. NERVOUS SYSTEM .
3 Main Region
➔ body's decision and communication
center.
responsible for controlling and
➔
coordinating all the organ systems by
sending messages from the brain through
nerve signals.
➔ It is a complex network of nerves and
cells that carry messages to and from the
brain and spinal cord to various parts of
the body.
➔ Body’s storage center of information
➔ body’s control system.
➔ It makes sure that all the parts of the body
are working together efficiently.
Major Divisions and Parts of the Nervous System:
• 1st Division: The Central Nervous System - Brain
& Spinal Cord
• 2nd Division: The Peripheral Nervous System - all
the nerves
Nerves reach out from your brain to your face, ears,
eyes, nose, and to the spinal cord which connects to
the rest of the body
THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (1st Division)
➔ - receives and processes all of the
information from all parts of the body. In
other words, it controls the entire organ
system of the body.
➔ - serves as the main processing center
of the nervous system. It consists of two
main components: Brain and Spinal Cord.
The major part of the CNS:
1. BRAIN
- is the "control center" of the nervous system.
- an organ located within the skull that functions
as organizer and distributor of information for the
body.
a. Cerebrum 🤯
- the large, upper part of the brain
- controls activity and thought.
🧍🏃
b. Cerebellum
- the part under the cerebrum
- controls posture, balance, and
coordination.
- voluntary movements
c. Brain stem 🧠
- connects the brain to the spinal cord
- controls automatic functions (breathing,
digestion, heart rate, and blood pressure.)
2. SPINAL CORD
- about 40-50 cm long
- “connects the brain and the body”
- transmits impulses all over the body to and
from the brain.
- responsible for involuntary movements such
as simple musculoskeletal reflexes even without
the processing of the brain like moving your hand
away from a hot or sharp object.
- serves as a channel for signal between the
brain and the majority of the body parts.
- Composing the nerve tissues of the cord is
a grey and white matter.
THE PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
- controls all the nerves outside the brain
and spinal cord.
- connects the CNS to the organs and
limbs.
- It carries impulses from the sensory
nerves to the CNS and to the motor
nerves.
- It is further divided into two divisions:
Somatic and Autonomic Nervous System
1. Somatic Nervous System
- regulates the activities that are under
conscious control/voluntary control.
- It includes all the nerves controlling the
muscular system and external sensory
receptors which refer to external sense
organs. (eyes, ears, nose, skin, and tongue)
Two main parts of SNS:
1. Spinal Nerves carry motor and sensory
signals between the spinal cord and the
body.
2. Cranial Nerves are nerve fibers that carry
information into and out of the brain
stem. Regulates activities under conscious
control. Includes nerves controlling the
muscular system and external sensory
receptors.
. THE NERVE CELL .
- the basic unit of the nervous system.
- There are billions of neurons in the body.
- carries impulses to the nervous system
- composed of the cell body which contains the
nucleus and is covered by the myelin sheath with
an axon terminal at its end.
In the cell body there are root-like structures called
the dendrites and axons.

2. Autonomic Nervous System

- includes the motor neurons that control
the internal organs.
- regulates all activities that are involuntary
or done without conscious will.
- controlling the muscles in the heart and
the smooth muscles in the internal organs
such as the intestines, QA z bladder, and
the uterus.
- it is further subdivided into sympathetic
and parasympathetic nervous system

Two subdivisions of ANS

- The Schwann Cell produces the myelin sheath.
1. Sympathetic Nervous system
- Dendrite is called the "receptor site" of neurons.
- known as the "fight-or-flight response"
- controls the internal functions of the body
As signals originate at its end, the dendrites
in times of stress.
receive the impulses and carry these toward the
- responsible for the acceleration of heart
cell body.
rate, the constriction of blood vessels and the rise
of blood pressure.
While the axon carries the impulses away from the
- activated when the body is in a dynamic
cell body, which passes along the different parts of
role or stress. (e.g., increased heart rate and
the neuron.
breathing, dilation of pupil, sweating)

- The rodes of Ranvier allow the generation of a

2. Parasympathetic Nervous System
fast electrical impulse along the axon. Axons then
- known as the "rest and disguise response"
pass the impulses to the dendrites of the other
- controls the internal functions at rest
neuron cell body in the muscle cells.
- slows down the heart rate and increases the
intestinal and gland activities.
- The gap between neurons is called synapse.
- maintains body functions and restores the
body to normal or relaxed mode.
CLASSIFICATION OF NEURON

1. Sensory or affective neurons: carry impulses from

the sense organs to the brain and spinal cord.

