NERVOUS SYSTEM

Central Nervous System Peripheral Nervous System

Somatic NS Autonomic NS
Brain Spinal Cord
*connects CNS *No regular
with sensory glands/activities such
receptors as heartbeat,
respiration &
digestion

Afferent Efferent
(sensory) (motor)
*Msgs from *msgs from Sympathetic Parasympathe
body to brain to *emotional tic *processes
brain body parts response that restore
body’s reserves
*”fight or of energy
flight” *relaxes
response

• Nervous System

– Control center and communication network

• Directs functions of body’s organs and systems

• interprets external environment determines reaction to change

***Homeostasis - balanced internal environment

– controlled by nervous and endocrine systems

o CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

 Spinal cord
– The elongated, almost cylindrical part of the central nervous system,
which is suspended in the vertebral canal surrounded by the meninges
and cerebrospinal fluid.
• Continuous above the medulla oblongata and extends from the upper
border of the atlas(1st cervical vertebra) to the lower border of the first
lumbar vertebra.
 • It is approximately 45cm long in adult males, and is about the thickness of a
middle finger.

• Sensory nerves from organs and tissues enter and pass upwards in the spinal
cord to the brain.

 Cross-section of spinal cord shows that it is composed of grey matter in the center
surrounded by white matter supported by neuroglia.

 GREY MATTER

 The arrangement of grey matter of the spinal cord resembles the shape of the letter H. having 2
posterior, 2 anterior and 2 lateral columns.

 Transverse commissure- the area of grey matter lying transversely and is pierced by the central
canal, an extension from the 4th ventricle, containing cerebrospinal fluid.

 The nerve cell bodies may belong to:

 Sensory neurons- receive impulses from the periphery of the body.

 Lower motor neurons- transmit impulses to the skeletal muscle.

 Connector neurons- also known as interneurons linking sensory and motor neurons, at
the same or different level, which form spinal reflexes arcs.

 At each point where nerve impulses are transmitted from one neuron to another, there
are synapses.

 Posterior columns- composed of cell bodies that are stimulated by sensory impulses from the
periphery of the body. The nerve fibers of these cells contribute to the white matter of the cord
and transmit the sensory impulses upwards to the brain.

 Anterior columns- composed of cell bodies of the lower motor neurons that are stimulated by
upper motor neurons of the connector neurons linking the posterior and anterior columns to
form reflex arcs.

*Posterior root(spinal) ganglia- formed by the cell bodies of the sensory nerves

 White matter

 Arranged in 3 columns/tract:
 anterior,
 posterior and
 lateral.

 tracts are often named according to their point of origin and destination, e.g. spinothalamic,
corticospinal.
 Sensory nerve tract in spinal cord-Neurons- transmit impulses towards the brain(afferent, ascending)

 Two main sources of sensation:

 SKIN- sensory receptors (nerve endings) are stimulated by pain, heat cold and touch, including pressure.

 TENDONS, MUSCLES and JOINTS- sensory receptors are specialized nerve endings in these structures
called proprioceptors, and they are stimulated by stretch. These nerve impulses have 2 destinations:

a. Three neuron system, the impulses reach the sensory area of the opposite hemisphere of the
cerebrum.

b. Two neuron system, the nerve impulses reach the cerebellar hemisphere on the same side
 Sensory nerve pathway from the skin to the cerebrum->

 Voluntary muscle movement

 The upper motor neuron- has its cell body(Betz’s cell) in the primary motor area of the
cerebrum.
 Make up the pyramidal tracts and decussate in the medulla oblongata, forming the
pyramids.

 The lower motor neuron- has its cell body in anterior horn of grey matter in spinal cord.
  Axon emerges from the spinal cord by the anterior root, joins with the incoming sensory
fibers and forms the mixed spinal nerve that passes through the intervertebral foramen.

 The lower motor neuron-

 Near its termination in skeletal muscle the axon branches into many tiny fibers, each of
which is in close association with a sensitive area on the muscle fiber membrane known
as motor end plate.
 the motor end plates of each nerve and the muscle fibers they supply form a motor unit.
 Acetylcholine- neurotransmitter that transmit the nerve impulse across the synapse to
stimulate the muscle fiber.
 Motor unit contract as a whole and the strength of the muscle contraction depend on
the number of motor units in action at any time.

