SCIENCE - 3rd Quarter Notes
Thursday, 16 February 2023 4:31 am
→ NERVOUS SYSTEM
The nervous system includes the brain, spinal cord, and
nerves that run throughout the body. It also includes sense
organs, such as the eyes and ears.
The nervous system receives information about what is
happening both inside and outside your body. It also directs
how your body responds to this information. Also, your nervous
system helps maintain homeostasis. Without your nervous
system, you could not move, think, feel pain, or taste your
delicious monggos.
A. GENERAL FUNCTIONS
1.) RECEIVING INFORMATION - Because of your nervous system,
you are aware of what is happening in the environment around
you. For example, you know that the fly is buzzing around your
head, that the wind is blowing, or that a friend is telling it a
funny joke. Your nervous system also checks conditions inside
your body, such as the level of glucose in your blood.
2.) RESPONDING TO INFORMATION - Any change or signal in the
environment that can make an organism react is called a
stimulus. A buzzing fly is a stimulus. After your nervous
system analyzes the stimulus, it causes a response. A
response is what your body does in reaction to the stimulus –
you swat at the fly.
Some nervous system responses such as swatting a fly, are
voluntary, or under your control period, however, many
processes necessary for life, such as heart rate, are controlled
by involuntary actions of the nervous system.
3.) MAINTAINING HOMEOSTASIS - The nervous system helps
maintain homeostasis by directing the body to respond
appropriately to the information it receives. For example, when
you are hungry, your nervous system prompts you to eat. This
action maintains homeostasis by supplying your body with the
nutrients and energy it needs.
B. THE NEURON
- The cells that carry information through your nervous system
are called a neuron, or nerve cells. The message that a neuron
carries is called a nerve impulse.
The Structure of the Neuron:
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NEURON - has a large cell body that contains the nucleus,
threadlike extensions called dendrites, and an axon. A neuron
can have many dendrites, but it has only one axon.
DENDRITES - carry impulses toward the neuron's cell body.
AXON - carries impulses away from the cell body.
Nerve impulses begin in a dendrite, move toward the cell body,
and then move down the axon. An axon, however, can have
more than one tip, so the impulse can go to more than one
other cell.
Axons and dendrites are sometimes called nerve fibers. Nerve
fibers are often arranged in parallel bundles covered with
connective tissue, something like a package of uncooked
spaghetti wrapped in cellophane. A bundle of nerve fibers is
called a nerve.
KINDS OF NEURONS
→ SENSORY NEURONS - picks up stimuli from the
internal (such as blood pressure or muscle tension) or
external (such as light, touch, or smell) condition and
converts each stimulus into a nerve impulse. The
impulse travels along the sensory neuron until it
reaches an interneuron, usually in the brain or spinal
cord.
→ INTERNEURONS - form the local circuits connecting
neurons in the brain or ganglia. Interneurons are
responsible for the integration (analysis and
interpretation) of sensory input. Some interneurons
pass impulses from sensory neurons to motor neurons.
→ MOTOR NEURONS - transmit signals to muscle cells,
causing them to contract. Additional neurons that
extend out of the processing centers trigger gland
activity.
HOW A NERVE IMPULSE TRAVELS?
- Each of those nerve impulses begins in the dendrites of a
neuron. The impulse moves rapidly toward the neuron's cell
body and then down the axon until it reaches the axon tip. A
nerve impulse travels along the neuron in the form of
electrical and chemical signals. Nerve impulses can travel as
fast as 120 meters per second!
THE SYNAPSE
- Sometimes the structure is the dendrite of another neuron.
other times, the structure is a muscle or a cell in another
organ, such as a sweat gland. The junction where one neuron
can transfer an impulse to another structure is called
a synapse.
HOW IS AN IMPULSE TRANSFERRED?
- For a nerve impulse to be carried along at a synapse, it must
cross the gap between the axon and the next structure. the
axon tips release chemicals that carry the impulse across the
gap.
- You can think of the gap at a synapse as a river, and an axon
as a road that leads up to the riverbank. the nerve impulse is
like a car traveling on the road. to get to the other side, the car
has to cross the river. the car gets on a ferry boat, which
carries it across the river. the chemicals that the axon tips
release are like the ferry, carrying the nerve impulse across
the gap.
C. DIVISIONS OF NERVOUS SYSTEM
Your nervous system has two divisions that work together. The
Central Nervous System (CNS) consists of the brain and spinal
cord. The Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) includes all the
nerves located outside of the central nervous system. The CNS
is like a cop. the PNS is like the drivers and pedestrians.
Central Nervous System (CNS)
- The CNS is the control center of the body. It includes
the brain and spinal cord.
- All information about what is happening in the world inside or
outside your body is brought to the central nervous system.
- The brain, located in the skull, is the part of the central
nervous system that controls most functions in the body.
- The spinal cord is the thick column of nervous tissue that
links the brain to most of the nerves in the peripheral nervous
system.
- Most impulses from the peripheral nervous system travel
through the spinal cord to get to the brain. your brain then
directs a response. The response usually travels from the
brain, through the spinal cord, and then to the peripheral
nervous system.
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1.) Brain
THE CEREBRUM
-The cerebrum controls skeletal muscle contraction and is the
center for learning, emotion, memory, and perception. It is
divided into right and left cerebral hemispheres.
- The outer layer of the cerebrum is called the cerebral
cortex and is vital for perception, voluntary movement, and
learning.
- A thick band of axons known as the corpus callosum enables
the right and left cerebral cortices to communicate.
- Deep within the white matter, clusters of neurons called
basal nuclei serve as centers for planning and learning
movement sequences. Damage to these sites during fetal
development can result in cerebral palsy, a disorder resulting
from a disruption in the transmission of motor commands to
the muscles.
THE CEREBELLUM
- The cerebellum receives sensory information about the
positions of the joints and the lengths of the muscles, as well
as input from the auditory (hearing) and visual systems. It also
monitors motor commands issued by the cerebrum.
- The cerebellum integrates this information as it carries out
coordination and error checking during motor and perceptual
functions.
- Hand-eye coordination is an example of cerebellar control; if
the cerebellum is damaged, the eyes can follow a moving
object, but they will not stop at the same place as the object.
Hand movement toward the object will also be erratic.
THE DIENCEPHALON

