Nervous System
 Master controlling and communicating
system of the body.
 Electrical impulses, signaling device or
means of communicating with body cells.
 Nervous system: rapid electrical impulses;
Endocrine system: hormones that are
released into the blood.
3 overlapping functions
1. It uses its millions of sensory receptors to
monitor changes, stimuli, in and out of the
body. The gathered info is called sensory
input.
2. Processes and interprets the sensory input
and decides what should be done at each
moment, Integration.
3. Effects, or causes a response by activating
muscles or glands via motor output.
STRUCTURAL CLASSIFICATION
 Includes all the nervous system organs
 2 subdivisions: CNS and PNS
Central Nervous System
 Brain and spinal cord
 Occupy the dorsal body cavity and act as the
integrating and command centers of the
nervous system.
 Interpret incoming sensory info. Based on
past experiences and current conditions.
Peripheral Nervous System
 Cranial nerves (carry impulses to and from
the brain) and spinal nerves (carry impulses
to and from the spinal cord). They serve as
communication lines that link all parts of the
body.
 Part of the nervous system outside the CNS.
FUNCTIONAL CLASSIFICATIONS
 Concerned only with PNS structures
 2 subdivisions: sensory (afferent) and motor
(efferent)
Sensory (Afferent, toward)
 Convey impulses TO the CNS from sensory
receptors.
 Keeps the CNS constantly informed of
events going on the body.
 Somatic Sensory Fibers, impulses from the
skin, skeletal muscles, and joints.
 Visceral Sensory Fibers, impulses from the
visceral organs.
Motor (Efferent, away)
 Convey impulses FROM the CNS to
effector organs, the muscles and glands.
 Impulses activate muscles and glands or
cause a motor response.
 2 subdivisions: Somatic and Autonomic
Somatic
 Voluntary nervous system
 Allows us to consciously or
voluntarily control our skeletal
muscles.
 Not all skeletal muscle activity is
controlled by this motor division.
E.g. stretch reflex
Autonomic
 Involuntary nervous system
 Regulates events that are autonomic
or involuntary, such as the activity of
smooth and cardiac muscles and
glands.
 Sympathetic and Parasympathetic.
Nervous Tissue: Structure and Function
 Made up of 2 principal types of cells,
Supporting cells and Neurons.
SUPPORTING CELLS
 Lumped together in the CNS as glia/ glial/
neuroglia which literally means “nerve glue”
 Types of CNS neuroglia:
a.) Astrocytes
- Abundant star shaped cells that
account for nearly half of the
neural tissue.
- Numerous projections have
swollen ends that cling to
neurons.
- Forms a living barrier between
capillaries and neurons and helps
determine capillary permeability.
- It helps in protecting the neurons
form harmful substances that
might be in the blood.
- Also aid control the chemical
environment in the brain by
mopping up leaked potassium
ions and recapturing released
neurotransmitters.
b.) Microglia
- Spiderlike phagocytes that
monitor the health of nearby
neurons, and dispose of debris,
including dead brain cells and
bacteria.
c.) Ependymal
- Glial cells that line the central
cavities of the brain and the
spinal cord.
- Beating of their cilia helps to
circulate the cerebrospinal fluid
that fills those cavities and forms
 a protective cushion around the
CNS.
d.) Oligodendrocytes
- Glia that wrap their flat
extensions tightly around the
nerve fibers producing myelin
sheath, fatty insulating coverings.
 Glial cells are NOT able to transmit nerve
impulses like neurons.
 They NEVER lose their ability to divide,
whereas most neurons do.
 Most brain tumors are gliomas, formed by
glial cells.
 Types of PNS neuroglia:
a.) Schwann Cells
