper sperm cells
Microvilli ▪ Increase surface area of certain cells

You must read & study the concepts and refer to figures/tables in Chapter 3 of the book.
Generalized Cell (Refer to Figure 3.1, page 43)

Movement through the cell membrane may be passive or active.

▪ Passive Membrane Transport – does not require the cell to expend energy. This includes
diffusion, osmosis, and facilitated diffusion.
▪ Active Membrane Transport – does require the cell to expend energy, usually in the form of ATP.
This includes active transport, secondary active transport, endocytosis, and exocytosis.

Diffusion is the movement of a solute from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration within
a solvent. At equilibrium, the distribution of molecules is uniform.

Concentration gradient is the concentration of a solute at one point in a solvent minus the concentration of that
solute at another point in the solvent divided by the distance between the points.

Osmosis is the diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane. Osmotic pressure is the force
required to prevent movement of water across a selectively permeable membrane. (Refer to Figure 3.7, page 49)

Facilitated Diffusion – this moves substance from a higher to lower concentration and does not require energy in
the form of ATP.

Carrier-Mediated Transport – the movement of a substance across a membrane by means of a carrier molecule.
The substances transported tend to be large, water-soluble molecules or ions.

Active Transport – moves substances from a lower to a higher concentration and requires ATP.

Secondary Active Transport uses the energy of one substance moving down its concentration gradient to move
another substance across the cell membrane. In co-transport, both substances move in the same direction; in counter-
transport, they move in opposite directions.

Endocytosis - movement of materials into cells by the formation of a vesicle.

▪ Receptor-Mediated Endocytosis – involves cell receptors attaching to molecules
▪ Phagocytosis – movement of solid material into cells (cell-eating)
▪ Pinocytosis – the materials ingested is much smaller and is in solution (cell-drinking)

Exocytosis – the secretion of materials from cells by vesicle formation.

Cytoskeleton is a cell’s framework. This is vital for providing support, holding organelles in place and enabling
the cell to change shape.

Types of Cytoskeleton:
1. Microtubules – largest diameter; provide structural support, assist in cell division, forming essential
components of certain organelles (cilia and flagella)
2. Intermediate Filaments – medium diameter; maintain cell shape
3. Microfilaments – smallest diameter; determine cell shape and involved in cell movement

Whole-Cell Activity
A cell’s characteristics are ultimately determined by the type of proteins produced, which are determined by the
genetic information in the nucleus. Information in DNA provides the cell with a code for its cellular processes.

Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) – a double helix nucleus, composed of nucleotides, and contains five carbon
sugars (deoxyribose), nitrogen base, & phosphate.
▪ Cytosine - Guanine Nucleotide Pairs

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  Thymine – Adenine

Gene Expression: A process in which the information in DNA directs protein synthesis. This has two stages:

1. Transcription – process by which DNA is “read”

The sequence of nucleotides in DNA determines the sequence of nucleotides in mRNA; the
mRNA moves through the nuclear pores to ribosomes.
ex: thymine of DNA to adenine of RNA

2. Translation – process by mRNA is converted into amino acids (polypeptides)

The sequence of codons in mRNA is used at ribosomes to produce proteins. Anticodons of tRNA
bind to the codons of mRNA, and the amino acids carried by tRNA are joined to form protein.
ex: UUU codon of mRNA binds to AAA anticodon of tRNA.

Cell Cycle: This consists of a series of events that produce new cells for growth & tissue repair. This has two
phases:

1. Interphase – the non-dividing phase in which the DNA replicates.

2. Cell Division – the formation of two daughter cells from a single parent cell. Each cell contains 46
chromosomes (diploid), except sperm & egg cells which contain 23 chromosomes.
This process occurs through mitosis, which is divided into four stages: (PMAT)
a. Prophase: Each chromosome consists of two chromatids joined at the centromere.
b. Metaphase: Chromosomes align at the center of the cell.
c. Anaphase: Chromatids separate at the centromere and migrate to opposite poles.
d. Telophase: The two nuclei assume their normal structure, and cell division is completed,
producing two new daughter cells.

Differentiation – the process by which cells develop specialized structures and functions, results from the selective
activation and inactivation of DNA sections. Ex: the functioning of bone cells is different from the muscle cells
Apoptosis – also known as programmed cell death, is a normal process by which cell numbers within various
tissues are adjusted and controlled.

Cellular Aspects of Aging: It is estimated that at least 35% of the factors affecting aging are genetic.
1. Cellular clock
2. Death genes
3. DNA damage
4. Free radicals
Mitochondrial damage

CHECK FOR UNDERSTANDING

You will answer and rationalize this by yourself. This will be recorded as your quiz. One (1) point will be given to
the correct answer and another one (1) point for the correct ratio. Superimpositions or erasures in your answer/ratio
is not allowed. You are given 20 minutes for this activity.

Multiple Choice

1. Which of the following organelles are incorrectly paired with their location within the cell?
a. nucleolus - within the nucleus d. microtubules - within the cytoplasm
b. cilia - on the cell surface e. smooth endoplasmic reticulum - within the
c. Golgi apparatus - on the cell surface cytoplasm of the cell
ANSWER: C
RATIO: The Golgi Apparatus is a membrane bound organelle found in eukaryotic cell. It is located in the
cytoplasm next to the endoplasmic reticulum near the nucleus and not on the surface of the cell.