 Involuntary muscle movements

 Upper motor neurons- have their cell bodies in the brain at a level below the cerebrum.
 They influence muscle activity that maintains posture and balance, coordinates skeletal muscle
movement and controls muscle tone.
 Spinal reflexes- consist of three elements:
 Sensory neurons
 Connector neurons (or interneurons)
 Lower motor neurons
 In the simplest reflex arc, there is only one of each type of the neurons above.
 Reflex action- involuntary and immediate motor response to a sensory stimulus. It
happens simultaneously with the perception on the pain of the cerebrum. Reflexes of this
type are invariably protective but they occasionally be inhibited.
 For example, if a precious plate is very hot when lifted every effort will be made
to overcome the pain to prevent dropping it.
 Stretch reflexes- only two neurons are involved. The cell body of the lower motor neuron is
stimulated directly by the sensory neuron, with no connector neuron in between.

 Knee jerking is one of the examples, but this type of reflex can be demonstrated at any
point where a stretched tendon crosses a joint.

 By tapping tendon just below the knee when it is bent the sensory nerve
endings in the tendon and in the thigh, muscles are stretched.

 Autonomic reflexes- includes pupillary light reflex when the pupil immediately constricts, in
response to bright light, preventing retinal damage.

FUNCTIONS OF SPINAL CORD

• Conveys sensory impulses to the brain

• Integrates reflexes

• Spinal nerves connect at roots

– dorsal root - sensory

– ventral root – motor

  The Spinal Nerves
• Cervical - 8 pairs
• Thoracic - 12 pairs
• Lumbar - 5 pairs
• Sacral - 5 pairs
• Coccygeal - 1 pair
- A mixed nerve, which carries motor, sensory and automatic signals between spinal
cord.
- The Nerve root-
o Two nerve roots:
 Motor nerve root (anterior)
 Sensory nerve root (posterior)

Classification of Nerve Cells

 Neuroglia Cells
• Astrocytes - support, connection, blood brain barrier
• Oligodendroglia – support, myelin sheath formation

• Microglial - phagocytosis

• Ependymal - line the ventricles of the brain

• Schwann - myelin sheaths in peripheral nervous system

 The Structure of a Neuron

• Cell body

• Dendrites - receptive areas

• Axon - extension of cell body

– Schwann cells

– Nodes of Ranvier

The Physiology of the Nerve Impulse

NERVE CELL IMPULSE

Nerve cell fiber resting potential

• Na+ concentration higher on outside

• K+ concentration higher on inside

• Negative charge on inside

• Positive charge on outside

The Synaptic Transmission

 • axon terminal branches close to next dendrites

• Impulse reaches axon terminals

• Triggers neurotransmitter release into synaptic cleft

Neurotransmitters

 Acetylcholine has functions both in the peripheral nervous system (PNS) and in the

central nervous system (CNS) as a neuromodulator. Its receptors have very high binding
constants. In the peripheral nervous system, acetylcholine activates muscles, and is a
major neurotransmitter in the autonomic nervous system.

 Epinephrine more commonly known as adrenaline is a hormone secreted by the

medulla of the adrenal glands. Strong emotions such as fear or anger
cause epinephrine to be released into the bloodstream, which causes an
increase in heart rate, muscle strength, blood pressure, and sugar metabolism.

 Norepinephrine.  Its role as the neurotransmitter released from the sympathetic

neurons to affect the heart. An increase innorepinephrine from the sympathetic
nervous system increases the rate of contractions in the heart.

 Serotonin, between 80-90%, can be found in the gastrointestinal

tract. Serotonin that is used inside the brain must be produced within it. It is
thought that serotonin can affect mood and social behavior, appetite and
digestion, sleep, memory and sexual desire andfunction.

 Dopamine In the brain, dopamine functions as a neurotransmitter—a chemical

released by nerve cells to send signals to other nerve cells. The brain includes
several distinct dopamine systems, one of which plays a major role in reward-
motivated behavior. Most types of reward increase the level of dopamine in the
brain, and a variety of addictive drugs increase dopamine neuronal activity.
Other brain dopamine systems are involved in motor control and in controlling
the release of several other important hormones.