2. Motor or effective neurons: carry impulses from

the brain and the spinal cord to the muscles.
3. Associative neurons: located in the CNS, analyze
and interpret the data or impulses.
HOW IS A MESSAGE TRANSMITTED?
The nervous system is connected to the different
organs of the body, in the senses. These organs are
composed of different receptors.
● Photoreceptors - Eyes
● Mechanoreceptors - Ears
● Olfactory Receptors - Nose
● Chemoreceptors - Tongue
● Nociceptors - Skin (for pain)
● Thermal receptors - Skin (for temperature)
Once a stimulus, like when you touch a pot of
boiling water, is detected through a receptor or
sensory organ like your skin.
The sensory neuron carries the message to the
CNS from one nerve cell to another.
When the message is received, it processes the
information.
Sends an impulse through the motor neuron
Ordering the effector organ which is a muscle or
gland to respond to the message.
Homeostasis
Is the condition wherein the human body system is
maintained in balance despite the changing
external factors.
- Responsible for the regulation and
maintenance of the internal environment
of the body.
- Regulate:
● Body temp
● Fluids
● Salts, acids, amd gases
● Nutrients
Different Control systems in the body:
1. Sensors
- receptors that are responsible for
gathering information about the
conditions inside and outside of the body.
- The human body is made up of
sensory neurons that carry impulses to the
CNS (or)
2. Control Center = BRAIN
- Control center is the brain, which
is a part of the nervous system
- The brain receives information
from the sensors.
- Examines information and
compares these to the normal
values in which the body
functions well.
- If the information received is
below or above the normal range:
it responds by sending messages
through communicating systems.

Ex. An average adult’s normal

heart rate is 60 to 100 beats per
minute.

Normal: 60-100 bpm

In this situation the muscle is ordered to move the ● Below 60 bpm: the brain
hand away as distinct as these functions are. It is tells heart to beat faster
still of high importance that these body parts ● Above 100 bpm: the brain
function with balance and coordination with one tells heart to beat slower
another to maintain homeostasis.
3. Communicating system
- The Nervous System & The
Endocrine System
 - They carry information to all
parts of the body.
- Through nerve impulses and
hormones, they dictate the target
cell or organs in the body how to
respond with the internal and
external changes.
- Targets are any organ tissue or
cell, responsible for the changes
in the activity of the body in
response to the message received.
How Nervous systems coordinate and regulate
feedback mechanisms to maintain homeostasis?
● The nervous system provides quick
responses in maintaining homeostasis.
Homeostasis is maintained in the body by
regulating the body temperature, blood
pressure, pH, and glucose concentration.
Ex. The body's core temperature is 36°C -> when
overheats -> the sensors send a message to the
brain to regulate heat -> causes you to sweat
(sweat decreases body temperature back to its
regular level)
Positive Feedback Mechanisms
- A control system that uses information
from sensors that increase the rate of
processes
- Exact opposite of a negative feedback
mechanism.
- Deviates from a set point, and it becomes
greater, which makes a bad situation
worse
Ex. When you accidentally cut your hand. The
positive feedback mechanism is used in the
production of nerve impulses and increases the
rate of blood clotting until the wound is sealed.

The communicating systems ( Nervous System &

Endocrine System) are working together.

Homeostasis is the state reached when each part of

the body functions in equilibrium with other parts.
This is attained through the regulation of the
bodily functions by the endocrine and nervous
systems.

