SCIENCE 10 QUARTER 1 Reviewer

THE LITHOSPHERE

Earth - Egg Analogy

Both the Earth and an egg have
cracks. On Earth, these cracks are called
plate boundaries and the small pieces of
eggshells are the tectonic plates. The
eggshell is the crust, the egg white is the
mantle, and the yolk is analogous to the Tectonic plates
core. - Smaller sections of the lithosphere.
Plate boundaries
Lithosphere - The edges that separate the tectonic
plates from one another.

MAJOR TECTONIC PLATES

PRIMARY SECONDARY
North American Caribbean
- Made up of the crust and upper
South American Cocos
mantle.
- Floats on a semi-plastic layer called Eurasian Nazca
the asthenosphere. The
asthenosphere is a highly viscous Pacific Arabian
part of the mantle composed of African Indian
partially molten rocks. The entirety of
the lithosphere is located above the Australian Philippines
asthenosphere.
- There are two types of lithosphere: Antarctic Juan de Fuca
- Oceanic lithosphere: Scotia
is younger, thinner, and
denser compared to the
continental lithosphere. They INTERNAL STRUCTURE
are primarily composed of OF THE EARTH
basaltic rocks.
- Continental lithosphere: Crust
is older, thicker, and - Outermost layer of the Earth.
relatively less dense - Exists as a solid.
compared to the oceanic - The thinnest layer of the Earth, at
lithosphere. They are only 1%. Thickness varies and is
primarily composed of dependent on age.
granitic rocks. - Has 2 types:
- Continental: 40-70km or 25-
70km thick, granitic
- Oceanic: 5-10km or 7-10km
thick, basaltic
Mantle
- Semi-solid, rocky, very hot layer of
the Earth located below the crust.
- Largest or thickest layer of the Earth
(2900km), making up about 80% of
the Earth.
- Contains most of the Earth's internal
heat, including magma chambers.
 - The top layer of the mantle has a - It is where seismic energy is first
temperature of about 900°C. As one released.
goes deeper into the mantle, the Epicenter
temperature increases from 1000°C - The point on the crust of the Earth
to 3700°C. directly above the focus/hypocenter.
Outer Core
- The only liquid layer of the Earth,
made up of molten iron (Fe) and
nickel (Ni).
- About 2270km thick; and
- Temperature ranges from 3700°C to
4300°C.

Inner Core
- The innermost layer of the Earth and
also the hottest.
- It is made up of iron (Fe) and nickel
(Ni), but it exists as a solid.
- About 1220km thick in diameter; and
- 6000°C in temperature.

Mohorovičić Discontinuity / Moho (Andrija

Mohorovičić)
- Located between the crust and the
mantle
Gutenberg Discontinuity (Beno Gutenberg)
- Located between the mantle and
outer core
Lehmann Discontinuity (Inge Lehmann)
- Located between the outer core and
inner core
Note: As you go deeper into the Earth, the
density, pressure, and temperature all
increase.
SEISMIC WAVES
Seismic waves
- Waves that are released when an
earthquake occurs
Body waves
- Travel in the interior of the earth
Surface waves
- Travel on the surface of the earth
P-wave
- A compressional wave (particle
motion is parallel with wave
propagation).
- Energy is transmitted quickly and
easily
S-wave
- A shear wave (particle motion is
perpendicular to wave propagation).
- Energy is transmitted slower and
less easily
Refraction
- Is the bending of a wave as it
passes through another medium.

Earthquake Note: P-wave travels faster than S-wave.

