14.

1 Nervous Control in Humans

Nervous control:
• Stimulus: A change in an organism’s environment.
• Receptors: Specialised cells that sense stimuli.
• Effectors: Muscles and glands that respond to the stimuli.
Nervous system:
– the central nervous system consisting of brain and spinal cord
– the peripheral nervous system [nerves and receptors]
• A nerve impulse is an electrical signal that passes along nerve cells called neurones

Myelin:
• Myelin / myelin sheath is a layer of fat and protein which wrap around a neuron.
• This layer insulates the neuron, so impulses are carried faster.
• Also prevents leakage of impulses.
• Narrow gaps in the myelin sheath – Nodes of Ranvier

Synapse:
• A synapse is a junction between two neurones.
Consists of :
• Vesicles containing chemicals called Neurotransmitters
• the synaptic cleft and
• neurotransmitter receptor molecules
• In the pre-synaptic neuron, an impulse triggers the release of chemicals called
neurotransmitters, from vesicles, into the synaptic gap /cleft.
• The neurotransmitter diffuses across the synaptic cleft to bind with receptor molecules, in
the membrane of the post-synaptic neurone.
• This triggers the impulse in the post-synaptic neuron.
• In a reflex arc the synapses ensure that impulses travel in one direction only.
• Many drugs, e.g. heroin act upon synapses

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 Voluntary actions Involuntary actions

Involves conscious thought. Does not involve conscious thought.

Brain stem or Spinal cord is the coordinator.
Slower response Faster response

Response involves muscles only. Response involves muscles and may involve
glands.
Learnt / require training Inherited / innate

Reflex Actions:
A reflex action is a means of automatically and rapidly integrating and coordinating stimuli with
the responses of effectors.
• The nervous pathway [pathway of transmission of nerve impulses] for a reflex
action is called a reflex arc.
• A simple reflex arc consists of receptor, sensory neuron, relay neuron, motor neurons and
effector

Advantages / features of reflex actions:

• Allow a rapid response.
• protective nature. [mechanical damage / injury]
• already present immediately after birth [i.e. before learning can take place]
Nervous pathway: Involuntary [Reflex] / Voluntary:
• Stimulus:
• Receptor:
• Sensory neuron
• Coordinator – part of CNS:
• Relay neuron
• Motor neuron
• Effector: muscle / gland
• Response

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 14.2 Sense Organs
Sense organs: Groups of receptor cells responding to specific stimuli[ light, sound, touch,
temperature and chemicals].
STIMULUS SENSE ORGAN
Light Eye
Sound Ear
Touch Skin
Temperature Skin
Chemicals Tongue / Nose

PARTS OF THE EYE

• Cornea – refracts light
• Iris – controls how much light enters pupil
• Lens – focuses light onto retina
• Retina – contains light receptors, some sensitive to light of different colours
• Optic nerve – carries impulses to the brain

RODS CONES
Sensitive to dim light. Sensitive to bright light. 3 different types of
cones, sensitive to red, green and blue
lights.
Distributed throughout the retina [except Concentrated mainly in the fovea.
the fovea and black spot]

Required for night vision. Responsible for colour vision and sharp
images.
Responsible for black and white vision and a
less detailed image.

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The Pupil reflex
In bright light:
• Circular muscles CONTRACT
• Radial muscles RELAX
• Pupil CONSTRICTS [Diameter decreases]
• This reduces the amount of light entering the eye and prevents damage to photoreceptors
in Retina

In dim light:
• Circular muscles RELAX
• Radial muscles CONTRACT
• Pupil DILATES
• This increases the amount of light entering the eye and helps to produce an image on the
retina [activates rods]
Pupil reflex involves antagonistic action of circular and radial muscles in the iris.

ACCOMMODATION
Object at a distance:
• Ciliary muscle RELAXES
• Suspensory ligament TAUT / TENSE
• Lens becomes THIN / NARROW
• Less refraction of light rays from distant object
• Image formed on retina.
Object nearby:
• Ciliary muscle CONTRACT
• Suspensory ligament LOOSENS
• Lens becomes BULGED
• INCREASED refraction of light rays from close objects.
• Image formed on retina.