ORGANS & DIVISIONS OF THE NERVOUS
SYSTEM
ORGANS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
o The organs of the NS as a whole
include the brain and the spinal cord,
the numerous nerves of the body, the
specialized sense organs and the
microscopic sense organs such as
those found in the skin.
o The system consists of 2 principal
divisions called the central nervous
system & the peripheral NS.
o Because the brain and spinal cord
occupy a midline or central location in
the body, they are together called the
central nervous system or CNS.
o Similarly, the usual designation for the
nerves of the body is the peripheral
nervous system or PNS.
o A subdivision of the PNS, called the
autonomic nervous system or ANS,
consists of structures that regulate the
body’s autonomic or involuntary
functions.
Structural classification OF THE NERVOUS
SYSTEM
1. CNS consists of the brain and spinal
cord, which occupy the dorsal body
cavity and act as the integrating and
command centers of the NS.
They interpret incoming sensory information
and issue instructions based on past
experience and current conditions.
2. PNS, the part of the NS outside the
CNS, consists mainly of the nerves that
extend from the brain and spinal cord.
Spinal nerves carry impulses to & from
the spinal cord. Cranial nerves carry
impulses to & from the brain. These
nerves serve as communication lines.
Functional classification OF THE NERVOUS
SYSTEM
1. Sensory, or afferent division consists
of nerve fibers that convey impulses to
the CNS from sensory receptors located
in various parts of the body.
Sensory fibers delivering impulses from the
skin, skeletal muscles, and joints are called
somatic sensory (afferent) fibers, whereas
those transmitting impulses from the visceral
organs are called visceral sensory (afferent)
fibers.
2. Motor, or efferent division
-Carries impulses from the CNS to effector
organs, muscles and glands.
-These impulses activate muscles and glands;
that is they effect (bring about) a motor
response
3. Subdivisions of Motor or efferent
division:
1. Somatic NS allow us to consciously, or
voluntarily, control our skeletal muscles (aka
voluntary nervous system).
2. Autonomic NS (ANS) regulates events that
are automatic, or involuntary, such as the
activity of smooth & cardiac muscle and glands
(aka involuntary NS).
2.1. Sympathetic
2.2.Parasympathetic
NERVOUS TISSUE: STRUCTURE &
FUNCTION
PRINCIPAL TYPES OF CELLS:
1. Supporting Cells in the CNS are
“lumped together” as neuroglia, literally,
“nerve glue.”
Neuroglia includes many types of cells that
generally support, insulate, and protect the
delicate neurons (aka Glia).
CNS GLIA INCLUDE:
Astrocyte
-are star-shaped cells that account nearly half
of the neural tissue.
- They form a living barrier between capillaries
& neurons and play a role in making
exchanges between the two.
-They also help control the chemical
environment in the brain by picking up excess
ions and recapturing released
neurotransmitters.
Microglia
-Spiderlike phagocytes that dispose of debris,
including dead brain cells and bacteria.
Ependymal cells
-These glial cells line the cavities of the brain
and the spinal cord.
-The beating of their cilia helps to circulate the
cerebrospinal fluid that fills those cavities and
forms a protective cushion around the CNS.
CNS GLIA INCLUDE:
Oligodendrocytes
 -Glia that wrap their flat extensions tightly
around the nerve fibers, producing fatty
insulating covering called myelin sheaths.
Supporting cells in the PNS come in 2
major varieties:
• Schwann cells form the myelin
sheaths around nerve fibers that are
found in the PNS.
• Satellite cells act as protective,
cushioning cells.
PRINCIPAL TYPES OF CELLS:
2. Neurons also called nerve cells, are highly
specialized to transmit messages (nerve
impulse) from one part of the body to another.
-All have a cell body, which contains the
nucleus and is the metabolic center of the cell,
and one or more slender processes extending
from the cell body.
Cell body is the metabolic center of the
neuron. It contains the usual organelles except
for centrioles.
Dendrites is the neuron process that convey
incoming messages (electrical signals) toward
the cell body.
Axons generate nerve impulses and typically
conduct them away from the cell body.
FUNCTIONAL ANATOMY OF THE BRAIN
Brain
-The brain is the largest and most complex
mass of nervous tissue in the body.
-Its four major regions: cerebral hemisphere,
diencephalon, brain stem, and cerebellum.
-The brain is the largest and most complex
mass of nervous tissue in the body.
-Its four major regions: cerebral hemisphere,
diencephalon, brain stem, and cerebellum.
Cerebral hemisphere
-The paired cerebral hemispheres,
collectively called the cerebrum, are the most
superior part of the brain and together are a
good deal larger than the other three brain
regions combined.
-Speech, memory, logical and emotional
response, as well as consciousness,
interpretation of sensation, and voluntary
movement, are all functions of neurons of the
cerebral cortex, and many of the functional
areas of the cerebral hemispheres.
Diencephalon
-aka interbrain, sits atop the brain stem and is
enclosed by the cerebral hemisphere.
-The major structures are: thalamus,
hypothalamus, and epithalamus.
-Thalamus encloses the shallow third ventricle
of the brain, is a relay station for sensory
impulses passing upward to the sensory
cortex. We can recognize whether the
sensation is pleasant or unpleasant.
The hypothalamus (literally, “under the
thalamus”) makes up the floor of the
diencephalon. It is an important ANS center
because it plays a role in the regulation of body
temperature, water balance, and metabolism. It
is also center of many drives and emotions,
and as such it is an important part of the so
called limbic system, or “emotional- visceral
brain.” For example, thirst, appetite, sex, pain
and pleasure centers are in the hypothalamus.
BRAIN STEM
-Its structures are the midbrain, pons, and
