Chapter Eight:
The Nervous System
Major Functions Of The Nervous System
1. Receiving sensory input
- sensory receptors monitor numerous
external and internal stimuli
2. Integrating information
- the brain and spinal cord are the major
organs for processing sensory input and
initiating responses. The input may produce an
immediate response, be stored as memory, or
be ignored
3. Controlling muscles and glands
- skeletal muscles normally contract only
when stimulated by the nervous system
4. Maintaining homeostasis
- this function depends on the nervous
system’s ability to detect, interpret, and respond
to changes in internal and external conditions
5. Establishing and maintaining mental activity
- the brain is the center of mental
activity, including consciousness,
memory, and thinking
Two Major Divisions of the Nervous System:
1. Central Nervous System (CNS)
- consists of the brain and spinal cord
2. Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
- consists of all the nervous tissue outside the CNS
(nerves and ganglia)
- functions to link the CNS with the various parts of
the body
-carries information about the different tissues of the
body to the CNS and carries commands from the CNS
that alter body activities
FUNCTIONAL CLASSIFICATION OF THE PERIPHERAL
NERVOUS SYSTEM
1 Sensory Division- or afferent (toward) division, of the
PNS conducts action potentials from sensory receptors
to the CN
2 Motor Division
- or efferent (away) division, of the PNS conducts action
potentials from the CNS to effector organs, such as
muscles and glands
- can be further subdivided based on the type of effector
being innervated
A.) Somatic Nervous System
- transmits action potentials from the CNS to
skeletal muscles
B.) Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)
- transmits action potentials from the CNS to
cardiac muscle, smooth muscle, and glands
Motor Neurons- neurons that transmit action potentials
from the CNS toward the periphery
Sensory Neurons- neurons that transmit action potentials
from the periphery to the CNS
Enteric Nervous System (ENS)
- is a unique subdivision of the peripheral nervous system
- has both sensory and motor neurons contained wholly
within the digestive tract
- can function without input from the CNS or other parts
of the PNS, although it is normally integrated with the
CNS by sensory neurons and ANS motor neurons
Two Types Of Cells That Make Up The Nervous System:
1- Neurons
2 -Glial cells
Neurons
- or nerve cells, receive stimuli, conduct action
potentials, and transmit signals to other neurons or
effector organs
- there are three parts to a neuron:
a cell body and two types of processes, called
dendrites and axons
Cell Body
- contains a single nucleus
- the nucleus of the neuron is the source of information for
gene expression
- extensive rough endoplasmic reticulum (rough ER), a
Golgi apparatus, and mitochondria surround the nucleus
- large numbers of neurofilaments (intermediate filaments)
and microtubules organize the cytoplasm into distinct
areas.
Dendrites
-are short, often highly branching cytoplasmic
extensions that are tapered from their bases at the
neuron cell body to their tips
- usually receive information from other neurons or
from sensory receptors and transmit the information
toward the neuron cell body
Axon
- a single long cell process extending from the neuron cell
body
- axons of sensory neurons conduct action potentials
towards the CNS, and axons of motor neurons conduct
action potentials away from the CNS.
- also conduct action potentials from one part of the
brain or spinal cord to another part
- can be surrounded by a highly specialized insulating
layer of cells called the myelin sheath
Axon Hillock
- the area where the axon leaves the neuron cell body
Collateral Axons
- an axon may remain unbranched or may branch to form
collateral axons
Three Categories Of Neurons Based On The
Arrangement Of Their Processes
1 - Multipolar Neurons
- have many dendrites and a single axon
- most of the neurons within the CNS and nearly all
motor neurons are multipolar
2 - Bipolar Neurons
- have two processes: one dendrite and one axon
- located in some sensory organs, such as in the
retina of the eye and in the nasal cavity
3 - Pseudounipolar Neurons
- have a single process extending from the cell body
Glial cells or neuroglia
- are the primarily supportive cells of the CNS and PNS,
meaning these cells do not conduct action potentials
