SCIENCE
Reviewer | 2nd Quarter
ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
Electromagnetic Spectrum
● Is the complete spectrum (or continuum) of
all forms of “light”
● An electromagnetic wave consists of electric
and magnetic fields which vibrate, thus
making waves
● A gradual progression from the waves of
lowest frequencies to the waves of highest
frequencies
● The different types of electromagnetic
waves are defined by the amount of energy
carried by possessed by the photons
(bundles of wave energy)
● The energy of a photon is given by the
equation E=hf, where h is the Planck’s
−34
Constant (6. 63𝑥10 𝐽/𝑠) and 𝑓 is the
frequency of the EM wave
● The gamma rays have photons of high
energies while radio waves have photons
with the lowest energies
● Consists of; radio waves, microwaves,
infrared, visible light, ultraviolet, x-ray, and
gamma ray
Waves
● Properties of electromagnetic waves include
speed, frequency, and wavelength
● ‘v’, 𝑓, and ‘λ’ are related in the formula
𝑣 = 𝑓λ
● All light waves travel at a speed of
8
3𝑥10 𝑚/𝑠 in a vacuum
2 2
● 𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐 , where 𝑚 is mass and 𝑐 is equal
16
to (9𝑥10 𝑚/𝑠)
Wavelength & Frequency
● All parts of the electromagnetic spectrum
travel at the same speed
● Wavelength and frequency have an indirect
relationship
● Frequency describes the number of waves
that pass a fixed place in a given amount of
time
● Frequency is measured in the hertz unit,
named in honor of the 19th century German
physicist Heinrich Rudolf Hertz (Hz)
● Wavelength is the distance between
corresponding points of two consecutive
waves
● “Corresponding points” refers to two points
or particles in the same phase
● Crest is the highest point in a wave while
trough is the lowest
Wavelength, Frequency, Energy
● Electromagnetic waves characteristics
○ Short wavelengths have a high
frequency and energy
○ Long wavelengths have a low
frequency and energy
● Electromagnetic waves and energy
○ High frequency waves have high
energy
○ Low frequency waves have low
energy
Radio Waves
● Low energy waves with longest
wavelengths
● Includes FM (frequency modulation), AM
(amplitude frequency), radar (a system that
uses radio waves to find the position of
objects that cannot be seen), and TV waves
● Produced by making electrons vibrate in an
antenna
● Used to transmit sound and picture
information over long distances
○ Two basic types of propagation
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Reviewer | 2nd Quarter
— Ground wave may follow an
almost straight path from
transmitter to receiver
— Sky wave is directed
upward, enters
ionosphere and is reflected
back to Earth
● Classification of Radio Waves
○ Low frequencies are 30 to 300 kHz
○ Intermediate frequencies are 300 to
3,000 kHz
○ High frequencies are 3,000 to
30,000 kHz
○ Very high and ultra-high frequencies
are 30,000 to 100,000 kHz
● Application of Radio Waves
○ Satellites for communication
— Can carry information from
one side of the Earth to
another even from outer
space to Earth
— Gathers information and
carry electronic equipment
which transmit or receive
messages carried
electromagnetic waves
— Comsat is
communication
— Metsat is for meteorological
applications
— Navsat is for navigation
— Scientific satellites is for
orbiting observations
— Landsat is Earth-resource
satellite
Microwaves
● Have shorter wavelengths than radio waves
● Application of Microwaves
○ Satellite communications
○ Radar
○ Terrestrial Communication
○ Microwave Oven
Infrared Radiation
● Detected as heat
the ● Can be detected with special devices such
as night goggles
● Used in heat lamps
● Higher energy than microwaves but lower
than visible light
● Application of Infrared Radiation
○ Infrared photographs taken from a
satellite with special films provide
useful details of the vegetation on
the Earth’s surface
○ Infrared scanners are used to show
the temperature variation of the body
and for medical diagnosis
○ Infrared remote controls are used in
electronic appliances
○ Some night-vision goggles
○ Some autofocus cameras have
transmitters that sends out infrared
pulses
by Visible Light
for
● Human eyes can detect visible light
● ROYGBIV
● Red has the lowest frequency while violet
has the highest
Ultraviolet Radiation
● Higher energy than light waves
● Have shorter wavelengths than the visible
light
● Uses of Ultraviolet Radiation
○ UV lamps are used by banks to
check the signature on a passbook,
also used to identify fake banknotes
○ Used in sterilizing water from
drinking fountains
○ Activates vitamin D in the skin and
gives us tanning effect
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Reviewer | 2nd Quarter
