SCIENCE REVIEWER (TINAMAD NAKO)

THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

The endocrine system is a complex network of glands and organs responsible for producing and
secreting hormones into the bloodstream, which then travel to target cells and organs throughout the
body. These hormones act as chemical messengers, regulating a wide range of bodily functions,
including growth and development, metabolism, reproduction, and response to stress.

The major glands of the endocrine system include the hypothalamus, pituitary gland, thyroid gland,
parathyroid glands, adrenal glands, pancreas, and reproductive glands (ovaries and testes). Each of
these glands produces and secretes different hormones, which work together to maintain homeostasis
and ensure proper functioning of the body.

The hypothalamus is located in the brain and is responsible for regulating the release of hormones from
the pituitary gland. The pituitary gland, often referred to as the "master gland," produces a number of
hormones that regulate growth, metabolism, and reproductive function.

The thyroid gland produces hormones that regulate metabolism and energy production, while the
parathyroid glands produce hormones that regulate calcium levels in the body. The adrenal glands,
located on top of the kidneys, produce hormones that regulate stress response and blood pressure.

The pancreas produces hormones that regulate blood sugar levels, including insulin and glucagon,
while the reproductive glands produce hormones that regulate sexual development and function.

The endocrine system is closely interconnected with the nervous system, and the two systems work
together to maintain homeostasis and ensure proper functioning of the body. Dysfunction of the
endocrine system can lead to a wide range of disorders, including diabetes, thyroid disorders, and
hormonal imbalances.

Overall, the endocrine system plays a crucial role in regulating many important bodily functions and
maintaining overall health and well-being.

THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

The nervous system is a complex network of cells, tissues, and organs that coordinates and controls
the activities of the body. It is divided into two main parts: the central nervous system (CNS) and the
peripheral nervous system (PNS).

The CNS consists of the brain and spinal cord, while the PNS includes all the nerves outside of the CNS
that connect the brain and spinal cord to the rest of the body. The PNS is further divided into two
branches: the somatic nervous system, which controls voluntary actions, and the autonomic nervous
system, which controls involuntary actions.

Neurons are the basic building blocks of the nervous system. They transmit information in the form of
electrical and chemical signals. Neurons have three main parts: the cell body, the dendrites, and the
axon. The cell body contains the nucleus and other organelles necessary for the neuron's functions.
The dendrites receive signals from other neurons, while the axon carries signals away from the cell
body to other neurons or muscles.
Glial cells, also known as neuroglia, are non-neuronal cells that support and protect the neurons. They
provide physical and nutritional support, remove waste products, and help maintain the chemical
environment necessary for neuronal signaling.

The nervous system plays a vital role in many bodily functions, including sensory perception,
movement, thought, and emotion. Disorders of the nervous system can cause a wide range of
symptoms, such as paralysis, seizures, and cognitive impairment.

In summary, the nervous system is a complex and intricate system that is crucial for the proper
functioning of the body. Neurons and glial cells work together to transmit and process information, and
disorders of the nervous system can have significant impacts on an individual's health and wellbeing.

THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

The reproductive system is a collection of organs and tissues that work together to produce and
maintain the cells and hormones necessary for reproduction. This system is different in males and
females, and while the basic function is the same, there are significant differences in the organs and
processes involved.

Female Reproductive System:

The female reproductive system is designed to produce and nourish a fetus during pregnancy. The
primary organs of the female reproductive system are:

Ovaries: These are two small organs located on either side of the uterus, and are responsible for
producing and releasing eggs (ova) into the fallopian tubes.

Fallopian tubes: These tubes connect the ovaries to the uterus, and are the site of fertilization, where
sperm can meet and fertilize an egg as it travels from the ovary to the uterus.

Uterus: A muscular organ that is designed to house and nourish a developing fetus during pregnancy.
The walls of the uterus thicken each month in preparation for implantation of a fertilized egg, and shed
if a pregnancy does not occur (menstruation).

Cervix: This is the lower part of the uterus that connects to the vagina. It acts as a barrier to the uterus
during pregnancy, but dilates during childbirth to allow the baby to pass through.

Vagina: This is the muscular tube that connects the cervix to the outside of the body. It is the site of
sexual intercourse and also serves as the birth canal.

Mammary glands: These are specialized glands that produce milk for nursing infants after childbirth.
Male Reproductive System:

The male reproductive system is designed to produce and deliver sperm for fertilization of a female
egg. The primary organs of the male reproductive system are:

Testes: These are two small, oval-shaped organs located in the scrotum that produce sperm and the
male hormone testosterone.

Epididymis: This is a coiled tube located behind each testis, and is the site of sperm maturation and
storage.

Vas deferens: These are two tubes that transport mature sperm from the epididymis to the urethra.

Seminal vesicles, prostate gland, and bulbourethral glands: These are glands that produce fluids that
mix with sperm to form semen, which is ejaculated during sexual intercourse.

Penis: This is the male organ of copulation, which delivers semen into the female reproductive tract
during intercourse.

The reproductive system is controlled by a complex network of hormones and other signals that
regulate the timing and function of the various organs and tissues involved. In females, the menstrual
cycle is regulated by a series of hormones that cause the ovaries to release eggs, thicken the uterine
lining, and prepare the body for pregnancy. In males, testosterone is the primary hormone responsible
for regulating the production and function of the reproductive organs.

PROTEIN SYNTHESIS

Protein synthesis is the process by which cells build proteins, which are the building blocks of life. The
process involves two main stages: transcription and translation.

Transcription: The first stage of protein synthesis is transcription, which occurs in the nucleus of a
eukaryotic cell or the cytoplasm of a prokaryotic cell. During transcription, the DNA sequence of a gene
is used as a template to create a messenger RNA (mRNA) molecule. The enzyme RNA polymerase
reads the DNA sequence and creates a complementary RNA sequence by linking nucleotides together.
The resulting mRNA molecule is a copy of the DNA sequence, but with uracil (U) replacing thymine (T)
in RNA.

Translation: The second stage of protein synthesis is translation, which occurs in the cytoplasm of the
cell. During translation, the mRNA molecule is used as a template to create a protein molecule. The
mRNA is read by ribosomes, which move along the mRNA molecule, decoding the sequence of codons
(triplets of nucleotides) and matching each codon with the corresponding amino acid. Transfer RNA
(tRNA) molecules then bring the amino acids to the ribosome, where they are added to the growing
protein chain.
The process of translation can be broken down into three main steps:

a. Initiation: The first step in translation is initiation. The small ribosomal subunit binds to the mRNA
molecule and scans for the start codon (AUG). Once the start codon is found, the large ribosomal
subunit binds to the complex, and the ribosome is now ready to begin protein synthesis.

b. Elongation: The second step in translation is elongation. During this phase, the ribosome moves
along the mRNA molecule, matching each codon with the corresponding amino acid carried by tRNA.
The ribosome then forms a peptide bond between the amino acids, creating a growing chain of amino
acids.

c. Termination: The final step in translation is termination. When the ribosome reaches a stop codon
(UAA, UAG, or UGA), the ribosome releases the completed protein chain, and the protein folds into its
final shape.

DNA AND RNA PAIRING CONVERSION CHART

-Reviewer gawa ni zef<33