medulla oblongata.
-In addition to providing a pathway for
ascending and descending tracts, the brain
stem has many small grey matter areas. This
control breathing & blood pressure.
MIDBRAIN
-a small part of the brain stem which extends
from mammillary bodies to the pons inferiorly.
-Two-way conduction pathway; relay for visual
and auditory impulses.
PONS
-It is a rounded structure that protrudes just
below the midbrain.
-Pons means “bridge,” and this area of the
brain stem is mostly fiber tracts.
-Two-way conduction pathway between areas
of brain & other regions of the body; influences
respiration.
MEDULLA OBLONGATA
-the most inferior part of the brain stem.
-It merges into the spinal cord below without
any obvious change in structure.
-It contains centers that control heart rate,
blood pressure, breathing, swallowing, and
vomiting.
CEREBELLUM
-It provides the precise timing for skeletal
muscle activity and controls our balance and
equilibrium. Because of its activity, body
movements are smooth and coordinated.
MENINGES
-The three connective tissue membranes
covering and protecting the CNS structures.
1. The outermost layer, the leathery dura
mater, meaning “tough & hard mother,” is a
doubled layer membrane where it surrounds
the brain.
2. One of its layer is attached to the inner
surface of the skull, forming the periosteum
(periosteal layer).
3. The meningeal layer, that forms the
outermost covering of the brain & continues as
the dura mater of the spinal cord.
Peripheral nervous system
-The nerves connecting the brain and spinal
cord to other parts of the body constitute the
peripheral nervous system.
-This system includes cranial and spinal nerves
that connect the brain & the spinal cord,
respectively, to peripheral structures such as
skin surface & skeletal muscles.
AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
-ANS consists of certain motor neurons that
conduct impulses from the spinal cord or
brainstem to the following kinds of tissues:
1. cardiac muscle tissue
2. smooth muscle tissue
3. glandular epithelial tissue
-ANS consists of the nervous system that
regulate involuntary functions: heartbeat,
contractions of the stomach and intestines, and
secretion by glands.
-It also consists of the motor nerves that
control the voluntary actions of the skeletal
muscles are sometimes called the somatic
nervous system.
-It consists of two divisions called sympathetic
& parasympathetic NS.
-The sympathetic & parasympathetic NS both
serve the same organs but cause essentially
opposite effects, counterbalancing each other’s
activities to keep the body systems running
smoothly.
-The sympathetic division mobilizes the body
during extreme situations (such as fear),
whereas the parasympathetic division allows
us to “unwind” and conserve energy.
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
-is the system of glands, each of
which secretes different types of hormones to
maintain homeostasis.
HORMONES
-chemicals, secreted by glands, that travel in
the blood stream and carry messages to
tissues and organs all over the body.
Functions of Hormones
 Regulate growth and development
cycles
 Control internal environment from
cellular to organ level
 Control of body fluids like water
amounts and electrolytes
 Control of hormonal secretions
 Control patterns of behavior
 Play a key role in the reproductive
cycles of both male and female
Hypothalamus
 It controls the secretion of hormone from
the pituitary
 Basically, it controls and maintains the
interaction of the nervous and endocrine
system
Pituitary Gland
 Also known as the hypophysis
 Its secretion affect other glands like the
testis, ovaries, adrenal cortex and
thyroid gland
 It is divided into two lobes, the anterior
pituitary gland lobe which is larger and
the posterior pituitary gland lobe which
is smaller
Growth Hormones (GH)
 Causes growth of muscles and bones
Thyroid-stimulating Hormone (TSH)
 It stimulates the thyroid to produce its
secretion
 The hypothalamus secretes thyrotropin -
releasing hormone to stimulate the
anterior pituitary lobe to secrete TSH
Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH)
 It stimulates the adrenal cortex
Melanocyte-stimulating Hormone (MSH)
 Elevates melanin production of the skin
melanocytes resulting to darkening of
the skin
Follicle-stimulating Hormone (FSH)
 Causes formation of sperm and egg
cells
Luteinizing Hormone (LH)
 Causes ovulation, maturation of sperm
and egg cells
Lactogenic Hormone (LTH)
 Stimulates production of milk
POSTERIOR PITUITARY GLAND
ANTIDIURETIC Hormone (adh)
 Also called vasopressin
 it regulates water balance in the body
by stimulating the kidney to increase
water reabsorption resulting to less
water in the urine.
Oxytocin (ot)
 Stimulates uterine contractions during
delivery
 It stimulates also contraction of
mammary glands resulting to lactation.
THYROID GLAND
 Produce thyroxine and
triiodothyronine play important roles in
metabolism and growth
 Calcitonin reduces the calcium and
phosphate levels in the blood
PARA THYROID GLAND
 Four oval shaped glands located on the
dorsal side of the thyroid
 It secretes only one kind of hormones,
 Parathyroid hormone (PTH) - plays an
important role in maintaining the calcium
and phosphate levels in the blood.
 It stimulates vit.D synthesis for the
increase absorbtion of calcium by the
intestine.
ADRENAL GLAND
 Also called suprarenal glands
 these are tiny glands on top of each
kidney.
 Adrenal Medulla secretes epinephrine
(adrenaline) and norepinephrine
(noradrenaline)
 these hormones are also referred to as
flight or fight hormones because they
prepare the body for situations that are
stressful which requires vigorous
physical activity.
 Relatively large in young children and
replaced by fats and connective tissue
as we age.
 secretes Thymosin which stimulate the
production of T lymphocytes which is a
kind of white blood cell that helps fight
infection from microorganism.
Pineal Gland
 Also called Pineal body