○ It could burn the skin and hurt our
eyes
○ It may cause skin cancer
X-Rays
● High energy waves
● Shorter wavelengths but higher energy than
the UV
● Discovered by Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen
● Long wavelength X-Rays can penetrate the
flesh but not the bones
● Short wavelength X-Rays can penetrate
even through metals
Gamma Rays
● Highest in energy, shortest in wavelength
● Emitted by stars and some radioactive
substances
● Can be blocked by the atmosphere, thick
concrete, and Pb (lead)
● Used to treat cancer through radiotherapy
● Used for sterilization of drinking water
Notes
● Repeater
○ Receives the signal and retransmits
it to the receiving station
● Modulation
○ Process wherein the carrier wave is
changed or varied with the loudness
and pitch of the original sound
— AM - amplitude of a high
frequency carrier signal is
varied according to the
amplitude of the lower
frequency modulating signal
— FM - audio signal is
modulating the frequency of
the oscillator
● Antenna
○ Scans the surrounding area
● Transmitter
○ Sends out a narrow beam of
microwaves in short pulses
● Receiver
○ Receives some of the signal sent
● Caller (1) <> Base Station (1) <> Switching
Center <> Base Station (2) <> Receiver (2)
NERVOUS SYSTEM
Major Divisions and Parts
● Central Nervous System (CNS) - the main
processing center for the entire nervous
system
○ Brain - located within the skull that
functions as organizer and
distributor of information for the body
ㅡ Cerebrum - large, upper part
of the brain that controls
activity and thought
ㅡ Cerebellum - part under the
cerebrum that controls
posture, balance, and
coordination
ㅡ Brain Stem - part that
connects the brain to the
spinal cord and controls
automatic functions
○ Spinal Cord - serves as a channel
for signals between the brain and
the rest of the body, and controls
simple musculoskeletal reflexes
without input from the brain
● Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) -
connects the CNS to the organs and limbs
○ Somatic Nervous System -
voluntary control of body movements
ㅡ Spinal Nerves - carry motor
and sensory signals between
the spinal cord and the body
— Cranial Nerves - carry
information into and out of
the brain stem
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Reviewer | 2nd Quarter
○ Autonomic Nervous System -
involuntary control of body
movements
ㅡ Sympathetic Nervous
System - activated when the
body is in dynamic role or
stress
ㅡ Parasympathetic Nervous
System - maintains body
functions and restores the
body to normal or relaxed
mode
Nerve Cell
● Neurons
● Cell body containing the nucleus
● Dendrites are root-like structures that carry
impulses towards the cell body
● Axons carry impulses away from the cell
body / nerve fibers
● Myelin sheath is the fatty material covering
an axon / facilitates the transmission of
nerve impulses
○ Sensory or afferent neurons - pick
up information from the body parts
or the environment and transmit this
information to the spinal cord and
brain
○ Motor or efferent neuron - carry
messages or impulses from the
brain to the spinal cord and to the
body parts
○ Interneurons or association
neurons - carry information between
two other neurons
Nerve Impulse
● Combination of electrical charge and a
chemical reaction
● An electrochemical signal moving along a
neuron
● When a nerve impulse comes to the end of
an axon, it produces the chemical called
neurotransmitter to be released
● The chemical crosses the space between
neurons called synapse and stimulates the
nerve impulse to start in the next dendrite
● A stimulus is any factor in the environment
that may trigger a nerve impulse
● A response is a reaction to a stimulus
● Reaction time is the length of time between
application of a stimulus and detection of a
response
Brain
● Largest and most complex part of the
nervous system
● Site of central exchange of nervous
impulses throughout the whole body
● Most highly specialized organ
4 Major Regions of the Brain
● Cerebrum
○ Forebrain
○ The surface is called the cerebral
cortex which is the outermost layer
of the brain that contains gray matter
/ responsible functions like language
and information processing
○ It is folded into ridges (gyrus/gyri)
and depressions (sulcus/sulci) called
convolutions which increases the
surface area
● Cerebellum
○ Little brain
○ Located between the brain stem and
hind part of the cerebrum
○ Attached directly above the pons
● Brain Stem
○ Located at the lower part of the brain
— Medulla Oblongata - spinal
bulb / extends down from the
central part of the brain and
connects to the spinal cord /
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Reviewer | 2nd Quarter

