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COORDINATION AND RESPONSE

Irritability/sensitivity is a characteristic of all living organisms. It has three main components:

sensitivity, coordination and response. Cells and organs do not work independently. Their
activities are coordinated to carry out their various functions at certain times and certain rates
according to the needs of the body. Coordination in mammals is achieved through two systems
each with its particular role.

The two systems are nervous and endocrine system. The nervous system deals with a rapid but
short lasting response whereas the endocrine system deals with slower responses.

SENSE ORGAN STIMULI RESPONSE

Eye light sight
Ear sound hearing
Nose Chemical in the smell
air
Skin Pressure, touch
temperature
Tongue Chemical in food taste

THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

Specific objectives
 Discuss the principle of detecting change in the environment and responding to it
 Discuss the relationship of sensory (receptor) cells, sense organs and the effector organs.
 Describe the functions of a sensory neurone, a motor neurone and a relay neurone.
 Draw a labelled diagram of a sensory neurone, a motor neurone and a relay neurone.
 Demonstrate and describe a reflex action
 Measure and explain reaction time
 Describe with the aid of a labelled diagram, a reflex action.
 Identify and label on a diagram of the human central nervous system the cerebrum,
cerebellum, pituitary gland, hypothalamus, medulla and spinal cord.
 Describe the function of the cerebrum, cerebellum, pituitary gland, hypothalamus,
medulla and spinal cord.
 Describe the gross structure of the eye as seen in front view.
 Draw and label a longitudinal section of the eye.
 Describe the pupil reflex in response to bright and dim light.
 Discuss how the eye produces a focused image of near and distant
objects(accommodation)

The nervous system in human consists of

i. The central nervous system: consists of the brain and the spinal cord, the function of
which is to receive information, integrate and process it.
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ii. The peripheral nervous system: consists of the neurons, sense organs and effector
organs.
 The neurones link the central nervous system with the body’s receptors and
effectors.

 Sensory organs contain sensory cells called receptors

 Receptors are sensory cells that receive stimuli from the internal and external
environment and convert them into nerve impulses. [N.B: Stimulus is any change
detected in the environment]

 Effectors are structures that bring about a response .They include muscles and
glands.

NEURONES
Neurones are also called nerve cells. Neurons are specialized to conduct electrical impulses.

All neurons have the following structures:

 The cell body containing a nucleus. Many mitochondria and ribosomes. The nucleus in
the cell body controls all activities taking place within neurone.
 Axon- transmit nerve impulses away from the cell body
 dendron /dendrites conducts impulses towards the cell body .
 myelin sheath which provide insulation. It also increases speed of conduction
 Synaptic knob –produces a chemical called neurotransmitter.
 Node of ranvier –speed up transmission of impulses

. Types of neurones

1. A sensory neurone - transmit impulses from the sense organs or receptors to the central
nervous system.

DRAWING

2. Motor neurone -transmit impulses from the central nervous system to the effectors.

DRAWING

3. Relay neurone (Intermediate/Multipolar neurone): are found within the central

nervous system and transmit impulses within the CNS.

DRAWING
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ACTIVITY: Compare the sensory and motor neurones

Synapse
A synapse is a gap /space between two neurones. When an impulse arrives at the synapse,
the synaptic knob releases a chemical substance called a neurotransmitter which carries
the message by diffusion to the next neurone. At the next neurone the message changes
back to an impulse.

A reflex action
A reflex action is an automatic and rapid response to a stimulus. Reflex actions are
involuntary and are meant to protect the body from danger. Examples include:
 If you accidentally place your hand on a hot object, it is rapidly pulled away.
 When a particle of dust touches the cornea of the eye, you blink.
 A particle of food touching the lining of the windpipe will set off a coughing
reflex which cannot be suppressed.
 Knee jerk
 Sneezing
 Pupil reflex

Demonstrating knee jerk reflex (reflex action)

Work with a partner
1. Sit on your desk with your left leg crossed over your right leg. Your muscles must be
Completely relaxed.
2. Your partner must tap the area just below your knee cap on your left leg with a ruler.
3. Observe what happens.

The path along which nerve impulses travel in a reflex action is called a reflex arc.

DIAGRAM OF A REFLEX ARC

Reaction time
This is the time taken to respond to stimulus. The shorter the reaction times the faster the
response. The longer the reaction time the slow the response. Reaction time is usually affected
by drugs e.g. alcohol which is a depressant increases the reaction time.

Measuring reaction time

1. Sit on a chair and place your arm on a desk.
2. Your partner must hold a ruler above your hand so that the bottom of the ruler is between your
thumb and fingers. The zero of the ruler must be level with the top of your fingers.
3. Your partner will let go off the ruler and you must try to catch it as quickly as you can
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4. Read the number on the ruler that is level with the top of your fingers. This tells you the
distance that the ruler fell between the time that you saw it drop and the time that you caught it.
The shorter the distance the shorter the reaction time.

THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

The central nervous system consists of:

1. brain and the
2. spinal cord.

