HANDOUTS IN SCIENCE 10
No magma, No volcano,
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 The Ring of Fire, also referred to as the Circum-Pacific
Belt, is a path along the Pacific Ocean characterized by
active volcanoes and frequent earthquakes. Most Earth's
volcanoes and earthquakes take place along the Ring of
Fire.
 A tectonic plate (also called lithospheric plate) is a massive,
irregularly shaped slab of solid rock, generally composed of
both continental and oceanic lithosphere. Plate size can
vary greatly, from a few hundred to thousands of kilometers
across; THE PACIFIC AND ANTARCTIC PLATES ARE
AMONG THE LARGEST.
 The location where two plates meet is called a plate
boundary. Plate boundaries are commonly associated with
geological events such as earthquakes and the creation of
topographic features such as mountains, volcanoes, mid-
ocean ridges, and oceanic trenches
 Major plates boundaries are: CONVERGENT,
DIVERGENT AND TRANSFORM BOUNDARY.
 Continental volcanic arc mountains formed in part by
igneous activity associated with subduction of oceanic
lithosphere beneath a continent
 Convergent boundary a boundary in which two plates
move toward each other, causing one of the slabs of the
lithosphere to subduct beneath an overriding plate
 Crust the outer portion of the earth
 Continental Crust the thick part of the Earth’s crust, not
located under the ocean
 Oceanic Crust the thin part of the Earth’s crust located
under the oceans.
 Divergent boundary a region where the crustal plates are
moving apart
 Earthquake vibration of Earth due to the rapid release of
energy
 Fault a break in a rock along which movement has
occurred
 Fracture any break in a rock in which no significant
movement has taken place
 Geology the science that studies Earth
 Hot spot a concentration of heat in the mantle capable of
creating magma
 Magma a mass of molten rock formed at depth, including
dissolved gases and crystals.
 Mid-ocean ridge a continuous mass of land with long width
and height on the ocean floor.
 Plates rigid sections of the lithosphere that move as a unit
 Plate tectonics a theory which suggests that Earth’s crust is
made up of plates that interact in various ways, thus
producing earthquakes, mountains, volcanoes, and other
geologic features
 Primary (P) wave the first type of seismic wave to be
recorded in a seismic station
 Rocks consolidated mixture of minerals
 Secondary (S) wave second type of earthquake wave to be
recorded in a seismic station
 Seismogram a record made by a seismograph
 Seismograph a device used to record earthquake waves
 Subduction an event in which a slab of rock thrusts into the
mantle
 Transform fault boundary a boundary produced when two
plates slide past each other. Can occur on any type of
boundary. Example: Oceanic-Continental, Oceanic-
Oceanic, Continental-Continental.
No rift valley, and lots of earthquake.
 Trench a depression in the seafloor produced by subduction process
 Volcanic Island arc a chain of volcanoes that develop parallel to a
trench.
TWO TYPES OF CRUST OR LITHOSPHERE
1. CONTINENTAL CRUST- MADE FROM GRANITE
2. OCEANIC CRSUT- MADE FROM BASALT
 New CRUST is created as magma cools and solidifies.
PLATE BOUNDARIES AND EXAMPLES
BOUNDARIES EXAMPLES (LANDFORMS)
DIVERGENT MID OCEAN RIDGE, RIFT
VALLEY
CONVERGENT SUNDUCTION, MARIANAS
TRENCH, MOUNTAINS, AND
VOLCANOES
TRANSFROM SAN ANDREAS FAULT
TYPES OF CONVERGENT BOUNDARY
1. CONTINENTAL-OCEANIC (CONTINENTAL VOLCANIC
ARC AND TRENCHES.
2. OCEANIC-OCEANIC (VOLCANIC ISLAND ARC
(TRENCHES)
3. CONTINENTAL-CONTINENTAL (MOUNTAIN BELT)
 Seismic waves are waves of energy that travel
through Earth's layers, and are a result of
earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, magma movement,
large landslides and large man-made explosions that
give out low-frequency acoustic energy.
 A body wave is a seismic wave that moves through
the interior of the earth, as opposed to surface
waves that travel near the earth's surface. P and
S waves are body waves.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN P WAVES AND S WAVES
P-WAVES
o Primary waves, also called P waves or compressional waves,
travel about 1 to 5 miles per second, depending on the material
they're moving through
o This speed is greater than the speed of other waves, so P waves
arrive first at any surface location
o They can travel through solid, liquid and gas, and so will pass
completely through the body of the earth.
o As they travel through rock, the waves move tiny rock particles
back and forth -- pushing them apart and then back together -- in
line with the direction the wave is traveling
S- WAVES
o Secondary waves, also called S waves or shear waves, lay a little
behind the P waves
o As these waves move, they displace rock particles outward, pushing
them perpendicular to the path of the waves
o This results in the first period of rolling associated with earthquakes.