- carry out different functions that enhance neuron
function and maintain normal conditions within nervous
tissue.
Five Types of Glial Cells
1.) Astrocytes
- serve as the major supporting cells in the CNS
- can stimulate or inhibit the signaling activity
of nearby neuron
2.) Ependymal cells
- line the fluid-filled cavities (ventricles and
canals) within the CNS
- produce cerebrospinal fluid.
3.) Microglia
- act as immune cells of the CNS
- help protect the brain by removing
bacteria and cell debris.
4 .) Schwann Cells
- in the PNS, provide an insulating material
that surrounds axons
5 .) Oligodendrocytes
- provide an insulating material that surrounds axons.
Blood-brain Barrier
- a permeability barrier formed by astrocytes that
participate with the blood vessel endothelium
Myelin Sheaths
- are specialized layers that wrap around the axons of
some neurons
- are formed by the cell processes of
oligodendrocytes in the CNS and Schwann cells in
the PNS
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Myelinated Axons
- axons with these myelin sheaths
Nodes of Ranvier
- gaps in the myelin sheath that occur about every
millimeter between the oligodendrocyte segments or
between individual Schwann cells
- where ion movement can occur
Gray Matter
- consists of groups of neuron cell bodies and their
dendrites, where there is very little myelin
Cortex
- gray matter on the surface of the brain in the CNS
Nuclei
- clusters of gray matter located deeper within the brain
Ganglion
- a cluster of neuron cell bodies in the PNS
White Matter
- consists of bundles of parallel axons with their myelin
sheaths, which are whitish in color
Nerve Tracts
- or conduction pathways
- formed by the white matter of the CNS
- propagate action potentials from one area of the CNS to
another
Nerves
- bundles of axons and associated connective tissue in the
PNS
RESTING MEMBRANE POTENTIAL
Polarized
- this uneven distribution of charge means the cell
membrane is polarized
Resting Membrane Potential
- in an unstimulated (or resting) cell, the uneven charge
distribution is called the resting membrane potential
The resting membrane potential is generated by three
main factors:
(1) a higher concentration of K+
immediately inside the cell membrane,
(2) a higher concentration of Na+
immediately outside the cell
membrane, and
(3) greater permeability of the cell membrane
Leak channels are always open. Thus,
as the name suggests, ions can “leak” across the
membrane down their concentration gradient
Gated Channels
- are closed until opened by specific signals
- when opened, the gated channels can change the
membrane potential and are thus responsible for the
action potential
Chemically Gated Channels
- are opened by neurotransmitters or other chemicals,
whereas
voltage-gated channels are opened by a change in
membrane potential.
Sodium-potassium Pump (Na+–K+ pump)
- is required to maintain the greater concentration of Na+
outside the cell membrane and K+ inside
Muscle and nerve cells are excitable cells, meaning that
the resting membrane potential changes in response to
stimuli that activate gated ion channels.
Local Current
- movement of Na+ that causes the inside of the cell
membrane to become positive, a change called
depolarization. This depolarization results in
a local potential.
If depolarization is large enough, Na+ enters the cell so
that the local potential reaches a threshold value. This
threshold depolarization causes voltage-gated Na+
channels to open.
Depolarization and repolarization constitute an action
potential. At the end of repolarization, the charge on the
cell membrane briefly becomes more negative than the
resting membrane potential; this condition is called
hyperpolarization.
Action potentials occur in an all-or-none fashion. That is, if
threshold is reached, an action potential occurs; if the
threshold is not reached, no action potential occurs.
The local currents in the adjacent membrane produce an
action potential. By this means, the action potential is
conducted along the entire axon cell membrane. This type
of action potential conduction is called continuous
conduction.
In myelinated axons, an action potential at one node of
Ranvier causes a local current to flow through the
surrounding extracellular fluid and through the cytoplasm
of the axon to the next node, stimulating an action
potential at that node of Ranvier. By this means, action
potentials “jump” from one node of Ranvier to the next