- refers to the shaking of the Earth as
a result of breaking or shifting rocks
of the tectonic plates, which releases
seismic energy.
Focus/Hypocenter
- The point within the Earth where the
tectonic plate rocks start to break.
TRIANGULATION METHOD
Triangulation method
- A technique where information from
at least three (3) seismographic
recording stations is used to
determine the exact location of the
epicenter of an earthquake
What difficulty will one have if they use data
from only one recording station?
- The epicenter of the earthquake
could be anywhere on the circle
drawn / The epicenter of the
earthquake could be at any point a
certain distance from the recording
station.
What difficulty will one have if they use data
from only two recording stations?
- There are still two possible options
for the epicenter / There will be two
intersections, meaning that any of
those two intersection points could
be the earthquake epicenter.
Is there a rare circumstance where you can
accurately locate an earthquake epicenter
using information from only two recording
stations?
- Yes, if the circles drawn are tangent
with each other.
DISTRIBUTION OF EARTHQUAKE
EPICENTERS, ACTIVE
VOLCANOES, AND MAJOR
MOUNTAIN BELTS
The lithosphere has cracks. It is divided into
smaller sections called tectonic plates.
Earthquake epicenters, active volcanoes,
and major mountain belts are distributed
near or along plate boundaries.
Earthquakes - the movement of the Earth
Mountain ranges - mountains along the
line or edge of a plate
Volcanic arc - volcanoes along the line or
edge of a plate
What is the scientific basis for dividing the
lithosphere into segments called plates?
- The distribution of earthquake
epicenters, active volcanoes, and
major mountain belts along the plate
boundaries.
If you plot all the locations of all recorded
earthquake epicenters, and the locations of
active volcanoes and mountain belts, you
will come up with the lines of plate
boundaries.
Note: There are no places that are
“earthquake-free”. Any place can
experience an earthquake, but not any
place can be an earthquake epicenter. It is
important to plot and identify earthquake
epicenters, active volcanoes, and major
mountain belts to record and monitor natural
disaster-prone areas.
Different theories:
1. Raisin Theory (James Hall, James
Dana) - The Earth is like a grape
that contracted into a raisin due to a
cooling process. The ridges on the
raisin represent mountains and other
landforms while the flat parts
represent the seafloor.
 relative to one another as they float
on the asthenosphere.

2. Continental Drift Theory (Alfred

Wegener) - The continents were all
compressed together in one single
supercontinent: Pangaea. Pangaea
existed around 250 million years
ago. The continents then “drifted” Convection current / Mantle convection - is
over geologic time relative to each the main force that drives plate movement.
other. This theory was rejected
because Wegener could not explain
why the continents moved.

Plate movements may cause:

a. Formation and eruption of active
3. Seafloor Spreading Theory (Harry volcanoes
Hess) - supported the Continental b. Occurrence of earthquakes
Drift Theory by stating that the c. Formation of mountain ranges
seafloor was spreading, and along
with it the continents. Harry Hess DISASTER PREPAREDNESS
used a device called SONAR to
assess and measure the seafloor.
Hazard Mitigation - defined as any
He observed that the mid-ocean
sustained action taken to reduce or
ridges were relatively young, but as
eliminate the long-term risk to life and
you go further away on either side,
property from hazard events.
the rocks get older. He also noticed
that at either side a certain distance
4 Phases of Disaster Management:
away, the rocks are of the same
1. Disaster Preparation and Mitigation
age.
- Hazard assessment
- Vulnerability assessment
- Risk assessment
- Capacity assessment
2. Disaster Preparedness
- To inform
- To advise
PLATE TECTONIC THEORY
- To instruct
3. Disaster Response
Plate Tectonic Theory / Plate Tectonics
- Needs assessment
- Proposed by John Tuzo Wilson
- Damage assessment
- States that the Earth’s crust /
- Loss assessment
outermost shell is fragmented into
4. Disaster Recovery and
large and small plates that move
Rehabilitation
 - Structural, Emotional, and Pacific - North South American -
Mental American African

South America -
Note: the Philippines is one of the countries Nazca

in the Pacific Ring of Fire. It is prone to CONVERGENT PLATE

many natural disasters like earthquakes,
BOUNDARIES
tsunamis, and volcanic eruptions. Living in
the Ring of Fire calls for disaster
preparedness. At convergent plate boundaries, the tectonic
plates are moving towards each other. It is
known as destructive boundary because the
TYPES OF PLATE BOUNDARIES
crust is destroyed in this layer.

