SCIENCE 10- 1ST QUARTER

WEEK 2
THE LITHOSPHERE
 The Crust
- outermost layer
- average density is 2.8 g/cm3
- thickness varies from 5 to 50 km
- has two regions:
o Continental Crust
- thicker, but less dense
o Oceanic Crust
- thinner, but denser
 The Upper Mantle
- thickness varies from 50 to 100 km

The earthquakes happening, and location of mountains ranges and volcanoes around the world are not
randomly distributed. They are often occurring near the edges of continents or oceans.

Plate Boundaries are the cracks between the rock layers of the Earth.

The dividing of Earth’s lithosphere into plates is based on geologic activities such as occurrence of earthquakes
(seismicity), volcanism, and mountain formation.

Plate Tectonics Theory explains that the Earth is broken into several segments called tectonic plates that are
constantly moving at 2 to 4 cm per year.

Focus is the exact point inside the Earth’s crust where the quake begins.
Epicenter is the point on the Earth’s surface directly above the focus.
Seismograph measures and records details of earthquake, the force, and its duration.
Seismogram is a record of the ground motion at a recording station.

TYPES OF EARTHQUAKES BASED ON FOCUS

 Shallow Earthquake
- focus is within 60 km of the Earth’s surface
 Intermediate Earthquake
- focus is within 61 to 300 km
 Deep Earthquake
- focus is more than 300 to 700 km
Earthquake releases three types of seismic waves: Primary waves (P-waves), Secondary waves (S-waves), and
Long Surface waves (L-waves). P-waves and S-waves travel into the Earth’s interior and in different velocities.

The difference between the arrival time of the P-wave and S-wave tell the distance between the earthquakes’
focus and the recording station. Through this, the epicenter of an earthquake can be determined using the
Triangulation Method.

Triangulation Method is a way of determining the epicenter of an earthquake through the information/data
received from three different recording stations.

STEPS OF TRIANGULATION METHOD

1. Measure the time arrival of P-waves and S-waves from the recording station.
2. Determine the epicentral distance of the earthquake using this formula
𝑡
𝑑 = 𝑑 × 100 𝑘𝑚
8𝑠
where: d = distance in kilometer (km)
td = time difference of P-waves and S-waves in second (s)
3. Convert the epicentral distance into 1 cm = 1 km. Set the drawing compass for computed distance.
4. Center compass on each 3 specified station and computed distances. Draw a circle. The point where the 3
circles intersect is the epicenter of the earthquake.

Richter Magnitude Scale is used to compare the strengths of earthquake and involves the use of records
(seismograms) of an earthquakes’ shock waves. It was introduced by Dr. C.F. Richter.
Mercalli Scale is used to record intensity of an earthquake.

WEEK 3-5A
TYPES OF PLATE BOUNDARIES
Type of Margin Divergent Convergent Transform-fault
Motion Spreading Subduction Lateral Sliding
Effect Constructive Destructive Conservative
Topography Ridge/Rift Trench No major effect
Volcanic activity? Yes Yes No
 Divergent Plate Boundaries
- two plates move away from each other ( )
- also known as Constructive Plate Boundaries as the magma rises up
through fissure eruption, a new crust is being formed
- has volcanic activity in the form of fissure eruptions
- cause of creation of new ocean floor, rift and ridge, submarine
mountain range, and widening of ocean floor
 Convergent Plate Boundaries
- two plates move toward each other ( )
- also known as Destructive Plate Boundaries because the old crust
moves downward going back in the mantle where it is melted and
destroyed through the process of subduction
- has three types:
o Continental plate   Oceanic plate
- oceanic, which is denser, goes beneath the
continental, which is less dense
- formation of volcanic arc, trenches, and earthquakes
o Oceanic plate   Oceanic Pate
- older plate will subduct (older plate is cooler: younger
plate is hotter)
- formation of volcanic island arc, trenches,
earthquakes, and tsunamis
o Continental plate   Continental plate
- crust buckle and be pushed upwards
- only type that has no subduction
- formation of mountains, earthquakes, and mountain ranges
- Fun Fact! Many parts of the Philippines originated from Oceanic   Oceanic convergence.

When convergent boundary occurs, the other side of the plates create a divergent boundary.