along the length of the axon. This type of action potential
conduction is called saltatory conduction.
Synapse
- is a junction where the axon of one neuron interacts
with another neuron or with cells of an effector organ,
such as a muscle or gland
Presynaptic Terminal
- formed by the end of the axon
The membrane of the dendrite or effector cell is the
postsynaptic membrane, and the space separating
the presynaptic and postsynaptic membranes is the
synaptic cleft.
Neurotransmitters
- chemical substances that are stored in synaptic
vesicles in the presynaptic terminal
If K+ or Cl− channels open, the inside of the
postsynaptic cell tends to become more negative, or
hyperpolarized, and an action potential is inhibited
from occurring.
Of the many neurotransmitters or suspected
neurotransmitter substances, the best known are
acetylcholine (ACh) and norepinephrine. Other
neurotransmitters include serotonin , dopamine, γ-
aminobutyric acid (GABA), glycine, and endorphins
In synapses where acetylcholine is the neurotransmitter,
such as in the neuromuscular junction, an enzyme called
acetylcholinesterase breaks down the acetylcholine.
Reflex
- is an involuntary reaction in response to a stimulus
applied to the periphery and transmitted to the CNS
Reflex Arc
- is the neuronal pathway by which a reflex occur
- is the basic functional unit of the nervous system
because it is the smallest, simplest pathway capable of
receiving a stimulus and yielding a response
A reflex arc generally has five basic components:
(1) a sensory receptor;
(2) a sensory neuron;
(3) in some reflexes, interneurons, which are neurons
located between and communicating with two other
neurons;
(4) a motor neuron; and
(5) an effector organ (muscles or glands)
Converging Pathway
- two or more neurons synapse with (converge on) the
same neuron
- allows information transmitted in more than one
neuronal pathway to converge into a single pathway
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NEURONAL PATHWAYS
Diverging Pathway
- the axon from one neuron divides (diverges) and
synapses with more than one other neuron
Summation
- many presynaptic action potentials are needed
- summation of signals in neuronal pathways allows
integration of multiple sub-threshold local potentials
- summation of the local potentials can bring the
membrane potential to threshold and trigger an
action potential
Spatial Summation
- occurs when the local potentials originate from
different locations on the postsynaptic neuron— for
example, from converging pathways
Temporal summation
- occurs when local potentials overlap in time
- can occur from a single input that fires rapidly, which
allows the resulting local potentials to overlap briefly
Spinal Cord
- extends from the foramen magnum at the base of the
skull to the second lumbar vertebra
Cauda Equina
- The inferior end of the spinal cord and the spinal
nerves exiting there resemble a horse’s tail
The white matter in each half of the spinal cord is
organized into three columns, called the dorsal (posterior),
ventral (anterior), and lateral columns. Each column of the
spinal cord contains ascending and descending tracts, or
pathways.
Ascending Tracts
- consist of axons that conduct action potentials toward
the brain
Descending Tracts
- consist of axons that conduct action potentials away from
the brain
The gray matter of the spinal cord is shaped like the letter
H, with posterior horns and anterior horns.
Lateral Horns
- small; exist in levels of the cord associated with the
autonomic nervous system
Central Canal
- is a fluid-filled space in the center of the cord
The ventral rootlets combine to form a ventral root on
the ventral (anterior) side of the spinal cord, and the
dorsal rootlets combine to form a dorsal root on the
dorsal (posterior) side of the cord at each segment. The
ventral and dorsal roots unite just lateral to the spinal
cord to form a spinal nerve. The dorsal root contains a
ganglion, called the dorsal root ganglion.
SPINAL CORD REFLEXES
Stretch Reflex
- the simplest reflex
- in which muscles contract in response to a stretching
force applied to them
Knee-jerk Reflex
- or patellar reflex is a classic example of the stretch reflex
Withdrawal Reflex
- or flexor reflex is to remove a limb or another body
part from a painful stimulus
Spinal Nerves
- arise along the spinal cord from the union of the dorsal
roots and ventral roots