regulates the heartbeat rate

Temporal Lobe Learning and memory
and breathing / makes the
possible contraction or Parietal Lobe Touch and sensory
expansion of the blood input
vessels and other reflexes for
Occipital Lobe Vision, motor output
sneezing, vomiting and
and speech
swallowing / plays a role in
arousal states Frontal Lobe Personality, thought
— Pons - connects the medulla and speech
oblongata and the cerebrum /
contains the motor
conduction paths between DISEASES OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
the cerebral cortex and
cerebral hemisphere Meningitis
— Midbrain - short segment of
the brain stem just above the
● Haemophilus influenzae meningitis
pons / serves as a pathway
○ Leading cause of bacterial
of nerve fibers leading to the
meningitis in children under 5 years
various areas of the brain
old, occurs most frequently in
and the spinal cord /
children from 1 month up to 4 years
responsible for eye
with a peak at 6-9 months
movement and dilation of the
○ Infection usually spreads from
pupils
somewhere in the respiratory tract to
● Diencephalon
the bloodstream and then to the
○ Thalamus - top of the brain stem /
meninges (membranes that cover
relay center for sensory impulses on
the brain). At the meninges, the
their way to the cerebral cortex /
bacteria produce infection and
receives the optic nerve messages
inflammation causing serious illness
and directs impulses to the cortex for
and sometimes death
interpretation / screens stimuli and
● Complications
prevents sensory overload
○ Roughly 20% of patients may
○ Hypothalamus - lies under the
experience some hearing loss
thalamus / controls and coordinates
○ Some patients will have brain
homeostatic mechanisms
damage
● Meningococcal meningitis
Spinal Cord ○ Infection caused by neisseria
meningitidis that causes
● Large rope-like segment of the nerve tissue inflammation of the membranes
extending from the medulla to the vertebral covering the brain and spinal cord
column ○ Death rate ranges from 5% to 15%
○ Young children and adults over 50
have the highest risk of death
Major Divisions of the Forebrain
● Complications
○ Brain damage
FOREBRAIN FUNCTIONS ○ Shock
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Reviewer | 2nd Quarter
○ Increased spinal fluid pressure
○ Myocarditis (inflammation of the
heart)
○ Hydrocephalitis (blockage of spinal
fluid in brain)
○ Deafness
○ Paralysis of various muscles
○ Mental retardation
● Pneumococcal meningitis
○ Streptococcus pneumoniae is the
most common cause of meningitis in
adults, and second most in children
older than 6 years old
Leprosy
● Hansen’s disease
● Characterized by disfiguring skin lesions,
peripheral nerve damage, and progressive
debilitation
● Causes, Incidence, and Risk Factors
○ Caused by mycobacterium leprae
○ Is a difficult disease to transmit
○ Has a long incubation period
○ Children are more susceptible than
adults to contracting the disease
● 2 Common Forms
○ Tuberculoid and Lepromatous
— Both produce lesions on the
skin
— Lepromatous is more severe,
producing large disfiguring
nodules
— Both cause peripheral
neurological damage
manifested by sensory loss
in the skin and weakness of
the muscles
— People with long-term
leprosy may lose the use of
their hands or feet due to
repeated injury which results
from absent sensation
— Is common in many
countries; in temperate,
tropical, and subtropical
climates
● Complications
○ Permanent nerve damage
○ Cosmetic disfigurement
Polio / Poliomyelitis
● Causes nerve injury leading to paralysis,
difficulty in breathing and death
● 95% are subclinical infections
● Subclinical Infection
● Nonparalytic Poliomyelitis
● Paralytic Poliomyelitis
Tetanus
● Caused by the toxin of clostridium tetani
● Can result in death
● Infection begins when the spores are
introduced into an injury or wound / the
spores germinate, releasing active bacteria
that multiply and produce a neurotoxin
called tetanospasmin / tetanospasmin
selectively block inhibitory
neurotransmission from the spinal cord to
the muscles, allowing the muscles to go into
severe spasm
Botulism
● 98% seen in children under 6 months of age
● Caused by clostridium botulinum that lives
in the soil and dust, it may also contaminate
foods especially honey
● Clostridium bacteria produces a toxin called
botulinum toxin
Rabies / Fatal Encephalitis
● Caused by rabies virus
● Contracted through bite of infected animal
● 2 Forms of Rabies
SCIENCE
Reviewer | 2nd Quarter