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2. The nucleolus:
a. is located in the cytoplasm.
b. is the location for production of large and small ribosomal subunits.
c. has its own distinct membrane.
d. is important for the formation of Golgi apparatus.
e. has all of these characteristics
ANSWER: B
RATIO: Nucleolus is a factory where the assembly of ribosomal subunits take place. Ribosomes are protein
manufacturers, designed to fulfill the need for large-scale production of rRNAs.

3. A cell that was producing large amounts of lipoproteins (proteins combined with lipids) for secretion from
the cell would have large numbers of:
a. lysosomes. d. membrane transporters.
b. Golgi apparatus. e. all of these structures.
c. centrioles.
ANSWER: A
RATIO: A cell that was producing large amounts of lipoproteins for secretion from the cell would have large
number of lysosomes.

4. Which of these cells would most likely have the largest number of mitochondria?
a. bone cells d. blood cells
b. muscle cells e. skin cells
c. fat cells
ANSWER: B
RATIO: Muscle cells need more energy to conduct mechanical work and respond rapidly. As a result, a large
number of mitochondria is present, ensuring that the cell’s energy requirements for performing its specialized
job is met.
5. Substances outside the cell membrane are called:
a. intracellular substances.
b. extracellular substances.
c. intercellular substances.
d. Both extracellular material and intercellular material are correct names.
e. All of these are correct names.
ANSWER: D
RATIO: Intracellular fluid is the fluid interior of the cell. These phosphate groups are also attracted to the extracellular
fluid. Extracellular fluid is the fluid that can be found outside the enclosure of the plasma membrane.

6. According to the fluid-mosaic model of the cell membrane:

a. protein molecules that perform important cellular functions float in a lipid bilayer.
b. there is a double protein layer in the plasma membrane.
c. there are fats floating in the protein layer.
d. carbohydrates function as membrane channels.
e. nonpolar ends of phospholipids are exposed to water inside and outside the cell
ANSWER: A
RATIO: According to the fluid-mosaic model of the cell membrane, protein molecules that perform important cellular
functions float in a lipid bilayer.
7. is an example of a molecule that can directly pass through the phospholipid bilayer of the plasma
membrane.
a. Carbon dioxide d. Glucose
b. Potassium e. Calcium
c. Sodium
ANSWER: A

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RATIO: Only small and non-polar molecules like Carbon dioxide and oxygen can pass through the phospholipid bilayer
through passive diffusion. These small, soluble gasses and other small lipid molecules can dissolve in the membrane and
enter or exit the cell. _________
8. Cell membranes are said to be selectively permeable because they:
a. allow the free passage of some materials and restrict the passage of others.
b. allow the passage of materials in one direction but not the other.
c. permit the passage of most materials but not of water.
d. Cell membranes are NOT normally selectively permeable
ANSWER: A
RATIO: It lets certain substances pass through while restricting the passage of others. Each phospholipid has a
hydrophilic head that is attracted to water and hydrophobic tail that are repelled by water.

9. Which of the following statements is TRUE concerning the cell membrane? (Select all that apply)
a. Cholesterol within the membrane gives it added strength and flexibility.
b. Receptor molecules are embedded in the membrane for intercellular communication.
c. Carbohydrates bind to protein molecules thereby modifying the proteins function as a membrane
channel.
d. Receptor molecules embedded in the membrane are involved in cellular recognition.
ANSWER: A, B, C, D
RATIO: All of the choices are correct about the cell membrane.

10. Which of the following would occur if all cell membranes were no longer selectively permeable? (Select all
that apply)
a. Action potentials would no longer be generated.
b. Cells would be hypertonic to their environment.
c. You would be subject to a higher rate of illness and disease.
d. Cells would not be able to get and keep enough glucose to function.
ANSWER: A,C,D
RATIO: Since option B it should be cells would be isotonic and not hypertonic and the rest would occur
eventually.

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RATIONALIZATION ACTIVITY (THIS WILL BE DONE DURING THE FACE TO FACE INTERACTION)
The instructor will now rationalize the answers. You can now ask questions and debate among yourselves. Write the
correct answer and correct/additional ratio in the space provided.

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LESSON WRAP-UP

You will now mark (encircle) the session you have finished today in the tracker below. This is simply a visual to
help you track how much work you have accomplished and how much work there is left to do.

You are done with the session! Let’s track your progress.

AL Activity: CAT: 3-2-1

This strategy provides a structure for you to record your own comprehension and summarize your learning. Let us
see your progress in this chapter!

Three things you learned:

1. I learned how to describe the functions of the different organelles and how important those organ-
ells in maintaining cellular activities.
2. I learned how to define cell cycle and its phases.

3. I learned how to differentiate the different ways of molecule movement across the cell membrane
which is the passive, active and bulk or vesicular transport.
Two things that you’d like to learn more about:
1. I want to learn more about the factors that will affect diffusion.

2. I want to learn more about the two membrane transport proteins involved in facilitated diffusion
which are the channel and carrier proteins.

One question you still have:

1. None.

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