- All the spinal nerves contain axons of both sensory
and somatic motor neurons and thus are called
mixed nerves
Dermatome
- is the area of skin supplied with sensory innervation
by a pair of spinal nerves
Most of the spinal nerves are organized into three
major plexuses where neurons of several spinal nerves
come together and intermingle.
The three major plexuses are the cervical plexus, the
brachial plexus, and the lumbosacral plexus.
Coccygeal Plexus
- supplies motor innervation to the muscles of the
pelvic floor and sensory cutaneous innervation to the
skin over the coccyx
Cervical Plexus
- originates from spinal nerves C1 to C4
Phrenic Nerve
- one of the most important branches of the
cervical plexus which innervates the diaphragm
Brachial Plexus
- originates from spinal nerves C5 to T1
Axillary Nerve
- innervates two shoulder muscles and the skin over part of
the shoulder
Radial Nerve
- innervates all the muscles in the posterior arm and
forearm as well as the skin over the posterior surface of
the arm, forearm, and hand
Musculocutaneous Nerve
- innervates the anterior muscles of the arm and the
skin over the radial surface of the forearm
Ulnar Nerve
- innervates two anterior forearm muscles and most
of the intrinsic hand muscles
- also innervates the skin over the ulnar side of the hand
Median Nerve
- innervates most of the anterior forearm muscles and
some of the intrinsic hand muscles
- it also innervates the skin over the radial side of the hand
Lumbosacral Plexus
- originates from spinal nerves L1 to S4
Obturator Nerve
- innervates the muscles of the medial thigh and the
skin over the same region
Femoral nerve
-innervates the anterior thigh muscles and the skin
over the anterior thigh and medial side of the leg.
Tibial Nerve
- innervates the posterior thigh muscles, the
anterior and posterior leg muscles, and most of the
intrinsic foot muscles
- also innervates the skin over the sole of the foot
Common Fibular
- nerve innervates the muscles of the lateral thigh and
leg and some intrinsic foot muscles
- also innervates the skin over the anterior and lateral
leg and the dorsal surface (top) of the foot
The tibial and common fibular nerves are bound together
within a connective tissue sheath and together are called
the sciatic nerve.
BRAIN
Brainstem
- connects the spinal cord to the remainder of the brain
- consists of the medulla oblongata, the pons, and the
midbrain
- contains several nuclei involved in vital body functions,
such as the control of heart rate, blood pressure, and
breathing
Medulla Oblongata
- is the most inferior portion of the brainstem and is
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 continuous with the spinal cord
On the anterior surface, two prominent enlargements
called pyramids
extend the length of the medulla oblongata
A large tumor or hematoma, a mass of blood that
occurs as the result of bleeding into the tissues, can
cause increased pressure within the skull.
Immediately superior to the medulla oblongata is the
pons.
Midbrain
- just superior to the pons
- is the smallest region of the brainstem
Colliculi
- the dorsal part of the midbrain consists of four mounds
Substantia Nigra
- black nuclear mass which is part of the basal nuclei
and is involved in regulating general body
movements
Scattered throughout the brainstem is a group of
nuclei collectively called the reticular formation.
The reticular formation is a major component of the
reticular activating system, which plays an important
role in arousing and maintaining consciousness and in
regulating the sleep-wake cycle.
Cerebellum
- is attached to the brainstem by several large connections
called
cerebellar peduncles
Diencephalon
- is the part of the brain between the brainstem and the
cerebrum.
- Its main components are the thalamus, the epithalamus,
and the hypothalamus
Thalamus
- is by far the largest part of the diencephalon
- consists of a cluster of nuclei and is shaped somewhat
like a yo-yo, with two large, lateral parts connected in
the center by a small interthalamic adhesion
Epithalamus
- is a small area superior and posterior to the thalamus
- consists of a few small nuclei, which are involved in
the emotional and visceral response to odors, and
the pineal gland
Pineal Gland
- is an endocrine gland that may influence the onset of
puberty and may play a role in controlling some long-
term cycles that are influenced by the
light-dark cycle
-In animals, the pineal gland is known to influence
