BOYLE’S LAW • All amino acids have an amino group

(NH2) that consists of 2 H atoms bonded

V1P1 = V2P2 to a N atom, a carboxyl group or an
CHARLE’S LAW acid group, and a body or core, aka the
R-group or side chain.
V1 V2
= • Proteins are large molecules consisting
T 1 T2
of long complex chains of amino acids
GAY LUSSAC’S LAW linked by strong peptide bonds.
P 1 P2 • These bonds are formed by
= dehydration synthesis (removal of
T1 T 2
water molecule) reactions that link an
AVOGADRO’S LAW amino group of one kind of amino acid
to the acid (carboxyl) group of another.
V1n2 = V2n1
IMPORTANCE OF PROTEINS
COMBINED GAS LAW
1. Proteins are essential in building and
V1P1T2 = V2P2 T1
repairing body cells and tissues.
IDEAL GAS LAW 2. Most enzymes are proteins, and they
aid in speeding up the building and
PV = Nrt repairing of almost all tissues.
P = pressure 3. Proteins bring about individual
differences. We look different
T = temperature because each of us has a unique
n = amount of gas in moles protein makeup.
4. Proteins serve as transport
R = 0.0821 L●atm/mol●k molecules, it reserves food, and
provides protection as antibodies.
CONVERSION
ENZYMES
VOLUME
• These are special proteins that are
1 mL = 1cm3 catalytic in action.
1 L = 1 dm3 • This means that they hasten or speed
3
1 m = 1000 L up chemical reactions without being
directly used up in the reaction.
PRESSURE
1 atm = 760 mmHg
1 atm = 76 cm Hg
1 atm = 760 torr
1 atm = 101 325 Pa
1 atm = 14.6956 psi
MAJOR DIGETIVE ENZYMES
TEMPERATURE
ENZYME PRODUCE SITE OF Ph
0° C = 273.15 K D IN RELEAS level
E
0° C = 32° F
CARBO
BIOMOLECULES DIGESTION
Salivary Salivary Mouth Neutra
PROTEINS amylase glands l
• The most abundant organic compounds Pancreatic Pancreas Small Basic
in living cells. amylase intestine
Maltase Small Small Basic
• The fundamental constituents of the intestine intestine
protoplasm of the cell. PROTEIN
• Made up of C, H, O and N atoms. DIGESTION
Pepsin Gastric Stomach Acidic
• Fundamental building blocks are amino glands
acids. Trypsin pancreas Small Basic
 intestine • DNA and RNA control the organization
Peptidases Small Small Basic of enzymes. The enzymes, in turn,
intestine intestine determine all chemical activities and
NUCLEIC reactions of the cell.
ACID
• Variations in organisms also result from
DIGESTION
alterations produced on the base
Nuclease Pancreas Small Basic sequence of DNA molecules.
intestine
Nucleosidase Pancreas Small Basic DNA RNA
s intestine Deoxyribonucleic Ribonucleic
FAT acid acid
DIGESTION DESCRIPTION It contains the It is
Lipase Pancreas Small Basic genetic responsible
intestine instruction used for the
in the template in
development the
NUCLEIC ACIDS – DNA & RNA and functioning synthesis
• These are large complex organic of all living of proteins
molecules composed of C, H, O, N and organisms. which in
P. turn control
the
• They are polymers of nucleotides, which operation &
are molecules built up from 3 parts: a function of
five-carbon sugar, a phosphate group the cell.
and a nitrogenous base or nitrogen-
containing base (purines – A & G, FUNCTION Long-term Transfer
pyrimidines – C & T). storage and the genetic
• James Watson and Francis Crick transmission of information
described the DNA molecules as a genetic for the
double helix. It consists of two strands information. creation of
wound around each other and held proteins
together by weak H bonds. from the
nucleus to
• The backbone of the helix consists of the
alternating sugar and phosphate groups ribosomes.