- The diencephalon gives rise to the thalamus, hypothalamus,

and epithalamus.

- The thalamus is the main input center for sensory information

going to the cerebrum. Incoming information from all the
senses, as well as from the cerebral cortex, is sorted in the
thalamus and sent to the appropriate cerebral centers for
further processing.

- A much smaller structure, the hypothalamus constitutes a

control center that includes the body’s thermostat as well as
the central biological clock. Through its regulation of the
pituitary gland, the hypothalamus regulates hunger and thirst,
plays a role in sexual and mating behaviors, and initiates the
fight-or-flight response.

- The hypothalamus is also the source of the posterior pituitary

hormones and of releasing hormones that act on the anterior
pituitary. The epithalamus includes the pineal gland, the source
of melatonin.

THE BRAINSTEM

- The brainstem consists of the midbrain, the pons, and the

medulla oblongata (commonly called the medulla).

- The midbrain receives and integrates several types of

sensory information and sends it to specific regions of the
forebrain. All sensory axons involved in hearing either
terminate in the midbrain or pass through it on their way to the
cerebrum.

- Also, the midbrain coordinates visual reflexes, such as the

peripheral vision reflex: The head turns toward an object
approaching from the side without the brain having formed an
image of the object.

- A major function of the pons and medulla is to transfer

information between the PNS and the midbrain and forebrain.

- An additional function of the medulla is the control of several

automatic, homeostatic functions, including breathing, heart,
and blood vessel activity, swallowing, vomiting, and digestion.

2.) Spinal Cord

- Information highway between brain and body

- Each pair of spinal nerves receives sensory information and

issues motor signals to muscles and glands

- The spinal cord is a component of the Central Nervous

System while the spinal nerves are part of the Peripheral
Nervous System.