 Transform/Transform-fault Plate Boundaries

- two plates slide/grind past each other ( )
- also known as Conservative Plate Boundaries because it neither
creates nor destroy any crust
- has friction, thus creating earthquake
- produce zigzag plate margins
HOT SPOTS
- area in the mantle from which hot material rise as a Thermal Plume
- as tectonic plate move over the stationary hot spot, the volcanoes are rafted
away and new ones’ form in their place
- an example is the Hawaiian Islands

WEEK 5B
SEISMIC WAVES
- mechanical vibrations of the Earth (along the fault lines) which is caused by the breakage of rocks

TWO TYPES OF SEISMIC WAVES

 Body Waves
- seismic waves that can travel through the Earth’s inner layers (crust, mantle, inner and outer
core)
- scientists use these to study the Earth’s internal structure and composition
- has two types:
o P-waves (Primary waves)
- pulse energy that travels quickly through the Earth’s 4 layers
(through solid, liquid, and gas)
- travels faster and arrive first in seismic stations than the
S-waves, that’s why it’s called primary waves
- also known as Compressional waves and Longitudinal
waves since it travels by particles vibrating parallel to the
direction of the wave
- force the ground to move forward and backward as they are
compressed and expanded
o S-waves (Secondary waves)
- pulse energy that moves slower than P-waves through
Earth’s crust and mantle
- arrives in seismic stations after P-waves arrived
- also called Shear waves and Transverse waves
- vibrates ground to move up and down
- cannot travel through liquid medium that led the
seismologist to conclude that the outer core is liquid
 Surface Waves
- seismic waves that can only travel through the Earth’s surface
- arrives after the body waves
- has two types:
o Love waves
- named after Agustin Edward Hough Love
- transverse waves that moves the ground side-to-side in a
horizontal motion
- cause the most damage to structures during earthquake
- faster than Rayleigh waves
o Rayleigh waves
- named after John William Strutt (Lord Rayleigh)
- moves the ground in an elliptical motion
- causes most of the shaking felt during earthquake
SHADOW ZONE
- area of the Earth from angular distances of 104° to 140° from a given earthquake that does not receive any
direct P-waves
- P-waves is refracted or bent by the liquid core
- S-waves is completely blocked by the liquid core
- discovered in about 1910

DISCONTINUITIES
- used for a surface at which seismic waves change velocity)
 Mohorovicic Discontinuity
- boundary between the crust and mantle
- also known as Moho
- discovered by Andrija Mohorovicic
 Gutenberg Discontinuity
- boundary between the mantle and outer core
- discovered by Beno Gutenberg
 Lehmann/Bullen Discontinuity
- boundary that separates outer core and inner core
- discovered by Inge Lehmann who also discovered the Earth’s solid
inner core distinct from the Earth’s molten core

WEEK 6A
COMPOSITION OF EARTH’S INTERIOR
 The Crust
- thinnest and outermost layer of the Earth
- extends from the surface to about 32 km below
- underneath some mountains, thickness extends to 72 km
- subdivided into two regions:
o Continental Crust
- mainly made up Silicon (Si), Oxygen (O), Aluminum
(Al), Calcium (Ca), Sodium (Na), Potassium (K)
- thickness varies from 35 to 40 km
- made of less dense like granite
o Oceanic Crust
- thickness varies from 7 to 10 km with its average of 8 km
- found under the ocean floor
- made of dense rocks like basalt
- heavier than continental crust
- consists of two layers:
o Upper Layer
- composed of granite and can only found in continental crust
o Lower Layer
- composed of basalt and can be found in both continental and oceanic crust

ELEMENTS IN THE EARTH’S CRUST

Element Percentage
Oxygen (most abundant) 46.60
Silicon 27.72
Aluminum 8.13
Iron 5.00
Calcium 3.63
Sodium 2.83
Potassium 2.59
Magnesium 2.09
Titanium 0.40
 Hydrogen 0.14

 The Mantle
- layer beneath the crust that extends to about 2900 km from the Earth’s surface
- makes up about 80% of Earth’s total volume and about 68% of its total mass
- mainly made up of silicate rocks
- believed to be solid, since both P-waves and S-waves pass through it
- mostly made up of Silicon (Si), Oxygen (O), Iron (Fe), and Magnesium (Mg)
- lower part of mantle consists of more Iron than the upper part, which explains that the lower mantle
is denser than the upper mantle
- Asthenosphere
- soft, weak layer
- made up of hot, molten material
- can be found beneath the lithosphere
- temperature is about 300°C to 800°C
- carries the lithosphere
 The Core
- subdivided into two layers:
o Outer Core
- 2900 km below the Earth’s surface
- 2250 km thick
- made up of Iron (Fe) and Nickel (Ni) moving around the solid inner core, creating Earth’s
magnetism
- temperature reaches up to 2000°C, which at this rate, the Iron and Nickel melts
- the magnetic field strengthens the idea the outer core is molten/liquid
o Inner Core
- made up of Iron (Fe) and Nickel (Ni)
- has radius of 1300 km
- temperature reaches to about 5000°C
- the extreme temperature could have melted the Iron and Nickel, but it is believed to have
solidified due to pressure freezing

WEEK 6B
CONTINENTAL DRIFT THEORY
- proposed by Alfred Wegener, a German meteorologist
- states that about 200 million years ago, the continents were once a large landmass, called Pangaea, means
“All Earth”, and gradually drifted apart
- broke into 2 smaller supercontinents called Laurasia and Gondwanaland during Jurassic Period,
which were broken down into smaller fragments/continents
- was not accepted because Wegener was not able to explain how the drifting of the continents took
place