connected by sugar-phosphate bonds,
while the steps of the ladder consist of SUGAR AND Deoxyribose Ribose
the pair of nitrogenous bases. BASES sugar sugar
• DNA is double stranded and RNA is Phosphate Phosphate
single stranded. DNA is mainly located backbone; 4 backbone;
in the nucleus while RNA is found in bases: adenine, 4 bases:
both the nucleus and the cytoplasm. guanine, adenine,
cytosine and guanine,
ROLE OF NUCLEIC ACIDS IN LIVING thymine cytosine
THINGS and uracil
• DNA serves as the genetic material of
PAIRING OF A-T A-U
all living things. DNA provides the
BASES G-C G-C
instruction in making proteins and
enzymes in living systems.
CARBOHYDRATES
• Since it can duplicate itself through
replication, it is self-perpetuating. It • Organic compounds consisting of C, H
determines what kind of proteins should and O where the proportion of H atoms
be synthesized by an organisms. The to O atoms is 2:1 Cn(H2O)n
proteins synthesized in turn determine
the specific characteristics of an • Chief energy sources in all organisms.
organism. ROLES
• RNA is synthesized from DNA and is 1. It serves as the backbone of other
responsible for protein synthesis. molecules.
2. It serves as stored energy (such as
starch, cellulose and glycogen).
 3. It is the most common source of energy
in the body.
4. It combines with proteins (glycoproteins
and proteoglycans) to form structural
components of living cells.
CLASSIFICATIONS
1. Monosaccharides - simple sugars that
consist of only one sugar molecules.
2. Disaccharides - composed of two
monosaccharide molecules.
3. Polysaccharides - a complex form of
carbohydrates that consist of three or
more monosaccharide molecules.
MONOSACCHARIDES
• The building blocks of more complex
forms of sugars. Isomers are glucose,
galactose and fructose.
Isomers - are any of two or more
substances whose molecules have the same
atoms but in different arrangements.
Glucose - the most common
monosaccharide, is aka dextrose or sugar in
blood.
• It is an indispensable component of
mammalian blood, furthermore, it is the
most important sugar for the cells of the
brain, liver, pancreas and pituitary and
adrenal glands.
• It is an instant source of energy bec.it
easily dissolves in water. Also, it is small
enough to easily pass through the cell
membrane.
Galactose - is another monosaccharide
that is part of lactose, a disaccharide
commonly called milk sugar. It has the same
atomic composition as glucose but with a
different structure.
Fructose - or corn sugar, is the
sweetest sugar. It is found in fruits such as atis,
melon and ripe mangoes.
DISACCHARIDES
• When two monosaccharide molecules
bond together chemically, they form
disaccharides (double sugars). The
chemical formula of a double sugar is
C12H22O11.
Condensation reaction - is a reaction in
which two molecules or parts of the same
molecule combine.
Hydrolysis reaction - occurs when the
bond between monosaccharides is broken with
the addition of a water molecule.
Dehydration synthesis is a process where
the combination of two monosaccharide
molecules leads to the removal of a water
molecule.
Sucrose is a disaccharide formed from the
chemical combination of glucose and fructose.
• It is the common table sugar used to
sweeten our foods and drinks.
Lactose or milk sugar - formed from the
combination of glucose and galactose. It is too
big to enter the cell, thus, it has to be broken
down into its individual monosaccharide units.
Maltose or malt sugar - is the raw material
used to make beer. Upon hydrolysis, or the
addition of water, maltose yields two molecules
of glucose.
• The glucose liberated is then fermented
to yield alcohol and carbon dioxide, the
active ingredients of beer. This process
is done in beer production.
POLYSACCHARIDES
Starch is the stored carbohydrate in
plants. It is made up of several glucose units. It
is commonly found in potato tubers, carrots,
corn and some other roots and stems.
• Starches are easily digested by most
animals bec.an enzyme that can break
the bond holding the glucose molecules
together is present in those animals.
Glycogen is the stored carbohydrates
found in animals. One molecule of glycogen
has more sugar units than starch does.