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Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
- The PNS transmits information to and from the CNS and plays
a large role in regulating an animal’s movement and its internal
environment.
- Sensory information reaches the CNS along PNS neurons
designated as afferent (from the Latin, meaning “to carry
toward”). Following information processing within the CNS,
instructions then travel to muscles, glands, and endocrine cells
along PNS neurons designated as efferent (from the Latin,
meaning “to carry away”).
The Somatic Nervous System and Autonomic Nervous System
- Many of the nerves in the PNS are under the direct control of
the conscious mind. for example, when we "tell" our leg to
move, a message travels from our brain to our spinal cord and
through a peripheral nerve to our leg. This part of the
peripheral nervous system that stimulates skeletal muscles
under our conscious control is called the somatic nervous
system, in which some activities, such as spinal reflexes, are
involuntary.
→ Activation of the sympathetic division - corresponds to
arousal and energy generation (the “fight-or-flight”
response). For example, the heart beats faster, digestion
is inhibited, the liver converts glycogen to glucose and
the adrenal medulla increases secretion of epinephrine
(adrenaline).
→ Activation of the parasympathetic division - generally
causes opposite responses that promote calming and a
return to self-maintenance functions (“rest and digest”).
Thus, heart rate decreases, digestion is enhanced, and
glycogen production increases. However, in regulating
reproductive activity, a function that is not homeostatic,
the parasympathetic division complements rather than
antagonizes the sympathetic division.
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- Spinal reflexes are extremely rapid; they involve the spinal
cord and the PNS, but not the brain.
- The autonomic nervous system is not under the direct control
of the conscious mind.
- The autonomic nervous system controls involuntary body
activities; that is, those that happen automatically, without our
thinking about them.
- The autonomic nervous system directs motor nerve fibers in
smooth muscles, cardiac, muscles, and glands. Contractions of
the heart muscle and movement of smooth muscles
surrounding the small intestine are activities under the control
of the autonomic nervous system.
- The sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions of the
autonomic The nervous system regulate organs of the
cardiovascular, excretory, and endocrine systems.
- The sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions of the
autonomic nervous system have largely antagonistic (opposite)
functions in regulating organ function.
Reflexes
- Imagine that you are watching an adventure movie. The movie
is so thrilling that you do not notice a fly circling above your
head. When the fly zooms right in front of your eyes, however,
your eyelids immediately blink shut. You did not decide to close
your eyes. The blink, which is a reflex, is a response that
happened automatically.
- A reflex is an automatic response that
- Occurs very rapidly and without conscious control. Reflexes
help to protect the body.
D. Prevention, Detection, and Treatment of Diseases of the
Nervous System
→ ENCEPHALITIS
Acute infection and inflammation of the brain. it is usually
caused by a virus, and in rare cases, by bacteria and amoeba.
Patients experience fever, severe headache, coma, seizures,
and convulsions. The most commonly afflicted by the infection
are children, the elderly, and those with weakened immune
systems. Many people with mild encephalitis can have a full
recovery. In severe cases, which can be fatal, patients are
confined in a hospital so their vital signs and fluid intake can be
monitored to prevent further swelling of the brain. Certain
antiviral drugs and corticosteroids are used to treat most
forms of encephalitis.
→ MENINGITIS
An inflammation of the meninges, or membrane surrounding
the brain and the spinal cord. The swelling triggers the
symptoms of headache, fever, and stiffness of the
neck. Meningitis is a contagious disease caused by viral,
bacterial, or fungal infections.
Viral meningitis is fairly common and is less life-threatening,
whereas bacterial meningitis requires serious medical
attention as severe cases can lead to paralysis, brain damage,
coma, or death. Early treatment is therefore important to
prevent serious complications.
→ RABIES
A viral infection transmitted through a bite by an
infected animal such as a stray dog. The rabies virus can
spread from the point of the white area, specifically from the