Plate boundaries - are the edges of the Convergent plate boundaries either…
tectonic plates. Most geologic phenomena 1. Form a subduction zone if one of the
such as seismic activity, volcanism, and colliding plates is oceanic; or
mountain building occur near or along these 2. Form an orogenic belt if both
boundaries. colliding plates are continental.
There are three types of boundaries:
1. Convergent boundaries Subduction - is a process where the
- The edges of the plates are denser plate moves beneath the less dense
moving towards each other. plate. When subduction occurs, it makes a
- Also known as a destructive subduction zone.
boundary because the crust
is destroyed in this Three types of convergent boundaries:
interaction. 1. Oceanic - Continental Convergence
2. Divergent boundaries (O-C)
- The edges of the plates are 2. Oceanic - Oceanic Convergence (O-
moving away from each O)
other. 3. Continental - Continental
- Also known as a Convergence (C-C)
constructive boundary
because new oceanic crust is Oceanic - Continental Convergence
created in this interaction. - The convergence of an oceanic
3. Transform boundaries plate and a continental plate.
- The edges of plates are - When an oceanic plate subducts, it
sliding past each other. melts the leading edge. The molten
- Also known as a material from the leading edge
conservative boundary accumulates as magma and pushes
because the crust is neither the continental plate upwards,
destroyed nor created in this forming a volcanic arc.
interaction. - What do O-C convergences make?
a. Trenches at the subduction
CONVERGENT DIVERGENT TRANSFORM zone
Cocos - Nazca - Cocos Pacific - North
b. Volcanic mountain arcs at
Caribbean American the continental plate
Pacific - Nazca - Pacific
c. Earthquakes (deep and
Australian powerful)
Eurasian - Indian Antarctic -
African Oceanic - Oceanic Convergence
- The convergence of two oceanic
Eurasian - Antarctic -
Philippine Australian plates.
- When subduction occurs in this
Pacific - Arabian - African
Philippine convergence, the older oceanic plate
 subducts below the younger oceanic
plate.
- What do O-O convergences make?
a. Trenches
b. Volcanic island arcs on the
younger oceanic plate
c. Tsunamis
d. Earthquakes
Continental - Continental Convergence
- The convergence of two continental
plates.
- No subduction occurs here because
there is no oceanic plate involved.
Instead, uplift occurs.
- The rocks compress, forming an
orogenic belt. Orogenic belts form
mountain ranges.
- What do C-C convergences make?
a. Mountain ranges
b. Uplift
c. Earthquakes (shallow and
fatal)
DIVERGENT PLATE BOUNDARIES
At divergent plate boundaries, the tectonic
plates are moving away from each other. It
is known as constructive boundary because
new oceanic crust is created in this layer.
Two types of divergent boundaries:
1. Oceanic - Oceanic Divergence (O-
O)
2. Continental - Continental Divergence
(C-C)
Oceanic - Oceanic Divergence
- The divergence of two oceanic
plates.
- When two oceanic plates diverge, a
gap is formed. Mantle materials or
asthenosphere materials seep
through the gap, cooling down and
accumulating or building up into mid-
ocean ridges.
- What do O-O divergences make?
a. Mid-ocean ridges
b. Earthquakes
Continental - Continental Divergence
- The divergence of two continental
plates.
- When two continental plates diverge,
a gap is formed. This creates a new
oceanic crust between the two
plates called a rift valley.
- What do C-C convergences make?
a. Rift valleys
b. Earthquakes
TRANSFORM FAULT
BOUNDARIES
At transform plate boundaries, the tectonic
plates are sliding past each other. It is
known as conservative boundary because
crust is neither created nor destroyed in this
layer.
- What do transform boundaries
make?
a. Earthquakes
EVIDENCE OF PLATE MOVEMENT
Continental Drift Theory
- In 1912, Alfred Wegener, a German
meteorologist, observed that the
continents of South America and
Africa fit together.
- He proposed the Continental Drift
Theory, claiming that the continents
were compressed all together in one
single landmass – a supercontinent
named Pangaea, which existed
around 250 million years ago.
- The superocean that existed 250
million years ago was Panthalassa.
Pangaea then split into two large continents,
namely:
1. Laurasia in the north; and
2. Gondwanaland in the south
These two continents were separated by the However, when fitted like a jigsaw,
Tethys Sea. the continents have a much more
streamlined motion.