EVIDENCES THAT SUPPORTS THE CONTINENTAL DRIFT THEORY

 Evidence from Shapes/Fit of the Continents
- the coastlines of the continents appear to fit together like pieces of puzzle
 Evidence from Fossils of Plants and Animals
- Fossils are preserved remains or traces of organisms from the remote past
o Glossopteris
- fossilized leaves of an extinct plant which was found in 250 million years old rock
- located in South America, Africa, Australia, India, and Antarctica
- the presence of this fossil in Antarctica suggests that Antarctica had once a tropical
climate
o Mesosaurus, Lystrosaurus, and Cygnognathus
- Mesosaurus is a freshwater reptile, where its fossils were found in South America
and Africa
 - lives in shallow freshwater, and can only swim there
- Lystrosaurus and Cygnognathus are land reptiles, where their fossils had been found
across South America, Africa, India, and Antarctica
- they can’t swim at all
 Evidence from Rock and Mountains
- mountain ranges have same rocks of the same type and age like the Appalachian Mountains
in the eastern USA and Caledonian Mountains in Scotland
 Ancient Climate/Coal Deposits
- the continents were once down near the South Pole where it could have been cold enough
to have glaciers
- coal beds that were formed from the compaction and decomposition of swamp plants that
lived million years ago
- discovered in South America, Africa, India, Southern Asia, and Antarctica

WEEK 7A
SEAFLOOR SPEADING THEORY
- suggested by Harry Hess and Robert Dietz
- states that hot, less dense material from below the Earth’s crust rises towards the surface of Mid-Ocean
Ridge. Magma flows out of the crack, cools down, and became a new seafloor.
- proposed after Continental Drift Theory and before Plate Tectonics Theory
- studied during the 1950s and 1960s
- studied 30 years after Wegener died
- occurs at divergent plate boundaries
- occurs along mid-ocean ridge – large mountain ranges – rising from the ocean floor

MID-OCEAN RIDGE
- system of ridges or mountains in the seafloor similar to those found in the continents
- found using sonars and submersibles
- examples are Mid-Atlantic Ridge and East Pacific Rise
o Mid-Atlantic Ridge
- undersea mountain chain in Atlantic Ocean
- has gigantic cleft about 32 to 48 km long and 1.6 km deep
- offset by fracture zones or rift valleys
o East Pacific Rise
- one of the most active sites of seafloor spreading
- spreads with more than 14 cm per year

When subduction occurs, a new seafloor is formed at the mid-ocean ridge. The old seafloor is destroyed at
the subduction zone.

Rate of formation is NOT always as fast as the destruction at the subduction zone.

FINDINGS THAT SUPPORTS SEAFLOOR SPREADING THEORY

a. rocks are younger at the mid-ocean ridge
b. rocks far from the mid-ocean ridge are older
c. sediments are thinner at the ridge
d. rocks at the ocean floor are younger than those at the continents

Seafloor Spreading Theory was strengthened with the discovery that the magnetic rocks near the ridge follow
a pattern aside from the facts the rocks near the ridge are remarkably younger than those farther from the
ridge.

MAGNETIC REVERSAL
- also called magnetic ‘flip’ of the Earth
- happens when the North pole is transformed into a South Pole and vice versa
- due to the change in the direction of flow in the outer core
- happened many times in the past
- can be explained through the magnetic patter in magnetic rocks, especially those found in the ocean floor
- when occurs, there is a change in the polarity of the rocks

How it was noticed?

When lava pours from a volcano, it solidifies to a black rock called basalt. Basalt is slightly magnetic, at it
takes on the direction of the surrounding magnetic field at the time it solidifies.

How?
According to the “tape recorder”, it is about 700,000 years.

How many times?

It happened a lot, with about half a million years apart on the average.

WEEK 7B
PLATE TECTONICS THEORY
- provided an explanation about the movements of the lithospheric plates
- evolved from the two former theories
- developed during the first decades of the 20th century

What facilitates the movement of the plates?

Heat is produced in the core that produces convection in the mantle. This convection causes the plates to
move around.

CONVECTION CURRENT
- a continuous process in the mantle when a substance like water is heated, the less dense particles sink. Once
the hot, less dense particles cool down, they sink, and the other less dense particles rise.
- rotates very slowly, as they move and drag the plates along
- causes the plates to push each other, slide past each other, and drift away from each other

RIDGE PUSH
- a process when an oceanic crust moves away from a divergent boundary, it becomes denser than the newer
oceanic crust. As the older seafloor sinks, the weight of the uplifted ridge pushes the oceanic crust toward the
trench of the subduction zone.