- Form the myelin sheath around
the nerve fibers that are found in
the PNS.
b.) Satellite Cells
- Acts as protective, cushioning
cells.
NEURONS
 Aka nerve cells
 Highly specialized to transmit nerve
impulses from one part of the body to
another.
 Neurons differ structurally from each other
 Neurons don’t routinely undergo cell
division after birth.
 Tracts, bundle of nerve fibers in the CNS.
 Nerves, bundle of never fibers in the PNS.
1. Cell Body
- Metabolic center of the neuron.
- Its transparent nucleus contains a visible
nucleolus.
- LACKS centrioles (amitotic)
- Rough ER, aka Nissl Bodies, and
neurofibrils,
impt. in maintaining cell’s shape, are
abundant in the cell body.
- Cell bodies are found in the CNS in clusters
called nuclei.
- If this part is damaged, cells die and does
not replaced.
- Ganglia, small collections of cell bodies.
- Gangliole, relay station
2. Processes
- Aka fibers, vary in length
- Longest ones in humans reach from the
lumbar region of the spine to the great toe.
- Dendrites, neuron processes that convey
incoming messages (electrical signals)
TOWARD the cell body.
- Axon, neuron processes that convey
incoming messages (electrical signals)
AWAY from the cell body.
- Axon hillock, each neuron has only one
axon which arises form cone-like region of
the cell body.
- Axon Terminal contains hundreds of tiny
vesicles, or membranous sacs that contain
chemicals called Neurotransmitters (cell to
cell).
- Synaptic Cleft, tiny gap that separates each
axon terminal. This is where
neurotransmitters are found.
- Neurons never actually touch other neurons.
3. Myelin Sheath
- Whitish, fatty material which has a waxy
appearance.
- Protects and insulates the fibers and
increases the transmission rate of nerve
impulses.
- No channel
- Schwann Cells insulates axons outside the
CNS in a jelly-roll fashion.
a.) Neurilemma, part of Schwann
cell that is external to the myelin
sheath.
b.) nodes of Ranvier, gaps or
indentions of each Schwann cells.
- Myelinated fibers are also found in the CNS.
- CNS sheath lack a neurilemma, plays an
important role in fiber regeneration.
- Multiple Sclerosis, an autoimmune disease
in which the myelin sheath is gradually
destroyed, converted to hardened sheaths
called scleroses.
- White Matter, dense collection of
myelinated fibers (tracts)
- Gray Matter, collection of unmyelinated
fibers.
FUNCTIONAL CLASSIFICATION OF
NEURON
 Groups neuron according to the direction the
nerve impulse is travelling relative to the
CNS.
1. Sensory (Afferent) Neurons
 Carry impulses from the sensory receptors to
the CNS.
 Cell bodies are always found in a ganglion
outside the CNS.
 Keep us informed about what is happening
both inside and outside the body.
 Dendrite endings contain specialized
receptors.
o Cutaneous sense organs are
proprioceptors, detects stretch or
tension, tendons and joints in skeletal
 muscles. It also informs our brain of
our own movement.
o Propria is a Latin word which means
“one’s own”
o Types of sensory receptors:
a.) Free nerve endings are the
most numerous but the least
specialized of the cutaneous
receptors. (Pain and
temperature receptors)
b.) Meissner’s corpuscle exists
in our fingers. (touch receptors)
 Remainder of the peripheral and central
process function as axons. In this case, it
conducts the nerve impulses both toward
and away from the cell body.
 Sensory neurons are found in the PNS
ganglia.
NERVE IMPULSES
 Irritability and Conductivity, the 2 major
functional properties of neurons.
 Irritability, ability to respond to a stimulus
and convert it into a verve impulse.
 Conductivity, ability to transmit the impulse
to other neurons, muscles, or glands.