Feedback mechanisms are used by most body

systems to maintain homeostasis. When the brain
receives messages from the body about an internal
change in one of its systems, it works to restore
the system to its normal state. The hypothalamus
affects the pituitary gland, also known as the
master gland, to secrete the right hormones.

Negative Feedback Mechanisms

- A control system to reduce or minimize
any internal or external changes in the
body
- Regulates homeostasis
- Deviation from set point or normal value
- Set point refers to the ideal requirement
of the body to maintain homeostasis.
. PROTEIN SYNTHESIS
PROTEINS
- They are composed of amino acids linked
together by peptide bonds.
It serves as structural support, biochemical
catalysts, hormones, enzymes, building blocks, and
initiators of cellular death.
Roles and Functions
Channels in membranes
- control the movement of molecules in
and out of the cell.
Proteins embedded in cell membranes form
channels or transporters that control the
movement of molecules into and out of the cell.
These channels are selective, allowing only specific
molecules or ions to pass through, which is crucial
for maintaining cellular homeostasis and regulating
cell function.
Structural Molecules
- for example, making up hair or muscle in
animals.
Proteins serve as the building blocks for various
structural components in organisms. For example,
in animals, proteins like collagen provide strength
and support to tissues such as skin, tendons, and
bones. Proteins also contribute to the structural
integrity of hair, muscle fibers, and other tissues.
Hormones
- to regulate the activity of cells
Some proteins function as hormones, which are
chemical messengers that regulate the activity of
cells and tissues in the body. Hormones control
processes such as growth, metabolism, and
reproduction by binding to specific receptors on
target cells and initiating cellular responses. To
regulate the activity of cells.
Antibodies
- in the immune system;
also known as immunoglobulins, are specialized
proteins produced by the immune system in
response to foreign substances (antigens) such as
pathogens or toxins. Antibodies recognize and bind
to specific antigens, marking them for destruction
. by other immune cells or neutralizing their harmful
effects.
Enzymes
- to act as catalysts in biological systems.
Proteins act as enzymes, which are biological
catalysts that facilitate and accelerate chemical
reactions in living organisms. Enzymes lower the
activation energy required for reactions to occur,
allowing them to proceed at a faster rate. Enzymes
are involved in various metabolic pathways,
digestion, synthesis of biomolecules, and many
other biochemical processes essential for life.
. NUCLEIC ACID .
A naturally occurring chemical compound
that serves as the primary information carrying
molecule in cells and make up genetic material.
nucleic
A molecule that’s part of the classification “Nucleic
acids” which are responsible for storing and
transmitting information.
acid
Refers to the DNA's phosphate part, which can
donate protons in water.
Types of Nucleic Acids and their Difference
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and RNA (ribonucleic
acid) work together to produce proteins from
genetic codes.
Genetic codes are found in DNA or RNA which is
made up of nucleotide bases usually in three’s
(triplet) that code for the amino acids making up
the proteins.
1. Deoxyribonucleic Acid
It is a molecule that carries the genetic
instructions used in the growth, development,
functioning, and reproduction of all known living
organisms and many viruses.
2. Ribonucleic Acid
It is a molecule essential for various cellular
processes, including protein synthesis and gene
regulation. Unlike DNA, RNA is typically
single-stranded and contains the nucleotide uracil ● The double-stranded structure of DNA
instead of thymine. provides stability and protection for the
genetic information, making it ideal for
long-term storage and inheritance.

