COVENANT UNIVERSITY

CAANANLAND, OTA

PETROLEUM ENGINEERING LABORATORY

FILTRATION
BY
EDET IDOREYEN PIUS (MATRICNO.19CN026138)
GROUP 6

DATE PERFORMED: 05-06-2022

DATE SUBMITTED: 09-06-2022

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ABSTRACT
ABSTRACTThis is a report of an experiment conducted to determine the mud filteringproperties. A
method of presentation of the Laboratory Raw data is given,by which the individual factors determining
filtration may be isolated andevaluated for any particular mud. Data on typical individual muds
arepresented; and the effects of addition of weighting materials, chemicaltreatment, and variation of
nature and amount of colloidal material aresummarized. In view of the importance of filtration of water
from muds,particularly in connection with the drilling of deep wells, current interest in"wall-building"
properties of various clays, and the significance of the effectof infiltration of water upon oil-bearing
formations, it appears timely tointroduce a method of interpretation of Laboratory Raw data on
filtration.

There are many important components of an oil rig. One of the most important are thedrilling fluids
used. A major component is the mud and the effect of its mud cake. To obtain abetter understanding of
the importance of mud cakes in the drilling process, a thoroughunderstanding of its static filtration
properties are needed. In this lab the mud cake’s thicknesswas measured at different pressures by the
API filter press assembly.The API filter press leadsus to our goal of discovering the static filtration
properties of mud through its givencharacteristics and filtrate volume.

The filtration properties of drilling muds are a measure of the ability of the solid components of
the muds to form a thin, low-permeability filter cake. The lower the permeability, the thinner the
filter cake and the lower the volume of filtrate from muds of comparable solids concentration.
This property is dependent upon the amount and physical state of the colloidal material in the
mud. The filter cake building property of a mud can be measured using a FILTER PRESS.
During the test, the rate at which fluid from a mud sample is forced through a filter under
specified temperature & pressure is evaluated. Also, the thickness of the solid residue deposited
on the filter paper caused by the loss of fluid is measured. Note that this type of test does not
accurately simulate downhole conditions in that only static filtration is being measured. In the
wellbore, filtration is occurring under dynamic conditions with the mud flowing past the wall of
the hole. The test is conducted by a STANDARD FILTER PRESS AND MUD CELL
ASSEMBLY at a specified pressure of 100 psi and time of 30 minutes. It consists of a mud cell
having caps at its top and bottom. The base cup is fitted with rubber gasket, screen, filter paper
and rubber gasket again. The base cup has a filtrate tube at the bottom. The top cup has a
pressure inlet and is fitted with rubber gasket. This unit is mounted in a frame fixed with T-screw
on the top of the frame, Compressed nitrogen cylinder is used a pressure source which is
connected to pressure inlet of the top cup in cell assembly

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TABLE OF CONTENT

 ABSTRACT

 CHAPTERS

 1-Introduction……………………………………............... 4

 2- Theory………………………………………................... 7

 3- Apparatus and Materials……………………................... 10

 4- Experimental Procedures…………………...................... 15

 5- Observation/Discussion…………………........................18

 6- Result of the Experiment ………………………............19

 7- Conclusion……………………………………............... 20

REFERENCES……………………………………………..................21

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AIM OF THE EXPERIMENT
 The test consists of monitoring the rate, at which fluid is forced from a filter
press under specific conditions of time, temperature and pressure, then
measuring the thickness of the residue deposited upon the filter paper.
 To monitor the rate at which fluid is forced from a filter press under specific
conditions of time then measuring the thickness of residue deposited on the
filter paper
 To determine the average cake resistance for the given slurry and the
resistance of the filter medium used in the filtration process.

CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
The filtration properties of drilling fluids are a measure of the ability of the solid components
of the fluids to form a thin, low-permeable filter cake. The lower the permeability, the thinner the
filter cake and the lower the volume of filtrate from fluids of comparable solids concentration.
This property is dependent upon the amount and physical state of the colloidal material in the
mud.
A Standard Filter Press is used to determine the filtration properties of drilling fluids. It consists
of:
 A mud reservoir (top cap, cell, rubber gaskets, and base cap) mounted in a frame.
 A filtering medium (filter paper).
 A means of catching and measuring the filtrate ( graduated glass cylinder)
 A pressure source (cylinder of compressed nitrogen, air or CO2 cartridges). Due to the hazard
of explosion, compressed oxygen MUST not be used.