• It is therefore a source of our reserve
energy and is converted into glucose
units when needed.
Cellulose is an insoluble carbohydrate
abundant in the tough outer wall of plant cells.
It functions include support and protection.
 • Like starch, it is made up of long chains
of glucose molecules, but the units are
joined together in a different manner,
making cellulose harder to digest.
• Cellulose can provide you with a rich
supply of glucose if you could only
digest it. Animals like carabaos and
cows may eat grass and hay but it is
the microorganisms living in the
digestive tract of these animals that split
the cellulose as a source of food.
• In humans, cellulose does not serve as
food material but acts only as fiber that
provides a source of roughage. High
fiber diet helps reduce the risk of having
constipation and possibility of
developing colorectal cancer.
• Insoluble fiber adds bulk to stool, this in
turn dilutes the carcinogens and speeds
the transit of the stool through the lower
intestines and out of the body.
• A heart-healthy diet that is low in fat and
high in soluble fiber can lower blood
cholesterol. As the fiber passes through
the gastrointestinal tract, it binds with
dietary cholesterols, helping the body to
eliminate cholesterol.
Chitin is a long, unbranched chain of
polysaccharide , made of N-acetylglucosamine
residues, that forms part of the hard outer
covering of insects, arachnids and crustaceans
to give these animal protection.
• Chitin is the second most abundant
organic compound in nature after
cellulose. It also provides support and
rigidity to the cell wall of fungi.
LIPIDS
• They include fats and fatlike molecules.
They are insoluble in water but are
soluble in organic solvents such as
benzene, ether and chloroform.
• All greasy substances consisting if the
elements C, H and O with less oxygen
than carbohydrates are considered fats.
In fats, the H to O ratio is greater than
2:1.
• Most fats provide twice as many calories
per pound as carbohydrates. This
makes them the main source of
metabolic fuel in the body.
ROLES
1. It serve as the highest energy-giving
foods in the body.
2. Act as insulators by protecting animals
from extreme cold.
3. Serve as a constituent of the protoplasm
of living cells.
4. Form a part of the structure of the cell
membrane.
5. Serve as a building block for many
steroids (e.g. cholesterol and bile salt).
FORMS
1. Fatty Acids - either solid or liquid in form;
nuts, meats and milk.
Saturated fatty acids are solids at room
temperature; margarine and animal fats
Unsaturated fatty acids exists as liquids at
room temperature; vegetable oil and corn oil;
better for your health.
2. Phosphoglycerides  or phospholipids,
are important components of the cell
membrane as well as of other biological
membranes.
Lecithin is found in egg yolk, brain, yeast and
liver; it acts as an emulsifying agent (bile in the
liver); it breaks fat into smaller molecules so
that the fat can be dissolved more easily.
Cephalin is found in brain tissues.
3. Sphingolipid  found in the brain, lungs
and nerve tissues.
Sphingomyelin which helps maintain the right
shape of the lungs of a fetus; it also reduces
the tension of water that deforms the walls of
the lung area.
Surfactant a substance that helps reduce
tension on the lungs, thereby maintaining its
right shape.
4. Waxes  fatty acids that are combined
with a much longer alcohol molecule
They are used as lubricants, polishers and
ointments.
They also serve to protect the surfaces of
some leaves, such as the gabi leaf. The
presence of waxes on the leaf surfaces of gabi
gives the plant its first line of resistance against
insect pests and agricultural sprays.
Waxes on the surface of leaves also play a
major role in the water balance of plants – they
regulate water loss during transpiration.
5. Terpenes  do not contain fatty acids; they
are considered lipids, however, bec.they
are insoluble in water but soluble in organic
solvents.
Come from the compound known as isoprene.
Mint oil has menthol, which is a terpene; REACTANTS
chlorophyll, carotene, Vitamin A, E & K –
fat-soluble vitamins and coenzyme Q. - Substances that are used to form new
substances in a chemical reaction
6. Steroids  no fatty acids but are
considered lipids.