● Why can’t certain nucleotides bind with

➔ Why an RNA is usually a single-helix
structure is usually attributed to the steric
hindrance that the oxygen in the second
hydroxyl group causes. If you draw DNA’s
structure with straight lines, it might seem
that hydrogen bonds can form, but
chemical structures aren’t straight, the
oxygen atom will occupy a space and the
bonds won’t physically fit in the presence
of the oxygen thus resulting in a
single-helix structure.
❖ Types of RNA:
1. Messenger RNA or mRNa
- transcribes the DNA nucleotide
bases to RNA nucleotide bases
- a messenger that carries
important messages from the
DNA instruction book to the
protein-making factory your cells.
2. Transfer RNA or tRNa
- translates the mRNA codons into
the correct amino acids
others?
- It’s all down to how the hydrogens
are arranged in the chemical
structure of each base. For
example, Adenine's functional
groups are arranged in a way that
allows it to form two hydrogen
bonds only with thymine's
functional groups.
Why is an RNA usually a single-helix structure
usually attributed to the steric hindrance that the
oxygen in the second hydroxyl group causes?
- If you draw DNA’s structure with straight
lines, it might seem that hydrogen bonds
can form, but chemical structures aren’t
straight, the oxygen atom will occupy a
space and the bonds won’t physically fit in
the presence of the oxygen thus resulting
in a single-helix structure.

3. Ribosomal RNA or rRNa

- binds the mRNA and tRNA to
ensure that codons are translated
correctly

MOLECULAR DIFFERENCES
● The key distinction between DNA and RNA
lies in the second carbon, where the ribose
structure in RNA features an oxygen atom,
whereas DNA lacks this oxygen.
● This characteristic grants DNA the
capability to establish hydrogen bonds
between its complementary bases,
resulting in its double-helix structure.
PROTEIN SYNTHESIS
- is the process in which cells make
proteins. It occurs in two stages:
transcription and translation. During
transcription, DNA is used as a template to
make a molecule of messenger RNA (mRNA).
The molecule of mRNA then leaves the
nucleus and goes to a ribosome in the
cytoplasm, where translation occurs.
During translation, the genetic code in
mRNA is read and used to make a
polypeptide. These two processes are
summed up by the central dogma of
molecular biology: DNA → RNA → Protein
2 STAGES OF PROTEIN SYNTHESIS
1. Transcription
Occurs inside the nucleus (eukaryotes), and it is
the first step in gene expression.
In the Transcription stage of protein synthesis, the
DNA unzips through the help of enzymes called
RNA polymerases. They combine nucleotides to
form an RNA strand (using one of the DNA strands
as a template).
For a protein-coding gene, the messenger RNA
carries the information needed to build a
polypeptide. The messenger RNA (mRNA) is the
RNA form of the gene that leaves the nucleus
through the nuclear pore and moves to the
cytoplasm where proteins are made.
Transcription is the process wherein the DNA
sequence of a gene is "rewritten" using RNA
nucleotides.
- It is the first part of the central dogma of
molecular biology: DNA → RNA.
- It is the transfer of genetic instructions in
DNA to mRNA. During transcription, a
strand of mRNA is made to complement a
strand of DNA.
2. Translation
- This occurs in 3 stages (IET)
- Within the ribosome interacts
tRNA
1. Initiation
The ribosome sandwiches the mRNA between its
small and large subunit to be translated. The first
codon that will be read is AUG that is called the
start codon, and consequently codes for the amino
acid methionine.
RNA Polymerase ( enzyme that unzips the DNA)
binds to the Promoter Region ( short sequence of
DNA) of DNA.
RNA Polymerase causes the DNA to separate
➔ Eukaryotic DNA – TATAAA or TATA Box.
2. Elongation
The amino acid chain gets longer. In this stage,
messenger RNA reads one codon at a time.
It begins to add nucleotides (A-T/U, C-G) to the
growing mRNA strand
➔ Nontemplate Strand (sense) - coding
strand; not used; sequence matching with
RNA.
➔ Template strand (antisense) - RNA
Polymerase is active in this area.
RNA Polymerase synthesizes mRNA starting from 5
- 3 but it reads DNA strand in 3 - 5
“The tRNA molecule Enters A-site and exit
E-site”
3. Termination
Where the finished polypeptide is released. It
starts when a stop codon (UAG, UAA, or UGA) is
read by the ribosome, activating a series of events
that stop translation and disassemble the subunits
of the ribosomal RNA.