The separation of particles is done on the basis of the state of the particles to be separated. There
are a group of separation techniques where the separation is accomplished by the differences in
the mechanical- physical forces in the system and not the molecular/ chemical forces. These
mechanical- physical forces act on the particles, liquids, or the mixtures of particles and the
liquids and not necessarily on the individual molecules. Filtration is the removal of solid

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particles from a fluid by passing the fluid through a filtering medium, or septum, on which the
solids are deposited. Filtration is the most common application of the flow of fluids through
packed beds. It is analogous to the filtration carried out using a filter paper on a funnel or using a
Buckner funnel in a laboratory. The objective is to separate the solid from the fluid in which it is
present. The separation is carried out by forcing the fluid through the porous membrane. The
solid particles are trapped within the pores of the membrane and a build up as a layer is seen on
the surface of the membrane. Industrial filtrations range from simple straining to highly complex
separations. The fluid may be a liquid or a gas; the valuable stream from the filter may be the
fluid, or the solids or both. Sometimes it is neither, as when waste solids may be separated from
the waste liquid prior to disposal. In industrial filtrations, the solid content ranges from a trace to
a very high percentage. Often the feed is subjected to a pretreatment process to increase the
filtration rate, as by heating recrystallizing, or by adding filter aids.

The filtration and wall building characteristics of a drilling mud are important for providing a
relative measure of the amount of mud filtrate invasion into a porous and permeable formation
and the amount of filter cake that will be deposited on the wall of the well bore wherever
filtration occurs. From a drilling viewpoint these properties give an indication of the amount of
water (or oil) wetting that can take place in filtrate sensitive formations and the potential for tight
hole or differential sticking problems. For productive, hydrocarbon bearing formations these
properties give an indication of the amount of filtrate invasion and permeability damage that can
be expected.

Two types of filtrations are involved in drilling an oil well: static filtration, which takes place
when the mud is not being circulated and the filter cake grows undisturbed, and dynamic
filtration, which takes place when the mud is being circulated and the growth of the filter cake is
limited by the erosive action of the mud stream. Dynamic filtration rates are much higher than
static rates, and most of the filtrate invading subsurface formations does so under dynamic
conditions. The filtration properties of drilling fluids are usually evaluated and controlled by the
API filter loss test, which is a static test and is therefore not a reliable guide to downhole
filtration unless the differences between static and dynamic filtration are appreciated, and the test
results interpreted accordingly.

In an overbalance situation, the fluid phase of the mud, called filtrate, invades the formation,
whereas solid particles of the mud build up mud cake. Characteristics of filtrate and mud cake
are strongly controlled by mud particle type, size, and concentration. It is often desirable for a
mud to leave a thin, low-permeability cake that helps with near-wellbore stability and
strengthens the wellbore. The goal is to reduce the amount of whole mud flowing into the
formation and to prevent loss of circulation, which causes many drilling-related problems.
Drilling-fluid particles present different sizes; the larger particles form the first layer of the filter
cake, and the smaller particles deposit within the cake formed by the larger particles. At the same
time, the filter cake is undergoing compaction by the effect of the fluid drag as the smaller
drilling-fluid particles are flowing through the filter cake. As a result of the deposition and

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compaction undergone by the filter cake, the thickness of the cake and its porosity and
permeability will vary, thus affecting the performance of the filtration. During filtration, new
particles are deposited on the surface of the cake and, over time, the thickness of the cake
increases until filtration subsides.

Filtrate behavior of the drilling fluid affects the permeability of the filter cake. Thin mud cakes,
which have low permeability, strengthen the wellbore; however, thick mud cakes can cause
operational problems such as stuck pipe, excessive torque, drag, and high swab and surge
pressures. Lost-circulation material, such as properly sized calcium carbonate, can prevent leaks
of whole mud into the formation, which, in turn, prevents leaks of the base fluid such as oil or
water. These two chain processes significantly increase wellbore strength to prevent fractures or
fracture propagation.