annual behaviors, such as migration in birds, as well as
changes in the color and density of fur in some
mammals
Hypothalamus
- is the most inferior part of the diencephalon
- it contains several small nuclei that are very
important in maintaining homeostasis
- plays a major role in controlling the secretion of
hormones from the pituitary gland
- plays a central role in the control of body temperature,
hunger, and thirst
Infundibulum
- a funnel-shaped stalk that extends from the floor of
the hypothalamus to the pituitary gland
Mammillary Bodies
- form externally visible swellings on the posterior
portion of the hypothalamus and are involved in
emotional responses to odors and in memory
Cerebrum
- is the largest part of the brain
- divided into left and right hemispheres by a longitudinal
fissure
Gyri
- numerous folds that are the most conspicuous features
on the surface of each hemisphere
- greatly increase the surface area of the cortex, and
intervening grooves called sulci
Frontal Lobe
- important in the control of voluntary motor
functions, motivation, aggression, mood, and
olfactory (smell) reception
Parietal Lobe
- is the principal center for receiving and consciously
perceiving most sensory information, such as touch, pain,
temperature, and balance
Central Sulcus
- separates the frontal and parietal lobes
Occipital Lobe
- functions in receiving and perceiving visual input and
is not distinctly separate from the other lobes
Temporal Lobe
- is involved in olfactory (smell) and auditory (hearing)
sensations and plays an important role in memory
Its anterior and inferior portions, called the “psychic
cortex,” are associated with functions such as abstract
thought and judgment.
Most of the temporal lobe is separated from the rest of
the cerebrum by the lateral fissure, and deep within the
fissure is the insula often referred to as the fifth lobe.
Perception
- the conscious awareness of stimuli
ASCENDING TRACTS
The spinal cord and brainstem contain a number of
ascending (sensory) tracts, or pathways, that transmit
information via action potentials from the periphery to
various parts of the brain.
Spinothalamic Tract
- transmits action potentials dealing with pain and
temperature to the thalamus and on to the cerebral
cortex, is an example of an ascending tract
Dorsal Column
- transmits action potentials dealing with touch,
position, and pressure, is another example
The anterior and posterior spinocerebellar tracts, for
example, transmit information about body position to
the cerebellum
SENSORY AREAS OF THE CEREBRAL CORTEX
Primary Sensory Areas
- ascending tracts project to specific regions of the
cerebral cortex where sensations are perceived
Primary Somatic Sensory Cortex
- or general sensory area, is located in the parietal
lobe posterior to the central sulcus
Association Areas
- cortical areas immediately adjacent to the primary
sensory areas that are involved in the process of
recognition
Involuntary Movements
- reflexes mediated through the spinal cord and
brainstem are responsible for some body movements
- occur without conscious thought
Voluntary Movements
- are consciously activated to achieve a specific goal,
such as walking or typing
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 Upper Motor Neurons
- have cell bodies in the cerebral cortex
- axons form descending tracts that connect to lower
motor neurons
Lower Motor Neurons
- have cell bodies in the anterior horn of the spinal cord
gray matter or in cranial nerve nuclei
MOTOR AREAS OF THE CEREBRAL CORTEX
Primary Motor Cortex
- is located in the posterior portion of the frontal lobe,
directly anterior to the central sulcus
Primary Motor Cortex
- is located in the posterior portion of the frontal lobe,
directly anterior to the central sulcus
Prefrontal Area
- the motivation and foresight to plan and initiate
movements occur in the anterior portion of the frontal
lobes
DESCENDING TRACTS
The corticospinal tracts are considered direct because they
extend directly from upper motor neurons in the cerebral
cortex to lower motor neurons in the spinal cord (a similar
direct tract extends to lower motor neurons in the
brainstem). Other tracts are named after the part of the
brainstem from which they originate. Although they
originate in the brainstem, these tracts are indirectly
controlled by the cerebral cortex, basal nuclei, and
cerebellum. These tracts are called indirect because no