muscle, then travels up to nearby nerves of the brain. Once it
reaches the brain, it is people in almost all cases. The brain
infection causes the patient to experience normal excitability,
aggression, and in later stages, paralysis and death. it is
important to be vaccinated immediately before the symptoms
of the infection develop.
→ TETANUS
A disease caused by certain bacteria found in soil
contaminated with animal waste. It is often introduced into the
body via open wounds. Inside the body, the bacteria release a
neurotoxin that affects the muscle and nerves. The toxin can
further spread via the bloodstream and lymph system, leading
to generalized muscle spasms. cross the job muscles are
affected early in the disease, dependence is also known as
lockjaw. It can be prevented by immunization.
→ EPILEPSY
A brain disorder associated with seizures, involuntary
movement, and loss of consciousness. The cause is usually
unknown. Severe symptoms can cause patients to repeatedly
twitch their arms and legs during the attack. so there is no
known cure, some available treatments include medication and
special diets to reduce the frequency and intensity of the
attacks.
→ PARKINSON'S DISEASE
Named after the English physician James Parkinson who first
described the disorder, a progressive disease of the nervous
system that affects the patient's movement.
It is characterized by a gradual development of initial
symptoms, such as slurring of speech and reduced ability to
move the muscles of the face to show different expressions
and the swing arms when moving. In individuals with
Parkinson's disease, a protein -protein complex of alpha-
synuclein and ubiquitin emulating the neurons, causing the cell
to become unresponsive to some neurotransmitters.
This phenomenon impairs the motor skills, speech, and other
functions of the individual resulting in tremors and slowing or
loss of physical movement. The advanced stage of the disease
is characterized by well-known symptoms of muscular rigidity
and resting tremor, and involuntary and rhythmic muscle
movement even when the person is at rest. Parkinson's
disease has no popularity yet, but medication can be given to
manage symptoms.
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→ ALZHEIMER'S DISEASE
A condition characterized by a severe mental deterioration that
is usually associated with older people. Patients experience a
decrease in their brain size, which results from the
degeneration of brain cells, causing a decline in memory and
mental function. In the case of Alzheimer's disease, a misfolded
protein called prions pause the formation of plaques and
tangles in the neurons, which caused affected neurons to
perform their normal function, a situation that could lead to
dementia. Patients eventually gloss their intellectual and social
skills, a loss which can interfere with their day to day
interaction with people. There is no cure yet for all Alzheimer's
disease, but some medication and management strategies are
used to improve well-being among patients.
→ ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
- The endocrine system is a system of ductless glands that
release chemicals (hormones) into the blood to regulate body
functions.
- Endocrine glands (endo means “within,” krinein means
separate,” i.e., to secrete) are ductless glands that secrete
hormones directly into the bloodstream or the fluid around the
cells (extracellular fluid). in addition to the endocrine glands,
several other organs contain cells or tissues that secrete
hormones. These organs include the brain, stomach, small
intestine, kidney, liver, and heart.
A. HORMONES
- Hormones are chemical messengers, carrying instructions to
cells to change their activities. Unlike nerve impulses that are
fast-acting and usually short-lived, most hormones are slow-
acting and longer-lived messengers. The effect of a hormone
can last for long hours, days, weeks, or even years.
- Hormones are produced by the glands of the endocrine
system.
A gland is an organ whose cells secrete materials to be
brought in different regions of the body; sometimes via tube-
like structures called ducts.
- The endocrine system coordinates all of the body’s sources of
hormones. However, some organs such as the pancreas, or
both endocrine and exocrine.
- Exocrine glands (exo means outward) deliver substances
through ducts. The ducts transport the chemicals to specific
locations in the body. Examples of exocrine glands are the
sweat glands, mucous glands, and salivary glands. The
endocrine function of the pancreas, on the other hand, is to
secrete two hormones into the bloodstream to regulate the
glucose concentration in the blood.
The following are important concepts to remember about
hormones:

- Some glands do not function until the Organism reaches a

certain age, so some hormones are not secreted until then. For
example, the gonads (reproductive organs) start producing sex
hormones only at puberty.

- Hormones work only on their target cells or organs.

- The production of each hormone must be the correct amount.

- There is a difference between short term and long-term

hormones. The effects of hormones such as adrenaline are
short-lived, while hormones such as thyroxine produce long-
term and permanent effects in the body.

B. HOW HORMONES WORK

- Each hormone acts like a key that opens a lock; it will act
only on cells with the right “lock,” which is a receptor on the
surface of the target cell (cell membrane) or inside it
(cytoplasm or nucleus). for this to happen, a hormone must
first recognize the target cell through its ‘address’ - a specific
receptor.

- A hormones shape (key) matches and binds to a particular

receptor (lock) on its target cells. The hormone then sends the
message that signals the cell to change its activity.

C. HORMONE REGULATION

A baby nursing on a mother's breast stimulates the secretion of

the hormone, oxytocin, which in turn stimulates the release of
more milk from the mother's mammary gland. the baby's lack
of interest to breast-feed and weaning-When the baby is being
trained to bottle-feed-decrease the amount of oxytocin
secretion in the body, which signals the decrease or total
stoppage of the mother's milk production.

- In many cases, however, the level of a hormone in the blood

turns the production of the hormone on and off through
a feedback mechanism.

- Feedback mechanisms detect and adjust the number of

hormones in circulation, or the number of other chemicals
produced by an initial hormone action.

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- If an increased hormone secretion is enhanced to produce
even more hormones, the regulation is called positive
feedback. This mechanism increases the deviation of the
hormone level from the normal as needed by the body in a
certain situation.
- Most of the time, hormones are regulated through a negative
feedback mechanism, which counteracts the production of
more hormones.
- A negative feedback mechanism decreases the deviation of
the hormone level from the normal value. For example, high
levels of hormones inhibit the production of more hormones or
low levels of a hormone stimulate the production of that
hormone.
The Thyroid Gland
- Thyroid hormones also help in maintaining a normal heart
rate, blood pressure, muscle tone, and reproductive functions.
The Parathyroid Gland
- The parathyroid glands are four tiny glands embedded in the
surface of the thyroid. This glance releases the parathyroid
hormone which, together with calcitonin, regulates blood
calcium levels in the body in an antagonistic manner since they
have opposite effects.

D. Major Endocrine Glands in the Brain

The Adrenals

- Adrenal glands are made up of two parts: the outer adrenal

The Hypothalamus
- The hypothalamus is found at the base of your brain.
- it produces hormones that have turned the other endocrine
glands in your body on and off.
- It is the link between the nervous system and the endocrine
system.
- Therefore, the hypothalamus knows about the sensations you
are aware of, like the smell of a beautiful flower or a
picturesque view.
- At the same time, it also controls those things that you are
not aware of, like the level of the hormones in your body or
your internal temperature.
cortex in the inner adrenal medulla. The inner part produces
the adrenaline that plays an important role in the body's coping
mechanism against short term physical and emotional stress.
Whenever we are in a dangerous situation, the senses send
signals to the brain, alerting the body and warning us of
danger. The outer part, on the other hand, secrets
corticosteroids which regulate the body's metabolism,
electrolyte balance, immune system, and long-term stress
response.
The Thymus
- The thymus is responsible for the development of the defense
system of the body against disease-causing organisms.
Producing white blood cells that protect body tissues by
triggering an immune response against infectious agents. By
adulthood, the thymus will have shrunk to about the size of a
thumb.

- The hypothalamus secrets hormones that stimulate or

suppress the release of the hormones in the pituitary gland.

The Pituitary Gland

- The pituitary gland, or hypophysis, is a pea-sized gland found

in the center of the skull, right behind the bridge of the nose
and below the hypothalamus of the brain. The hypothalamus
communicates with the pituitary gland through nerve impulses
and hormones.

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The Pancreas

- Although part of the digestive system, the pancreas is also a

part of the endocrine system. It produces two types of
hormones - namely, insulin and glucagon

- Insulin keeps the levels of sugar (glucose) in the bloodstream

under control. It does this by helping cells absorb the sugar and
use it for energy. It also helps to change excess sugar into a
substance called glycogen, which can be stored in the liver for
later use.