Cholesterol is a steroid that is harmful to the PRODUCT
body bec.it causes heart ailments; it helps - Resulting substance after a chemical
regulate the fluidity in cell membranes and reaction.
therefore aids in the transport of materials.
SYMBOL MEANING
Bile salt is an emulsifier in the digestive + to show combination
system. Made in the liver, stored in the gall To produce; to form; to
bladder and goes to the small intestine. yield
(s) (l) (g) (aq) Soild, liquid, gas,
Sex hormone, estrogen and androgen, affect aqueous (substances
the growth or function of the reproductive dissolved in water)
organs, the development of the secondary Reversible reaction
characteristics and the behavioral patterns of Heat is applied to the
Heat
animals. reaction
Uses catalyst or
CHEMICAL REACTION Pt
solvent to the reaction
- Substances undergo chemical bonding
so that atoms can be more stable.
COLLISION THEORY
- Chemical bonding results to breaking of
bonds and formation of new bonds, thus - Reactions can only happen when the
new substances are formed. reactant particles collide.
- Formation of new substances means a
chemical reaction has taken place. ACTIVATION ENERGY
- When a physical change occurs there is - Minimum amount of energy needed for
no breaking and forming of bonds. a reaction to occur.
EVIDENCES OF CHEMICAL REACTION CATALYST
1. Production of Light - Substance that hastens a chemical
2. Evolution of Gas reaction without itself being consumed.
3. Temperature change
4. Change in intrinsic properties CHEMICAL REACTION
5. Formation of Precipitate - A process in which substance is
PHLOGISTON THEORY changed in to one or more new
substances
- Earliest theory about burning
- GEORGE ERNST STAHL CLASSIFICATIONS OF CHEMICAL
- Stated when a material burn, it releases REACTION
a substance known as phlogiston. 1. COMBINATION/SYNTHESIS REACTION
THEORY OF OXIDATION - a reaction when 2 or more reactants combine
- Antoine Lavoisier to form a single product
- A material accurately burns as it reacts A + B  AB
with oxygen.
CHEMICAL EQUATION
2. DECOMPOSTION REACTION
- Is a chemist’s shorthand for a chemical
reaction - a single reactant breaks down in to simple
- It distinguishes between the ones (2 or more products)
REACTANTS, the starting materials and
the PRODUCTS which are the resulting AB  A + B
substances. 3. SINGLE DISPLACEMENT/REPLACEMENT
- Shows the symbols/formula of the REACTION
reactants and products, the phases of
these substances, and the ratio of the - when one element replaces another element
substance, and the ratio of the from a compound; the more active element
substances as they react.
takes the place of the less active element in a
compound.
A + BC  AC + B

4. DOUBLE DISPLACEMENT
REACTION/METATHESIS
- when the positive ions (cations) and negative
ions (anions) of different compounds switch
places forming two entirely different
compounds.
AB + CD  AD + CB
5. COMBUSTION/BURNING REACTION
- when oxygen combines with a hydrocarbon
(compound containing hydrogen and carbon)
to form a water and carbon dioxide.
C4H10 + O2  CO2 + H2O
6. Acid-Base Reaction
- a special kind of double displacement
reaction that takes place when an acid and
base react with each other. The H+ of the acid
reacts with the OH- of the base forming water;
other product is salt.
HCl + NaOH  NaCl + H2O
HOW DO YOU BALANCE A CHEMICAL
EQUATION
1. Count the number of atoms of each
element on the reactant side and
product side.
2. Find out which atoms are unbalanced.
In the example given, you know that
there is more H on the product side than
on the reactant side, but there is more N
on the reactant side.
3. Now balance each element at a time.
Do this by placing a small whole number
called a coefficient in front or before of a
symbol or formula.
4. Do not change the subscripts of the
formula in an attempt to balance the
equation as it will change the identity of
the components.
5. Check if the equation is completely
balanced.