OBJECTIVE

(i) To study the theory of filtration

(ii) To determine the average cake resistance for the given slurry and the resistance of the
filter medium used in the filtration process.
(iii) To determine the time for filtration and hence the performance of the equipment
based on the volume of the filtrate collected
(iv) To monitor the rate at which fluid is forced from a filter press under specific
conditions of time then measuring the thickness of residue deposited on the filter
paper
(v) To use a standard filter press so as to collect the filtrate from the mud sample in a
measuring cylinder in order to measure its volume.
(vi) Maintain an understanding of the fundamental functions of drilling fluids.
(vii) To demonstrate how to conduct experiments to manage drilling fluid parameters.
(viii) Describe the key factors that determine drilling fluid choices.
(ix) To increase one's ability to write technical reports.

SCOPE OF THE EXPERIMENT:

An electric weighing balance was used to weigh the bentonite and barite. At room temperature,
the water was measured using a measuring (graduated) cylinder. A mixer was used to prepare the
mud samples. The API Filter Press was used to determine the filtration properties of the drilling
fluid. These tests were conducted in a laboratory at room temperature(0C).

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LIMITATION OF THE EXPERIMENT:

For this experiment, The Standard API Filter Press was used under low temperature and
pressure conditions. Hence, it cannot be used to measure filtration properties of drilling fluids at
wellbore downhole conditions because the temperature and pressure there is very high. Unlike
when used under high temperature and high-pressure conditions, where wellbore downhole
conditions can be simulated. This helps to understand more, the filtration properties of the
drilling fluid downhole.

CHAPTER 2

THEORY

The test consists of monitoring the rate at which fluid is forced from a filter press under specific
conditions of time, temperature and pressure, then measuring the thickness of the residue
deposited upon the filter paper. Excessive filtration and thick filter cake build up are likely to
cause the following problems:

1. Tight hole, causing excessive barrier.

2. Increased pressure, due to reduced hole diameter.

3. Differential sticking, due to an increased pipe contact in filter cake.

4. Excessive formation damage and evaluation problems with wireline logs.

Pressure also affects filtration by compressing the filter cake, reducing its permeability and
therefore reducing the filtrate. Increased temperature has the effect of reducing the viscosity of
the liquid phase and hence increasing filtration. With all other factors being constant, It has been
found in early work that the volume of fluid lost is roughly proportional to the square root of the
time for filtration.

Loss of fluid (usually water and soluble chemicals) from the mud to the formation occurs when
the permeability is such that it allows fluid to pass through the pore spaces. As fluid is lost, a
buildup of mud solids occurs on the face of the wellbore. This is the filter cake. The loss of
liquid from a mud due to filtration is controlled by the filter cake formed of the solid constituents
in the drilling fluid. Two types of filtrations occur; dynamic, while circulating and static, while
the mud is at rest. Dynamic filtration reaches a constant rate when the rate of erosion of the filter
cake due to circulating matches the rate of deposition of the filter cake. Static filtration will cause
the cake to grow thicker with time, which results in a decrease in loss of fluids with time.

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Filtration tests are conducted under two different conditions:

1.The standard API filtration test is conducted at surface (or room) temperature and 700 kPA,
(l00 psi), pressure for thirty minutes. For this test the fluid loss is the volume (in milliliters) of
filtrate collected in this time period and the filter cake thickness (in millimeters) is the thickness
of the cake that is deposited on the filter paper in this time period.

2. The API high temperature, high-pressure test, (HTHP test) is conducted for thirty minutes of
filtration at a temperature of l49 C, (300 F), and a differential of 3450 kPa, (500 psi). For this test
the filtrate must be collected under a backpressure of 700 kPA, (l00 psi) in order to prevent
vaporization of the filtrate.

The Theory of Static Filtration

If unit volume of a stable suspension of solids is filtered against permeable substrate, and x
volumes of filtrate are expressed, then 1 - x volumes of cake (solids plus liquid) will be deposited
on the substrate. Therefore, if Qc is the volume of the cake, and Qw the volume of filtrate:

Qc/Qw =1-x/x

and the cake thickness (h) per unit area of cake in unit time will be:

h= 1-x/ Q’w

Q’w = Qw/Am

Fig 2.1; A standard API Filter Press

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 CHAPTER 3

APPARATUS AND MATERIALS OF EXPERIMENT

The various apparatus and materials used for determining the filtration properties of drilling mud
in the laboratory include; API filter press, filter paper, Vernier caliper, Mud balance, electronic
balance, Electric (mud) mixer and steel vessels, Measuring cylinder, Hydrogen etc.