The human brain only weighs about 1.5 kilo grams and contains more than 100 billion neurons.
It is enclosed in the skull which protects it from external damage. The brain is covered by three
membranes called meninges. Meninges protect and nourish the brain. Infection by either a virus
or bacteria can cause the potentially fatal condition called meningitis.

DRAWING OF THE BRAIN

The spinal cord is an extension of the brain enclosed within the vertebral column. It runs from
the base of brain to the lumber region. Attached to the brain are 31 pairs of spinal nerves which
divide close to the spinal cord to form dorsal root and the ventral root.
The spinal cord is made up of the:
 Grey matter which consist of the cell bodies of neurons
 White matter which consists of the nerve fibers.

The spinal cord serves as a conduct for signals between the brain and the rest of the body. It also
controls simple musculoskeletal reflexes without input from the brain.

DRAWING OF A CROSS SECTION OF THE SPINAL CORD

Parts of the central nervous system.

PART DESCRIPTION FUNCTION

cerebrum -The largest portion of the brain composed
of the cerebral hemispheres which are
folded.
- It is the top most part of the brain
extending from the forehead to the back.
-This is the area concerned
with learning, cognition,
memory, creativity, reasoning,
feeling and emotions.
- Everything that is associated
with intelligence is dealt with
by the cerebrum.

cerebellum It is located at the base the cerebrum. This -It coordinates voluntary
is the highly folded part of the hind brain movements such as running,
walking, dancing and playing
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soccer.
- It is also involved in
maintenance of posture and
balance.

medulla Forms a link between the brain and the

oblongata spinal cord -It is the control center for
involuntary actions such as
heartbeat, breathing rate. Blood
pressure
-It is also involved in reflex
actions such as swallowing,
coughing and sneezing.

Hypothalamus It is critical for homeostasis, the -The hypothalamus detects

maintenance of constant internal changes in blood composition
environment as blood flows through it
-.It also coordinates
temperature regulation in the
body.
- It forms a link between the
nervous system and the
endocrine system through the
pituitary gland.

Pituitary gland This gland is attached to the base of the -It secretes a number of
Hypothalamus. hormones e.g. ADH, FSH.
- It also stimulates other
endocrine glands to secrete
hormones.
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THE EYE

ACTIVITY
1. Draw the front view of the eye. Include labels-pupil, iris, conjunctiva

2. Draw a diagram of the longitudinal section of the eye and label the following parts
conjunctiva, cornea, iris, pupil, lens, aqueous humour, ciliary muscles, suspensory ligaments,
retina and blind spot, vitreous humour, sclera, optic nerve.

Parts of the eye and their functions

PART FUNCTION

Pupil The pupil is the hole in the center of the iris that allows light into the eye.
The iris control the size of the pupil

Retina it contains the light sensitive cells, the rods and cones which converts
images into nerve impulses which travel through optic fibre to the brain

Iris This is the colored part of the eye: brown, green, blue, etc. It contracts and
expands opening and closing the pupil, in response to the brightness of
surrounding light. . Therefore it regulates the amount of light entering the
eye.

Lens Focuses light on the retina.

Protects the cornea. The conjunctiva is a thin, clear membrane covering the
Conjunctiva front of the eye and inner eyelids. Cells in this lining produce mucous that
helps to lubricate the eye. Inflammation of this membrane is called
conjunctivitis, or pink eye.

Cornea The cornea is a transparent outer layer which refracts light as it enters the
eye.

Choroid A dark coloured layer which reduces reflection inside the eye. It contains
blood vessels which help to nourish the cells of the retina.
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A water like fluid, produced by the ciliary body, it fills the front of the eye.
: Aqueous
Humor
Vitreous humor A jelly like clear substance which gives the eye ball its shape, supports the
lens and keeps the retina in place at the back of the eye.

Holds the lens.

: Suspensory
ligaments
Ciliary muscle circular muscle that changes the shape of the lens

Blind spot
This is where the optic nerve leaves the eye.

Optic Nerve Composed of sensory neurons which transmit impulses to the brain.

Sclera The sclera is the white, tough wall of the eye. It along with internal fluid
pressure keeps the eye shape and protects its delicate internal parts.

The pupil reflex and light control

To prevent damage to the retina, the pupil is always adjusted according to the amount of light
entering the eye. The adjustment is controlled by the circular and radial muscles of the iris. These
set of muscles exhibit some antagonistic action.

i.In bright light

- The radial muscles relax while
- The circular muscles contract
- Pupil becomes smaller

DRAWING

ii. In dim light,

- The circular muscles relax while
- The radial muscles contract to
- Pupil is enlarged
DRAWING
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Accommodation
This is the ability of the eye to adjust its lens to change shape in order to focus distant and near
objects. The contraction and relaxation of the ciliary muscles enables the lens to change shape.
Distant objects:
 Light needs to be refracted(bent)less

 Ciliary muscles relax, eyeball is spherical

 Suspensory ligaments tighten

 The lens becomes long and thin(narrower)

DRAWING
Nearby or close objects
 Light must be greatly refracted

 Ciliary muscles contract

 Suspensory ligaments relax

 Lens becomes short and thick

DRAWING
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