c.) Lamellar corpuscle is found 1.) Resting membrane is polarized

in the dermis of the skin. It  Polarized in which the inside of the neuron’s
detects sensitivity of vibration. plasma membrane is more negative.
(deep pressure receptor)  Inside: (K+) ; Outside: (Na+)
 As long as the inside remains more negative
d.) Golgi tendon organ than the outside, the neuron will stay
(proprioceptor) inactive.
 Membrane is relatively impermeable to both
e.) Muscle spindle, detects the
ions.
changes in length.
(proprioceptor)
2.) Stimulus initiates local depolarization
 Stimulus changes the permeability of a local
2. Motor (Efferent) Neurons
“patch” of the membrane, and sodium ions
 Carry impulses form the CNS to viscera,
diffuse rapidly into the cell.
muscles, or glands
 The polarity of the membrane interchanges.
 Cell bodies or motor neurons are located in
The inside becomes more positive and the
the CNS.
outside becomes slightly negative.
3. Association Neurons (Interneurons)
3.) Depolarization and generation of an action
 Connects motor and sensory neurons in potential
neural pathways.
 Depolarization, making the inside of the cell
 Cell bodies are typically found in the CNS. more positive.
 Causes membrane polarity to be completely
STRUCTURAL CLASSIFICATION OF
reversed and an action potential is initiated.
NEURON
 Based on the number of processes extending 4.) Propagation of the action potential
from the cell body.
 Depolarization causes permeability changes.
 #2 is repeated
1.) Multipolar
 Action potential propagates rapidly along
 Most common structural type, many
the entire length of the membrane.
extensions from the cell body.
 All motor and association neurons are
5.) Repolarization
multipolar.
 K+ ions diffuse out of the cells as the
permeability of the membrane changes
2.) Bipolar
again, restoring the negative charge on the
 Neurons with 2 processes, an axon and a
inside of the membrane.
dendrite.
 E.g. eyes, ears, nose 6.) Initial iconic conditions restored
 This is rare in adults because of  Ionic conditions of the resting state are
degeneration of the neurons. restored later by the activity of the Na +- K+
pump.
3.) Unipolar
 3 Na+ ions are ejected for every 2 K+ ions
 Short single process leaving the cell body. carried back into the cell.
 Very short and divides it into proximal and
distal processes.
  Reflexes are rapid and predictable
 Involuntary responses to stimulus
 Occur over neural pathways (reflex arc)
Before
Na+ gate is opened.  Both CNS and PNS
Depolarization Threshold value is -55mv, influx of
Na+
1.) Somatic Reflexes
 Skeletal muscles
Peak of action potential, Absolute  E.g. pulling your hand away from a hot
1st: Refractory object
Na+ gate is deactivated ; K+ is
Depolarization activated.  Motor neurons na diretso
approximately 40 mv
2.) Autonomic Reflexes
 Smooth muscles, the heart, and glands
2nd: Expels 3 Na+ ions and 2 K+ ions  E.g. secretion of saliva, changes in the sizes
which will rush ito the cell
Repolarization
Na+ and K+ pump is opened
of pupils
 BODY FXNS, digestion, elimination, blood
pressure, and sweating
 Involuntary responses
3rd: volts of membrane is lower than
Hyperpolarization -75mv. 5 elements of reflex arc
a.) Sensory reacts to a stimulus
b.) Sensory Neuron carries message to the
Integration Center or CNS
c.) Integration Center, processes info and directs
4th: resting membrane
-65mv
motor output
Normal Voltage
d.) Motor Neuron carries message to effector
e.) Effector Organ, muscle or gland eventually
stimulated or motor output

 Myelinated fibers conduct impulses much Types of Reflex Arc

faster because the nerve impulses literally
jumps from node to node, Saltatory
Conduction.
axon terminal is the end of action potential
1 opening of Ca+ gates
1.) 2-neuron reflex arc
 Simplest type
 Patellar (knee jerk) reflex, used to determine
if the motor neuron is functioning well.
 No interneuron
 Quadriceps muscle is involved here

Ca+ will go to axon terminal 2.) 3-neuron reflex arc

2  Flexor or withdrawal reflex
 Limb is withdrawn from a painful stimulus
disruption in the synaptic vesicle
binding of Ca+ ions to synaptic vesicle  Consists of 5 elements
3
 There is always a delay at synapses
proceed to plasma membrane to releases cell  More synapse = the longer it takes to happen
4 contents (neurotransmitter)  Sensory input