direct connection exists between the cortical and spinal
neurons.
Lateral Corticospinal
- tracts are especially important in controlling the speed
and precision of skilled movements of the hands
Basal Nuclei
- are a group of functionally related nuclei
Two primary nuclei are the corpus striatum located deep
within the cerebrum, and the substantia nigra, a group of
darkly pigmented cells in the midbrain.
Cerebellum
- is attached by cerebellar peduncles to the brainstem
- major function of the cerebellum is that of a comparator
Comparator
- is a sensing device that compares the data from two
sources—in this case, the motor cortex and peripheral
structures
Proprioceptive Neurons
- innervate joints, tendons, and muscles and provide
information about the position of body parts
Sensory information received by one hemisphere is
shared with the other through connections between
the two hemispheres called commissures.
Corpus Callosum
- largest of the commissures
- a broad band of nerve tracts at the base of the
longitudinal fissure
Sensory Speech
- area (Wernicke area), located in the parietal
lobe, functions in understanding and
formulating coherent speech
Motor Speech
- area (Broca area), located in the frontal lobe,
controls the movement necessary for speech
Damage to these parts of the brain or to associated brain
regions may result in aphasia, absent or defective speech
or language comprehension. The most common cause is a
stroke. It is estimated that 25–40% of stroke survivors
exhibit aphasia.
Electrodes placed on a person’s scalp and attached to a
recording device can record the brain’s electrical activity,
producing an electroencephalogram (EEG)
At other times, however, EEG patterns can be detected as
wavelike patterns known as brain waves.
Alpha Waves
- are observed in a normal person who is awake but in a
quiet, resting state with the eyes closed
Beta Waves
- have a higher frequency than alpha waves and occur
during intense mental activity
Delta Waves
- occur during deep sleep, in infants,
and in patients with severe brain disorders
Theta Waves
- are usually observed in children, but they can also occur
in adults who are experiencing frustration or who have
certain brain disorders
Working Memory
- task-associated memory
- the brain briefly stores information required for the
immediate performance of a task
Short-term Memory
- lasts longer than working memory and can be retained
for a few minutes to a few days
Short-term memory is transferred to long-term
memory, where it may be stored for only a few
minutes or become permanent, by consolidation, a
gradual process involving the formation of new and
stronger synaptic connections.
Declarative Memory
- or explicit memory, involves the retention of facts,
such as names, dates, and places, as well as related
emotional undertones
Procedural Memory
- or reflexive memory, involves the development of
motor skills, such as riding a bicycle
Memory Engrams
- or memory traces, whole series of neurons that are
probably involved in the long-term retention of a given
piece of information, a thought, or an idea
The olfactory cortex and certain deep cortical regions
and nuclei of the cerebrum and the diencephalon are
grouped together under the title limbic system.
MENINGES, VENTRICLES, AND CEREBROSPINAL FLUID
Meninges
- three connective tissue membranes that surround
and protect the brain and spinal cord
Dura Mater
- the most superficial and thickest of the meninges
- consists of two layers, which function as a single layer
but are physically separated into several regions to form
dural folds and dural venous sinuses
Epidural Space
- within the vertebral canal between the dura mater and
the vertebrae
- is clinically important as the injection site for epidural
anesthesia of the spinal nerves, which is often given to
women during childbirth
Arachnoid
- second meningeal membrane
- very thin, wispy
Subdural Space
- space between the dura mater and the arachnoid
mater which is normally only a potential space
containing a very small amount of serous fluid
Health professionals use such a needle to inject anesthetic
@chastudies
 into the area as a by preganglionic neurons of the vagus nerve extending
from the brainstem. The vagus nerve branches to provide
spinal block or to take a sample of cerebrospinal fluid in a parasympathetic innervation to the heart, the lungs, the
spinal tap. liver, and the stomach and other digestive organs.