- Glucagon, on the other hand, does exactly the opposite. It

increases the level of sugar in the body by speeding the
conversion of glycogen to sugar in the liver.

The Gonads

- The reproductive organs in females are ovaries, while testis

in males.by speeding the conversion of glycogen to sugar in the
liver.

- The testes produce androgens, of which the most important is

testosterone. The male hormones induce the development of
facial hair, body mass, and deep voice, and the production of
sperm.

- The ovaries produce estrogen and progesterone that control

the development of breasts, menstruation, and fertility. Other
female reproductive structures, such as the placenta and
uterus, release other hormones during pregnancy and
childbirth.
Pituitary Hormones Action
The Pineal Gland Adrenocorticotropin Stimulates the adrenal glands to
hormone (ACTH) produce related steroid hormones
- The pineal gland is located near the thalamus of the brain,
where the two halves of the brain join. it produces melatonin, Growth hormones (GH) Stimulates the growth of bones and
which regulates body rhythms and sleep patterns. tissues
Melanocyte Regulates melanin production
E. Prevention, Detection, and Treatment of Diseases of the stimulating hormone
Endocrine System (MSH)
Thyroid stimulating Stimulates the thyroid gland to
→ Diabetes Mellitus
hormone (TSH) produce thyroid hormone
Diabetes Mellitus is a group of metabolic disorders in which a Follicle stimulating Controls sexual function and
person's blood glucose level is high due to either inadequate hormone (FSH) and production of the sex hormones:
insulin production or the ability of body cells to respond to luteinizing hormone estrogen and progesterone in
insulin, or both. (LSH) females, or testosterone in males
Prolactin Stimulates milk production in women
→ Thyroid Disorders
Antidiuritic hormone Controls water loss in the kidneys
9vasopressin)
Thyroid problems are associated with the abnormal production
of thyroid hormones either by the excessive or insufficient Oxytocin Stimulates milk production and
secretion of the thyroid gland. contraction of the uterus during
childbirth

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Tissue/Gland Hormone Produced Target Major Action
Hypothalamus Releasing and inhibiting hormones Anterior pituitary Stimulates or Inhibits the release of specific
pituitary hormones
Pituitary gland Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) Thyroid Stimulates production and secretion of thyroxine
(Anterior)
Prolactin Mammary gland Stimulates milk production
Adrenocorticotropin hormone Adrenal cortex Stimulate secretion of corticosteroids
(ACTH)
Endorphin Brain Decrease pain
Growth hormone (GH) Many Cells Stimulates general body growth
Luteinizing-hormone (LH) Ovary Stimulates ovulation and production of estrogen and
progesterone
Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) Ovary Stimulates growth of the ovarian follicle
Testes Stimulates sperm production
Pituitary Gland Oxytocin Mammary gland Stimulates milk production
(Posterior)
Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) Kidney Increases water absorption
Thyroid Thyroxin Most cells Increases metabolic rates and growth
Calcitonin Bones Stimulates calcium uptake
parathyroid Parathyroid hormone Bones Stimulates calcium release into the blood
Digestive tract Stimulates calcium absorption
Adrenal glands Epinephrine (adrenaline) and Circulatory Increases heart rate
norepinephrine system
Respiratory Increases breathing rate and clear airway
system
Pancreas Insulin Many cells Stimulates glucose uptake from blood
Glucagon Many cells Stimulates glucose release from cells into the blood
Ovary Estrogen Many cells Stimulates female development and behavior
Progesterone Uterus Stimulates growth of the uterine lining
Testes Testosterone Many cells Stimulates male development and behavior
Thymus Thymosin White blood cells Stimulates differentiation in white blood cells
Penial Melatonin Brain Promote sleep
Gastrointestinal tract Gastrin Gut cells Stimulates hydrochloric acid secretion

→ REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
- This single cell was formed by the fusion of two sex cells - an
egg cell and a sperm cell from our partners.
A. Sexual Reproduction in Humans
- Our sex organs mature and change to be able to produce sex
cells that will participate in a process of producing new
individuals.
- This sex cell contains structures called chromosomes that
contain genetic information, which carries unique inherited
traits.
- Sex cells contain only half the number of chromosomes (23)
of a regular human body cell, which has 46 chromosomes. Each
sex cell is described as a haploid (n), and the regular cell is a
diploid (2n).