receptor side CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

5 stimulates receiving neuron  Develops during the embryonic neural tube
 Neural tube extends through the brain and
Na+ gates will open spinal cord.
6  Ventricles, opening of neural tube that is
filled with cerebrospinal fluid. Have 4
Action Potential chambers.
7
4 major regions of the Brain
Saltatory Conduction 1.) Cerebrum
8
 Largest region
 Left and Right Hemisphere
 It develops and grows
 Performs higher functions, such as speech
THE REFLEX ARC  Gyri, elevated ridges of tissue
 Sulci, shallow grooves
 Fissures, deeper grooves
 Longitudinal fissure, single deep fissure that
separates the cerebral hemisphere
 3 main regions of Cerebral hemisphere
a.) Cortex / Gray Matter, controls
voluntary and skilled skeletal muscle
activity. (OUTER)
b.) White Matter is situated within
fiber tracts deep to gray matter. E.g.
Corpus Callosum that connects the
hemispheres and Association Fibers
which connects the area of the
specific hemisphere. (INNER)
c.) Basal Nuclei / deep pockets of
Gray Matter buried within the white
matter that help regulate voluntary
activities. Internal capsule is tight
band of projections. If damaged, a
person might have Parkinson’s, non-
degenerative disorder and occurs
mostly to old males, and Huntington,
hereditary and occurs to both male
and female. (INNERMOST)
 Cerebral Cortex, function includes speech,
memory, logical, and emotional response, as
well as consciousness
 4 lobes of the cerebral cortex
a.) Frontal, reasoning, motor skills,
2.) Diencephalon
expressive language, higher level
cognition. If damaged, it could lead
to behavioral changes.
b.) Parietal, tactile and sensory
information, such as pressure and
touch. If damaged, numbness may
experience.
c.) Occipital, visual stimuli and
information. If damaged, color
blindness and dyslexia may
experience.
d.) Temporal, sound and language
interpretation. If damaged, auditory
impairment may experience.
 4 specialized areas
a.) Primary Somatic Sensory Area,
located in the parietal lobe posterior
to the central sulcus. It allows us to
recognize pain, temperature, and
touch. A spatial map, called Sensory
Homunculus, to show how much
tissue has been devoted to a sensory
area. (CROSS PATHWAY)
b.) Corticol Area (special senses),
visual: posterior part of the occipital
lobe; auditory: temporal part;
olfactory: deep inside the temporal
part
c.) Primary Motor Area sends
impulses to skeletal muscles. It is
anterior to the central sulcus.
Corticospinal (Pyramidal) Tract is
motor neurons that descend from the
spinal cord. Body is represented
upside down and crossed pathways.
Its finest control include: face, mouth
and hands. Motor Homunculus is a
spatial map on the motor cortex.
d.) Broca’s Area is involved in our
ability to speak. It is found in the
left hemisphere and base of primary
cortex of the brain. Other specialized
cell: Anterior (higher intellectual
reasoning, proper manners and
etiquette) & Posterior (patterns and
faces) Association Areas and Speech
Area (located at the junction of the
temporal, parietal, and occipital
lobes.
Wernicke Area (Speech Area) is
responsible for comprehension of
language.
 Or Interbrain
 Sits on top of the brain stem and is enclosed
by the cerebral hemispheres.
 Connected with Hormones
 3 parts:
a.) Thalamus, which encloses the
shallow third ventricle of the brain,
is a relay station for sensory
impulses passing upward to the
sensory cortex. It is the judgment
center of the brain. (Localization and
Interpretation)
b.) Hypothalamus, Literally means
under the thalamus, makes up the
floor of the diencephalon that is an
important autonomic nervous
system. It transfers impulses to the
correct part of Primary Somatic
Sensory Area for localization and
interpretation and plays a role in the
regulation of the body temperature,
water balance, and metabolism. It is
also the center for many drives of
emotion. This is also the house of
Limbic. It regulates the pituitary
glands: Thyrothropine and
 Corticothropine. Lastly, it houses  Provides precise timing for skeletal muscle
mammillary bodies for olfaction activity and control our balance
(smell). equilibrium.
 Can be compared to an automatic pilot,
c.) Epithalamus forms the roof of the continuously comparing the brain’s
third ventricle. Important part “intentions”.
include: Pineal Gland and Choroid  If damaged, a condition called ataxia could
Plexus which produces cerebrospinal experience.
fluid. (Ependymal)  Ataxia, movements become clumsy and
disorganized.
3.) Brain Stem
 About the size of a thumb in diameter and
approx. 3 inches long.
 Has many small gray matter areas
 Produce rigidly programmed autonomic
behaviors necessary for survival
 Associated with cranial nerves and control
vital activities, such as breathing and blood
pressure.

a.) Midbrain, relatively small part of

the brain stem. It extends from the
mammillary bodies to the pons
inferiorly. Cerebral Aqueduct is a
tiny canal that travels through the
midbrain. 2 bulging fiber tracts
involved in vison and hearing:
Cerebral Peduncles, which convey
ascending and descending impulses,
and Corpora Quadrigemina, four
rounded protrusions.

b.) Pons, meaning bridge, a rounded

structure that protrudes just below
the midbrain. This is mostly fiber
tracts. It has important nuclei
involved in the control of breathing.

c.) Medulla Oblongata is the most

inferior part of the brain stem. It is
an important fiber tract area. It also
contains many nuclei that regulate
vital visceral activities and centers
that control heart rate, blood
pressure, breathing, swallowing, and
vomiting. Fourth ventricle lies
posterior to the pons and medulla
and anterior to the cerebellum.

 Reticular Formation, diffuse mass of gray

matter

4.) Cerebellum
 Large, cauliflower like that projects
dorsally from under the occipital lobe of the
cerebrum.
 Have 2 hemispheres and convoluted
surface.
 Also have an outer cortex made up of gray
matter and an inner region of white matter.