○ Furious rabies - restless then ● Salivary, sweat and mammary glands

become excitable and snap at
anything / paralysis sets in and flow
of saliva increases / nervous control
is progressively lost
○ Paralytic rabies - minimal
excitability / remains relatively quiet
and unaware of surroundings /
transient but fatal
Notes
● Left side of the cerebrum controls speech,
mathematics and logic while the right side of
the cerebrum is for musical talents and
artistry
● DPT shots (D - diphtheria, P - pertussis or
whooping cough, T - tetanus) for infants
● Immunization provides protection for ten
years
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
● Helps you cope with changes in your
environment
● Works with the nervous system,
reproductive system and other organs such
as kidney, gut and pancreas to help
maintain and control body energy levels,
reproduction, growth and development,
responses to stimuli and stress and internal
balance
Gland
● Is an organ that produces a secretion for
use elsewhere in the body, or in a body
cavity
Exocrine Glands
● Secretions pass through a duct to the site
where they take effect
Endocrine Glands
● Ductless
● Secretes their product directly into the
bloodstream
● Pituitary Gland - master of the ductless
glands / hypophysis / lies at the base of the
brain
○ Oxytocin - responsible for
contraction of the uterine muscles
during the final stage of pregnancy
○ Vasopressin - increases blood
pressure and decreases urine flow /
antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
○ Growth Hormone - somatotropic
hormone / essential for normal
growth
○ Adrenocorticotropic Hormone
(ACTH) - controls the adrenal glands
that takes part during emergency or
stressful situation
○ Prolactin - initiates milk production
○ Luteinizing Hormone (LH) -
stimulates the formation of ovarian
hormones and the subsequent
release of a mature egg
○ Follicle Stimulating Hormone
(FSH) - responsible for the formation
of follicles around an egg in the
female ovary and the development
of sperm in males
● Thyroid Gland - H-shaped organ / beneath
the larynx
○ Thyroxin(e) - controls the body’s
metabolism / tetraiodothyronine (T₄) /
increases oxygen consumption /
speeds up the metabolic rate of
nearly all the cells in the body / may
be hyperactive (hyperthyroidine) or
underactive (hypothyroidine)
○ Calcitonin - triiodothyronine (T₃) /
storage of calcium and phosphorus /
takes calcium and phosphorus ions
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Reviewer | 2nd Quarter