Evidence from Rocks and Mountain

Ranges
- Parts of South America and Africa
have rocks of the same age and
type.
- Mountain ranges and rock
formations have the same origin as if
they were once joined.

Laurasia Gondwanaland The Continental Drift Theory was initially

rejected by the scientific community
Europe South America
because:
Asia India 1. Wegener was a meteorologist, not a
geologist.
North America Australia 2. He could not explain the mechanism
of continental drift.
Africa
3. He explained fossil similarities based
Antarctica on land bridges in the past, which
allowed plants and animals to
Evidence from the Shapes of the Continents migrate from one continent to
- South America and Africa fit like a another.
jigsaw puzzle. This was also 4. Wegener thought that the continents
observed by Abraham Ortelius, three were moving at a very rapid rate.
centuries earlier.
Wegener’s Ideas Science Today
Evidence from Fossils and Climate
- Fossil plants and animals of the The eastern The shapes of
coastline of South several continents
same kind are found on continents
America and the seem to fit into
separated by oceans. western coastline of each other.
- Tropical fern fossils have been found Africa seem to fit
in Antarctica. snugly into each
- Edward Suess, an Austrian other.
geologist, suggested that there may
Similar fossils of Rock types and
have been land bridges that
plants and animals fossils in South
connected today’s southern were found on the America and Africa
continents. eastern coast of are very similar in
- Alexander du Toit, a South African South America and terms of their age
geologist, also came up with the on the western and sequence.
idea that there was a supercontinent coast of some parts
of the African Animals in South
in the southern hemisphere. This
continent. America share
was based on the fact that fossils of common ancestors
the Mesosaurus were even older with those in Africa.
than the dinosaurs found in South
America and Africa. There are other Mountain ranges of
cases of similar different continents
fossil sequences are made of the
Evidence from Glaciers
from landmasses same rocks, were
- The glacial till deposits in the on the eastern and formed in the same
southern hemisphere also supports western coasts of sequence, and are
the moving continents. At present, till other oceans. of the same age,
deposits indicate glacier motion. but are now far
 apart from each
other.

The sequences of Geologic studies of

MECHANISM OF PLATE
rock layers on areas with glaciers MOVEMENT
opposite sides of in eastern South
oceans match each America match Ridge Push - Gravity pushes the formed
other. those in South and ridge down into the Earth, causing the
West Africa.
seafloor to spread or split further apart.
Fossils of tropical Coal from hot
plants were also swampy forests and Slab Pull - As the plate subducts, its own
found in the Arctic coral limestone weight pulls it down, speeding up the
and Antarctic polar from warm shallow process of subduction.
regions. seas can be found
in Northern
Slab Suction - As the plate subducts, the
countries like
Scotland and even process of mantle convection sucks it
in Antarctica near down, speeding up the process of
the South Pole. subduction.

Note: Mantle Convection / Convection

Current. In 1929, Arthur Holmes, a British
geologist, modified the CDT. He used
radioactivity to determine the age of rocks
which led to a new estimation of the Earth’s
age. He claimed that the continental rocks
were lighter than oceanic rocks, and
elaborated that there is convection
occurring in the mantle.

SEAFLOOR SPREADING THEORY

Seafloor Spreading Theory (Harry Hess) -

In 1960, Harry Hess, a member of the U.S.
Navy, revived the Continental Drift Theory
by stating that the seafloor was spreading,
and along with it the continents. He used a
device called SONAR (Sound Navigation
and Ranging) to assess and measure the
seafloor. He proposed that mantle
convection was the cause of the seafloor
spreading.

Magnetic stripes - Frederick Vine and

Drummond Matthews, British geologists,
noticed that there was a symmetrical pattern
of magnetic stripes on either side of the
mid-ocean ridges.
SCIENCE 10 QUARTER 1 Reviewer