 Endorphins. Natural Pain and Stress Fighters. Endorphins are among the brain

chemicals known as neurotransmitters, which function to transmit electrical
signals within the nervous system.

Grouping of Neural Tissue

• White matter
 – groups of myelinated axons

– forms nerve tracts in CNS

• Gray matter

– nerve cell bodies and dendrites

– unmyelinated axon bundles

• Nerve - bundle of fibers outside CNS

• Ganglia - nerve cell bodies outside CNS

• Tract - bundle of fibers inside CNS

• Nucleus - nerve cell bodies and dendrites inside CNS

• Horns - areas of gray matter in spinal cord

The Brain, Cranial Nerves, Autonomic Nervous System and the Special Senses

The Principal Parts of the Brain

• Main parts - brainstem, diencephalon, cerebrum and cerebellum

• Protection

– cranial bones

– meninges

– cerebrospinal fluid

The Anatomy and Function of the Brainstem

Brainstem
• The brainstem is the region of the brain that connects the cerebrum with the spinal cord.
• Motor and sensory neurons travel through the brainstem allowing for the relay of signals between
the brain and the spinal cord.
• The brainstem coordinates motor control signals sent from the brain to the body. The brainstem
also controls life supporting autonomic functions of the peripheral nervous system.

Functions:
• Alertness
• Arousal
• Breathing
• Blood Pressure
• Digestion
• Heart Rate
• Other Autonomic Functions

*Relays Information between the Peripheral Nerves and Spinal Cord to the Upper Parts of the
Brain
 Brainstem consists of:

 Midbrain
• Also called mesencephalon (from the Greek word “mesos”, middle & “enkephalos”,
brain)
• The midbrain is located below the cerebral cortex, and above the hindbrain placing it
near the center of the brain.
• It consists of nuclei & nerve fibres (tracts), which connect the cerebrum with lower parts
of the brain & with the spinal cord.
• Nuclei – act as relay stations for the ascending & descending nerve fibres.
• Dorsal tectum - reflex center
• Controls movement of head and eyeball (visual stimuli)
• Controls movement of head and trunk (auditory stimuli)

 The Pons Varolii

• It is a portion of the brain stem, located in front of the cerebellum, above the medulla
oblongata and below the midbrain.
• It is called pons Varolii ("bridge of Varolius"), after the Italian anatomist and surgeon
Costanzo Varolio. Connects spinal cord with brain
• The Pons serves as a message station between several areas of the brain. It helps relay
messages from the cortex and the cerebellum. Without the pons, the brain would not
be able to function because messages would not be able to be transmitted, or passed
along.
• It also plays a key role in sleep and dreaming, where REM sleep, or the sleeping state
where dreaming is most likely to occur, has been proven to originate here, in the pons.
• Helps control breathing

 Medulla Oblongata
• It is the most interior region of the brain stem.
• Extending from the pons above, it is continuous with the spinal cord below.
• It controls autonomic functions such as breathing, digestion, heart and blood vessel
function, swallowing and sneezing.
• Motor and sensory neurons from the midbrain and forebrain travel through the
medulla.
• As a part of the brainstem, the medulla oblongata helps in the transferring of messages
between various parts of the brain and the spinal cord.
• Ascending and descending tracts
• Connect spinal cord with the brain
• Some tracts cross over in medulla
• Reticular formation - controls consciousness
• Reflex centers
• The medulla contains the cardiac, respiratory, vomiting and vasomotor centres and
therefore deals with the autonomic (involuntary) functions of breathing, heart rate and
blood pressure.
• It contains both myelinated and unmyelinated nerve fibers, also called white matter and
grey matter, respectively.

The Anatomy and Functions of the Diencephalon

Diencephalon
• Literally "between-brain", the diencephalon is the area of the brain between the
telencephalon and brainstem. It consists of the thalamus, subthalamus, hypothalamus, and
epithalamus.
• The diencephalon is the region of the embryonic vertebrate neural tube that gives rise to
posterior forebrain structures including the thalamus, hypothalamus, posterior portion of
the pituitary gland, and pineal gland.