The polypeptide produced in this stage will be
processed further before it becomes a functional
protein.
RNA Polymerase molecule, mRNA strand separate
from DNA template strand.
The 5’ is capped at the beginning of transcription
to protect mRNA strand from being degraded by
certain enzymes.
Poly- A Polymerase enzyme caps the 3’ ends of
mRNA strand or which we call “poly - A tail”
Where the codes in the messenger RNA is
translated to a polypeptide that contains a specific
series of amino acids.
Amino acid bonds with each other to form
polypeptides which make up proteins.
IMPORTANT CODONS
ADDITIONAL TERMS
❖ Processing mRNA
● Introns
- is a long sequence of nucleotides
that do not code hence “must be
removed” in RNA Splicing.
Sequence of Nucleotide = gene
● Exons
- is a shorter sequence of
nucleotides that will be used to
synthesize proteins hence “must
be remain” in RNA Splicing
- DNA Sequence to RNA Sequence
- 3’ - GCTATAGCCCGTAAGT - 5’ : DNA
Sequence
- Vice-versa
- G - > C T - > A (DNA has Thymine)
- C - > G A - > U (RNA has Uracil)
- 5’ - CGAUAUCGGGCAUUCA - 3’ : RNA
Sequence
● Codons as special secret codes that tell
the protein-making factory (Ribosome)
which building blocks (amino acids) to use
when making a protein.
● In the mRNA message, there are groups of
three letters called codons. Each codon is
like a unique code that represents a
specific amino acid, which is a building
block of proteins.
● Start Codons: AUG (starts the translation
stage)
● Stop Codons: UAG, UGA, UAA (stops the
translation stage).
● Protein Synthesis - process of making
proteins
● Amino acids - the building blocks of
proteins, which are essential for building
structures within your body
● Polypeptide - when the ribosome reads
the mRNA message and puts together the
amino acids in the right order, it forms a
polypeptide chain
● Nucleotides - is like a tiny brick with three
parts:
1. sugar molecule
2. phosphate group
3. nitrogenous base.
DNA Synthesis & mRNA codon to Amino Acids DNA REPLICATION AND MUTATION
● DNA has 4 bases: ● DNA
- Adenine (A) - Is the "blueprint" for the cell
- Thymine (T) →contains the instructions that
- Cytosine (C) tells the cell how to do things and
- Guanine (G) what to make
- DNA is like blueprints for making
If a base pair binds to another base pair that is not a city, in this case is the cell
complementary to it, it will cause issues such as:
➢ DNA is made up of two strands (double
● DNA destabilization can cause breaking stranded)
and damage to the DNA. ➢ Each strand has the bases connected to a
● Mutations might cause malfunctioning PHOSPHATE BACKBONE
proteins, altered cellular processes, and ➢ The two strands wrap around each other
genetic diseases. in a winding staircase manner (helix)
● Incorrect synthesis results in incorrect ➢ In order for you to survive, your cells need
amino acid incorporation. to replicate themselves. In order for them
● The body prevents mismatch through DNA to do that, they need to replicate their
Polymerase, just like proofreading an DNA
article, the body proofreads the bases. ➢ Every cell in your body has the same DNA,
because every time one of your cells
mRNA codon to Amino Acids divides, it makes a copy of its DNA to give
to the new daughter cells
● RNA has 4 bases:
➢ The DNA is unzipped and the original
- Adenine (A)
strands are used to help make the new
- Uracil (U)
molecules.
- Cytosine (C)
➢ MUTATIONS are any changes in the
- Guanine (G)
sequence of bases of DNA
➢ Sometimes during replication, the cell
mRNA Codon Chart:
makes a mistake and adds the wrong base
➢ When the cell replicates its DNA again, the
two strands that are produced are no
longer exactly the same
➢ This usually will cause the new cell to die,
but sometimes it can cause the cell to
divide when it is not supposed to →
cancer

What can cause mutation to happen more often?

1. Nuclear
2. Cigarettes
3. UV
4. Peanut
5. Preservatives