from bones so that they will be functions the same way that
available in the blood, the muscles adrenalin does, supplements the
and nerves action and complex functions of the
● Parathyroid Gland - 4 small glandular nervous system
bodies / size of a small pea / attached to the ● Pancreas - between the kidneys /
back of the thyroid gland hormone-secreting cells are found in the
○ Parathyroid Hormone or islet of Langerhans
Parathormone - controls the ○ Glucagon - converts glycogen
calcium levels in your body and (stored body sugar in the liver) to
normalizes bone growth / (same as glucose when your blood glucose
last description of calcitonin) concentration becomes low
● Thymus Gland - 2 lobes located at the ○ Insulin - controls the storage of
upper part of the chest, below the neck / sugar in the liver and the breakdown
prominent in early life but degenerates in the tissues
when puberty sets in then it will be replaced — Diabetes mellitus -
by a fatty or fibrous tissue pancreas produces
○ Thymosin - manufactures white insufficient insulin / body’s
blood cells and antibodies that make cells fail to respond correctly
it possible to develop immunity to insulin
against infection — Diabetes insipidus - there is
○ Promine - promotes growth an excretion of large
○ Retine - retards growth amounts of diluted urine that
● Adrenal Glands - small glands above each cannot be further reduced /
kidneys deficiency in ADH
○ Adrenal Cortex - outer portion; ● Male Gonads / Female Gonads - lower
secretes corticoids / regulates abdomen
metabolism / storage and use of ○ Testes - secretes androgen and
proteins, fats and carbohydrates / testosterone / control maturation and
control the amount of water which male characteristics
the body retains or excretes / — Prostate Gland - produces a
monitor the levels of important body thin, watery, alkaline
salts / influence growth and secretion that mixes with the
development / control the production sperm and other secretions
of blood cells / controls the formation to form the semen
of the skin color — Cowper’s Gland
○ Adrenal Medulla - inner portion; (bulbourethral) - adds fluids
secretes adrenalin / epinephrine / and protection to the semen
secreted during times of excitement, during the process of
anger, stress, pain or cold / raises ejaculation
the blood pressure, increases the ○ Ovaries - secretes estrogen and
heartbeat and body temperature / progesterone / influence female
brings about the widening of the traits / supports reproductive
blood vessels in the liver, heart and function
skeletal muscles / promotes the
conversion of sugar in the body /
Hormones
noradrenalin or norepinephrine
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Reviewer | 2nd Quarter
● Chemical messenger that transports a
signal from one cell to another
● “Target cells”, hormones react only in
specific cell types
Notes
● Cretinism - physically and mentally
retardation due to failed development of the
thyroid gland
● Without a sufficient supply of iodine, all
body cells will work harder which eventually
results in swelling of the thyroid or known as
goiter
DISEASES OF THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
Type I Diabetes
● High blood sugar level (hyperglycemia),
>200 mg/dL
● Excess excreted in urine
● Insulin dependent diabetes
● Juvenile onset diabetes
● Type I Diabetes Causes
○ Insulin deficiency
○ Inherited immune disorder that
destroys pancreatic cells
● Type I Diabetes Treatment
○ Insulin injections, monitor blood
glucose levels, and exercise and
healthy diet
Type II Diabetes
● High blood sugar level (hyperglycemia),
>200 mg/dL
● Non-insulin dependent diabetes
● Adult-onset diabetes
● Type II Diabetes Causes
○ Insulin resistace
○ Pancreas makes extra insulin at first,
but over time cannot keep up and
cannot make enough insulin to keep
blood glucose at normal levels
● Type II Diabetes Treatment
○ Same as Type I Diabetes
Grave’s Disease
● Enlarged thyroid, protrusion of eyes, lumpy
reddish skin on lower legs, excessive
reactions to stimuli, period of hyperactivity
and fatigue, and tremors
● Graves’ Disease Causes
○ Autoimmune disorder triggered by a
bacterial infection leading to
overproduction of hormones in the
thyroid
● Graves’ Disease Treatments
○ Can only treat symptoms
○ Antithyroid drugs, partial or complete
destruction of thyroid by radioactive
iodine, and partial or complete
surgical removal of thyroid
Dwarfism
● A person who is shorter than 4’10”
● Dwarfism Causes
○ Acondroplasia, a genetic condition
that causes growth factors to not be
registered by the bones
○ Human growth hormone (HGH)
deficiency due to genetics, stress
and malnutrition
● Dwarfism Treatment
○ Hormone therapy if it’s growth
hormone deficiency (25% chance of
working)
○ Physical therapy(?) and braces if the
condition causes pain
Hypothyroidism
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Reviewer | 2nd Quarter

● Levels of thyroid hormones are low ● Hirsutism Treatment

● Poor muscle tone, fatigue, increased ○ Drugs to reduce hormone levels or
sensitivity to cold, constipation, depression, waxing/shaving/hair removal
pale and dry skin, decreased sweating, and
weight gain
● (Later) Slow speech, deep puffy face, low
body temperature, and abnormal menstrual
cycles
● Hypothyroidism Causes
○ Iodine deficiency
○ Autoimmune disorder where
antibodies attack the thyroid
● Hypothyroidism Treatment
○ Hormone replacement pills for
thyroid hormones
○ Iodine in diet

Acromegaly

● Enlargement of the hands, feet, nose, lips

and ears, heart, kidney, and skull
● Protruding brow and lower jaw, gaps
between lower teeth
● Headaches and visual disturbances
● Acromegaly Causes
○ Overproduction of growth hormones
is caused by a benign tumor of the
pituitary gland
○ Tumors produce excess growth
hormones and, as they expand,
compress surrounding brain tissues,
such as the optic nerves
● Acromegaly Treatment
○ Surgery, drug therapy or radiation
therapy to remove or destroy the
tumor

Hirsutism

● Excessive hair on the body

● Hirsutism Causes
○ Increased levels of male hormones
in body (stimulating hair growth) or
sensitivity of hair follicles to male
hormones