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B. Male Reproductive System

- This organ system produces sperm cells (male gametes) and

delivers them inside the female reproductive system. in males,
the primary reproductive system are the testes (singular,
testis)

- The testes begin to produce sperm only after males reached

the adolescent stage known as puberty.

- The testers are clusters of hundreds of compartments with

many tiny coiled tubes called Seminiferous tubules. Sperm
cells are produced in the linings of the seminiferous tubules
through a cell division called meiosis

Mature Sperms in Epididymis

- An adult male produces several hundred million sperm cells

each day. After being produced in the seminiferous tubules, the
sperm mature and traveled through a series of tubes. They
then enter a long coiled tube called the epididymis, where they
will mature until they are capable of swimming and moving.
The epididymis is also where most of the sperm are stored.
Mature sperm cells travel from the epididymis to another long
tube called the vas deferens.

The Human Sperm Cell

- A mature sperm cell consists of three parts: ahead with very

little cytoplasm that contains the chromosomes, a midpiece,
and a long tail. The head is made up of a nucleus covered by a
cup called the acrosome, which stores the enzymes needed by
the sperm to penetrate an egg cell during fertilization. The
midpiece contains mitochondria that supply the energy needed
to propel the sperm through the female reproductive system.
The tale of the sperm is a powerful flagellum that whips back
and forth, enabling it to move.

Delivery of the Sperm

- The urethra leads the sperm cell through the penis, the male
organ that deposits the sperm in the female reproductive
system during sexual intercourse or copulation. During sexual
excitation, blood rushes into the penis, making it rigid and
erect. After the semen is deposited in the female reproductive
system, the sperm cells swim until they encounter the egg cell.

- About 3.5 ML of semen is expelled during ejaculation. It

normally contains 300 to 400 million sperm cells or about 5 to
10 million in just one drop! Only a few reach the egg cell,
because most of them die in the acidic environment of the
female

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 Transportation of Sperm
Gland Function of secretion
Prostate gland The alkaline fluid that neutralizes the acids in the female reproductive system
Seminal vesicles Fluid rich in sugars that sperm cells use for energy
Bulbourethral glands The alkaline fluid that neutralizes traces of acidic urine in the urethra

C. Female Reproductive System

The Ovaries

- They are located inside the abdominal cavity located just

slightly below the waist, with one ovary on each side of the
body.

- Estrogen, one of its hormones, triggers the development of

secondary female characteristics such as the widening of the
hips and enlargement of the breasts. Most importantly, it
stimulates egg development.

- Egg cell production among females starts around the ages of

11 to 14 years, during the first discharge of blood from the
vagina, called menarche. Thereafter, each month, a normal
adult female releases a mature egg cell or female gamete in
one of her ovaries.

Egg Production

- About every 28 days, an ovum is released in an adult female

body. Hairlike structures called cilia sweep the ovum from the
ovary into either of the two fallopian tubes or oviduct. Each
fallopian tube is a passageway through which the ova move
from the ovary to the uterus.

- During sexual intercourse, sperm cells are deposited inside

the vagina, a passage that leads from the outside of the
female's body to the entrance of the uterus called a cervix. If
fertilization occurs, the fertilized ovum, now called a zygote,
travels down farther and implant itself in a hollow, muscular
organ about the size of a fist, called the uterus.

Female Reproductive Cycles

All females who reached puberty will undergo monthly

physiological cycles known as the ovarian and menstrual
cycle.

The ovarian cycle involves changes in the ovary as it prepares

the egg for maturation.

The menstrual cycle, on the other hand, involves changes in the

uterus as it grooms do uterus for possible implantation and,
later on, pregnancy.

The Ovarian Cycle

- The monthly release of an ovum from the ovary is

called ovulation. The released ovum is swept into the fallopian
tube and begins to move toward the uterus to await
fertilization.