 Adrenal Cortex secretes 3 classes of  it is a pine-shaped and very small.

hormones:
 Mineralocorticoid/Aldosterone- regulates
re-absorbtion of sodium and excretion of
potassium.
 Glucocorticoid/Cortisol- maintains
glucose concentration during stressful
situation.
 helps breakdown fat into fatty acids and
protein into amino acids.
 secretes the hormone Melatonin and
Seratonin
 Melatonin prevents the secretion of the
gonadotropin hormones LH and LSH by
the Anterior pituitary gland consequently
inhibiting reproductive system function.
 Serotonin stimulates smooth muscle
contraction.

 Androgens- stimulate sexual

characteristic development.

Pancreas

 It is flattened, elongated gland.

 Located behind the stomach.

 Acini cells secretes digestive enzymes.

 Islet of Langerhan are made of two

kinds of cells:

 Beta cells secretes the hormone

Insulin which promotes the glucose in
the blood to be transformed into
glycogen which is stored animal starch.

 Alpha cells secretes the hormones

Glucagon which stimulates the liver to
convert the stored glycogen into
glucose, when blood sugar level
decreases.

Gonads

 Testes produce testosterone

responsible for the reproductive
structures enlargement.

 Ovaries produces 2 kinds of hormones:

 Estrogens regulates menstrual cycle.

 Progesterone promotes growth of

female reproductive tissues.

Thymus Gland