 Thalamus
• relay station for sensory impulses, motor signals to the
cerebral cortex, and the regulation of consciousness, sleep,
and alertness.
• interpretation center for pain, temperature and touch

 Hypothalamus
• Is a portion of the brain that contains a number of small nuclei with a variety of
functions.

• Is a section of the brain responsible for the production of many of the body’s essential
hormones, chemical substances that help control different cells and organs. 

• The hypothalamus is located below the thalamus.

• Primary function is for Homeostasis.

• One of the most important functions of the hypothalamus is to link the nervous

system to the endocrine system via the pituitary gland (hypophysis).

 Pituitary Gland
• Also known as Hypophysis or “Master Gland”, because it controls several of the other
hormone glands .
• It is an endocrine gland about the size of a pea and weighing 0.5 grams in humans.

*Damage to diencephalon may result to:

 Thalamus – insomnia and other sleep disorders.
 Hypothalamus – brain tumors, hypothalamic diseases (anorexia and bulimia)
 Pituitary Gland – benign tumors, Hypersecretion and Hyposecretion.

The Anatomy and Functions of the Cerebrum

Cerebrum
• Forms the superior part of the brain, covering the diencephalon (thalamus and hypothalamus)
and brain stem(medulla oblongata, pons, midbrain).
• Associated with higher brain function such as thought and action.
• Cerebrum is divided into 2 by LONGITUDINAL CEREBRAL FISSURE, a Deep fissure that separates
the cerebrum into two hemispheres (right and left) of the cerebrum.
• Two Hemispheres: Right and Left
 Right Hemisphere Left Hemisphere
The right brain is the creative brain and is The left brain is the logical brain
responsible for responsible for
 rhythm  words
 spatial awareness  logic
 colour  numbers
 imagination  analysis
 daydreaming  lists
 holistic awareness  linearity
 dimension  Sequence
 It controls the left side of your  It controls the right side of your
body. body.

 CORPUS CALLOSUM
• Deep within the brain that connects the 2 hemisphere by a mass of white
matter (or nerve fibers).

 CERBRAL CORTEX
• Outer covering of the cerebral hemispheres that is composed of grey
matter (nerve cell bodies).
• Involved in functions such as thought, voluntary movement, language,
reasoning, and perception
 Functions:
• High order functions (mental activities)
• Sensory perception
• Initiation and control of movements

Things to remember:

 Fissure - deep furrows.

 Sulci - shallow furrows.
 Gyri - bumps or convolutions

4 LOBES of the Brain

1. Frontal Lobe
• responsible for emotions, planning, creativity, judgment, movement and problem
solving
• thought to be the most significant lobe for personality and intelligence.
• Divisions of frontal lobe:
a. Prefrontal area - for the "higher cognitive functions" and the determination of the
personality.
b. Primary motor area - the brain can take direct control of the muscles from the spinal
cord.
c. Premotor area -consciously monitor movement sequences 

2. Parietal Lobe
• contains neurons that receive and process sensory information
• “somatosensory area“

3. Temporal Lobe
• Brain's temporal lobe combines auditory and visual information.
• Auditory (hearing) area & olfactory area
• Processes information associated with hearing and equilibrium.
• Hippocampus
• The superior (upper) and medial (central) receives auditory input
• The inferior (lower) part - visual processing for object and pattern recognition.
• The medial and anterior parts - visual recognition depending on memory.

4. Occipital Lobe
 “Visual area”
• Processes visual information and is related to our understanding of the written
word.
 Involves:
 Movement and color recognition
 Visual-spatial processing
 Interpreting visual stimuli
The Anatomy and Functions of the Cerebullum
Cerebellum
• It is situated behind the pons.
• Is not under voluntary control.
• Have a role in learning and language processing.
Functions:
• It is concerned with the coordination of voluntary muscular movement, posture and balance.
• Integrates information to regulate skeletal muscle activity so that balance and posture are
maintained.
• It is involved in the coordination of skeletal muscle activity.
• Also in the coordination of activity controlled by the autonomic nervous system.
• Involved in the selective awareness.
• *Damage to Cerebellum may Results to:
 Clumsy coordinated muscular movement
 Staggering gait
 Inability to carry out smooth, steady, precise movements .
smdv//dlsl.con//2023