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- The ovarian cycle happens in two distinct phases or
stages - the follicular phase and the luteal phase. These
phases are regulated by the hormones produced by the
hypothalamus and the anterior pituitary gland.
- A follicle is a cluster of cells that surround an immature egg
cell provides it with nutrients.
- The follicular phase begins when the anterior pituitary gland
releases the follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing
hormone (LH) into the bloodstream. Both FSH and LH cause the
follicle to produce estrogen, a sex hormone that aids the
growth of the follicle.
- A corpus luteum is a yellowish massive particular cell that
functions as an endocrine gland. LH causes the corpus luteum
to secrete both estrogen and progesterone, another sex
hormone. Progesterone signals the body to prepare for
fertilization.
The Menstrual Cycle: The Body's Preparation for Pregnancy
The menstrual cycle lasts an average of 28 days. The events in
the menstrual cycle are controlled by the changing levels of
estrogen and progesterone during the ovarian cycle. Before
and after ovulation, an increased level of estrogen and
progesterone cause the lining of the uterus to thicken and
become a conducive place for a fertilized ovum.
If pregnancy does not occur, the levels of estrogen and
progesterone decrease, causing the lining of the uterus to be
shed, which marks the end of the menstrual cycle.
D. Prevention, Detection, and Treatment of Diseases of the
Reproductive System
→ Syphilis
Syphilis is a bacterial infection usually spread by sexual
contact. The disease starts as a painless sore — typically on
your genitals, rectum, or mouth. Syphilis spreads from person
to person via skin or mucous membrane contact with these
sores. Early syphilis can be cured, sometimes with a single
shot (injection) of penicillin. Without treatment, syphilis can
severely damage your heart, brain, or other organs, and can be
life-threatening. Syphilis can also be passed from mothers to
unborn children.
Science Page 12
You’re at higher risk of getting syphilis if you:
▪ Have unprotected sex
▪ Have multiple sex partner
▪ Have HIV
▪ Are a man who has sex with men
→ Gonorrhea
Gonorrhea is a sexually transmitted disease (STD) caused by
infection with the Neisseria gonorrhoeae bacterium. N.
gonorrhoeae infects the mucous membranes of the
reproductive tract, including the cervix, uterus, and fallopian
tubes in women and the urethra in women and men. N.
gonorrhoeae can also infect the mucous membranes of the
mouth, throat, eyes, and rectum.
→ Genital Herpes
Genital herpes is a common sexually transmitted infection
caused by the herpes simplex virus (HSV). Sexual contact is the
primary way that the virus spreads. After the initial infection,
the virus lies dormant in your body and can reactivate several
times a year.
Genital herpes can cause pain, itching, and sores in your
genital area. But you may have no signs or symptoms of genital
herpes. If infected, you can be contagious even if you have no
visible sores.
When present, symptoms may begin about two to 12 days after
exposure to the virus. If you experience symptoms of genital
herpes, they may include:
▪ Pain or itching. You may experience pain and tenderness
in your genital area until the infection clears.
▪ Small red bumps or tiny white blisters. These may
appear a few days to a few weeks after infection.
▪ Ulcers. These may form when blisters rupture and ooze
or bleed. Ulcers may make it painful to urinate.
Scabs. Skin will crust over and form scabs as ulcers heal.
→ AIDS
- Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) is a chronic,
potentially life-threatening condition caused by the human
immunodeficiency virus (HIV). By damaging your immune
system, HIV interferes with your body's ability to fight infection
and disease. HIV is a sexually transmitted infection (STI). It can
also be spread by contact with infected blood or from mother to
child during pregnancy, childbirth, or breast-feeding. Without
medication, it may take years before HIV weakens your immune
system to the point that you have AIDS.
Possible signs and symptoms include:
▪ Fever
▪ Headache
▪ Muscle aches and joint pain
▪ Rash
▪ Sore throat and painful mouth sores
▪ Swollen lymph glands, mainly on the neck
▪ Diarrhea
▪ Weight loss
▪ Cough
▪ Night sweats