Unlike P waves, S waves don't move straight through the earth
o They only travel through solid material, and so are stopped at the
liquid layer in the earth's core.
SURFACE WAVES
 Surface waves are something like the waves in a body of
water -- they move the surface of the earth up and down
 This generally causes the worst damage because the
wave motion rocks the foundations of manmade
structures
 Love and Rayleigh are surface waves.
LOVE WAVES
• The first kind of surface wave is called a Love wave also
known as (Q-waves (Quer: German for lateral)), named
after Augustus Edward Hough Love, a British
mathematician who worked out the mathematical model for
this kind of wave in 1911.
• It's the fastest surface wave and moves the ground from
side-to-side.
RAYLEIGH WAVES
 The other kind of surface wave is the Rayleigh wave,
named for John William Strutt, Lord Rayleigh, who
mathematically predicted the existence of this kind of wave
in 1885.
 A Rayleigh wave rolls along the ground just like a wave
rolls across a lake or an ocean. Because it rolls, it moves
the ground up and down, and side-to-side in the same
direction that the wave is moving.
 Most of the shaking felt from an earthquake is due to the
Rayleigh wave, which can be much larger than the other
waves.
ANDRIJA MOHOROVIČIĆ
• Croatian meteorologist and geophysicist who
discovered the boundary between Earth's crust and mantle
—a boundary subsequently named the Mohorovičić
discontinuity.
BETO GUTENBERG
• In the year 1913, Gutenberg proved the existence of the
Earth's core.  3.84km below the surface by the end of 2018.
• Since P waves- are detected until 103 degrees disappear
from 103 degrees to 142 degrees, then reappear again,
SOMETHING INSIDE the Earth must be bending the P-
waves.
• Existence of a shadow zone, according to him, could only
be explained if he Earth contained a core composed of a
material different from that of the mantle causing the
bending of the P-waves.
• To honor him, mantle-core boundary is called Gutenberg
Discontinuity.
INGE LEHMANN
• was Danish seismologist and geophysicist. In 1936, she
discovered that the Earth has a solid inner core inside
a molten outer core. Earth has a core within a core.
What do seismic waves tell us about the
Earth's interior?
• Knowing how the waves behave as they move through
different materials enables us to learn about the layers that
make up the Earth. 
• Seismic waves tell us that the Earth's interior consists of a
series of concentric shells, with a thin outer crust, a mantle,
a liquid outer core, and a solid inner core.
• The travel velocity of these two wave types is not the same
(P-waves are faster than S-waves).
• Core - Beneath the mantle is Earth’s core. The core is
made mostly of the metals iron and nickel. It consists of
two parts- a liquid outer core and solid inner core.
• Inner Core- It's Almost The Size of the Moon. The Earth's
inner core is surprisingly large, measuring 2,440 km (1,516
miles) across.
• Inner Core The inner core is a hot, dense ball of (mostly)
iron. It has a radius of about 1,220 kilometers (758 miles).
Temperature in the inner core is about 5,200° Celsius
(9,392° Fahrenheit). 
• Outer Core- The outer core is the third layer of the Earth. It
is the only liquid layer, and is mainly made up of the metals
iron and nickel, as well as small amounts of other
substances.
• Temperature. The Outer Core is about 4000-5000 degrees
Celsius. The Inner Core is so hot it causes all the metal in
the Outer Core to melt into liquid magma.
• Thickness. The Outer Core is about 2200 km thick.
• Scientists believe that movements in the Earth’s liquid
outer core create Earth’s magnetic field. Because Earth
has a magnetic field, the planet acts as a giant bar magnet.
• A mantle is a layer inside a planetary body bounded below
by a core and above by a crust. Mantles are made of rock
or ices, and are generally the largest and most massive
layer of the planetary body.
• Earth's crust is Earth's thin outer shell of rock.
• In geology, a crust is the outermost layer of a planet.
• It is the top component of the lithosphere, a division of
Earth's layers that includes the crust and the upper part of
the mantle.
• ANGLOGOLD ASHANTI'S MPONENG GOLD MINE,
located south-west of Johannesburg in South Africa, is
currently the deepest mine in the world. The operating
depth at Mponeng mine ranged from between 3.16km to