Pia Mater Biofeedback

- third meningeal membrane - is a technique that uses electronic instruments or other
methods to monitor subconscious activities, many of
- is very tightly bound to the surface of the brain and which are regulated by the autonomic nervous system
spinal cord
Meditation
Subarachnoid Space - is another technique that influences autonomic
functions.
- between the arachnoid mater and the pia mater
- is filled with cerebrospinal fluid and contains blood All preganglionic neurons of both the sympathetic and
vessels the parasympathetic divisions and all the postganglionic
neurons of the parasympathetic division secrete the
Ventricles neurotransmitter acetylcholine. Most postganglionic
neurons of the sympathetic division secrete
- fluid-filled cavities which are quite small in some areas norepinephrine.
and large in others
The sympathetic division is sometimes referred to as the
Each cerebral hemisphere contains a relatively large cavity fight-or-flight system because it prepares the person
called the lateral ventricle. either to stand and face a threat or to leave the situation
as quickly as possible.
Third Ventricle
- is a smaller, midline cavity located in the center of the The parasympathetic division (rest-and-digest) of the
diencephalon between the two halves of the thalamus autonomic nervous system is generally consistent with
and connected by foramina (holes) to the lateral resting conditions
ventricles Enteric Nervous System (ENS)
- consists of plexuses within the wall of the digestive
Fourth Ventricle tract
- is located at the base of the cerebellum and The plexuses include
connected to the third ventricle by a narrow canal, called (1) sensory neurons that connect the digestive tract to
the cerebral aqueduct the CNS;
(2) sympathetic and parasympathetic neurons that
The fourth ventricle is continuous with the central canal connect the CNS to the digestive tract; and
of the spinal cord. The fourth ventricle also opens into (3) enteric neurons, located entirely within the enteric
the subarachnoid space through foramina in its walls and plexuses.
roof.

Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF)

- bathes the brain and spinal cord, providing a
protective cushion around the CNS

Choroid Plexuses
- specialized structures made of ependymal cells, which
are located in the ventricle

Arachnoid Granulations
- masses of arachnoid tissue that penetrate the superior
sagittal sinus, a dural venous sinus in the longitudinal
fissure, and CSF passes from the subarachnoid space into
the blood through these granulations

Hydrocephalus
- condition where the blockage of the openings in the
fourth ventricle or the cerebral aqueduct can cause CSF
to accumulate in the ventricles

In the autonomic nervous system, two neurons in series

extend from the CNS to the effector organs. The first is
called the preganglionic neuron; the second is the
postganglionic neuron. The neurons are so named
because preganglionic neurons synapse with
postganglionic neurons in autonomic ganglia outside
the CNS.
The autonomic nervous system is composed of the
sympathetic division and the parasympathetic division.

Sympathetic Chain Ganglia

- connected to one another and are so named because
they form a chain along both sides of the spinal cord

Splanchnic Nerve
- the axons of those preganglionic fibers that do not
synapse in the sympathetic chain ganglia that extend to
collateral ganglia

Collateral Ganglia
- are located nearer target organs and consist of the
celiac, superior mesenteric, and inferior mesenteric
ganglia

Axons of the preganglionic neurons extend through

spinal nerves or cranial nerves to terminal ganglia either
located near effector organs in the head or embedded in
the walls of effector organs in the thorax, abdomen, and
pelvis.

Most of the thoracic and abdominal organs are supplied

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