1. API filter Press: The API filter press is used to analyze filtration behavior and wall cake
building characteristics of drilling fluids and cement slurries. Their stability is based on
fluid loss and may be determined by measuring and describing the filter cake.

Fig 3.1: API Filter Press

2. Filter Paper: Is a semi-permeable paper barrier placed perpendicular to a liquid or air

flow. It is used to separate fine solid particles from liquids or gases. used for quantitative
and gravimetric analyses as well as for pressure or vacuum filtration. They are made out
of 100 % cotton linters.

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 Fig 3.2 : Filter Paper

3. Vernier caliper: A measuring device that is used for the measurement of linear
dimensions. It is also used for the measurement of diameters of round objects with the
help of the measuring jaws.

Fig 3.3: A Vernier Caliper

4. Beaker: useful as a reaction container or to hold liquid or solid samples. A beaker is a

glass cup-like receptacle with a cylindrical bottom and an open top, generally with a
small pouring lip. It's composed of heat and acid-resistant glass and can be used to heat a
liquid by placing it on top of a tripod over a Bunsen burner. Beakers come in a variety of
sizes, each with a line indicating the amount indicated up to that line.

Fig 3.4: A beaker

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 5. Electronic balance: Electronic balance is an instrument used in the accurate measurement
of weight of materials. Electronic balance is a significant instrument for the laboratories
for precise measurement of chemicals which are used in various experiments. In this
experiment, the electronic balance is used to measure the weight of the bentonite and
barite needed to prepare the mud samples. Electronic balances provide their readings
digitally, making them an easy tool to use.

Fig 3.5: An electronic balance

6. Electric (mud) mixer and steel vessels: a mud mixer is an apparatus used to mix water
and materials like bentonite or barite, to prepare a drilling mud. The materials are poured
into the steel vessels for mixing.

Fig 3.6: An electric mud mixer and steel vessels

7. Measuring cylinder: a measuring cylinder or mixing cylinder is a common piece of

laboratory equipment used to measure the volume of a liquid. It has a narrow cylindrical
shape. is used to measure the volume of liquid. It has a narrow cylindrical shape. Each
marked line on the graduated cylinder represents the amount of liquid that has been
measured. Measuring cylinders are usually made of plastic and have lines running up the
side to signify the number of millilitres in the cylinder and thus the volume of liquid.
Graduated cylinders are occasionally used to indirectly measure the volume of a solid by
measuring the displacement of a liquid.

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Fig3.7: A measuring cylinder

8. Water : this is the solvent in which a solute (e.g. barite and bentonite) is dissolved to form
a solution. The solution being the mud in this experiment.

Fig 3.8: Water

9. Bentonite: Bentonite clay is a natural clay with a fine, soft texture. It forms a paste when
mixed with water. The bentonite in the flush fluid lubricates and cools the cutting tools
while protecting against corrosion. As the drilling fluid generates hydrostatic pressure in
the borehole, it hinders fluid and gas penetration.

Fig 3.9: Bentonite

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 10. Barite: Barite increases the hydrostatic pressure of the drilling mud allowing it to
compensate for high-pressure zones experienced during drilling. The softness of the
mineral also prevents it from damaging drilling tools during drilling and enables it to
serve as a lubricant.

Fig 3.10: Barite

11. Stop Watch: A stopwatch is used to measure the time interval of an event. It is a kind of
watch that stands out for the accuracy and precision with which it can measure the time
of an event. It works by pressing a start button and then stopping it.

Fig 3.11: A Stopwatch

12. Nitrogen Gas: Nitrogen gas is a compound that forms from elemental nitrogen by
fractional distillation of liquid air or by mechanical means.

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 Fig 3.12: Nitrogen Gas

CHAPTER 4

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES

PREPARING THE MUD.

Mud sample

(i) I placed a clean, dry beaker on the electric balance and set it at zero (cause the beaker has
its own weight). Then measure the quantity of bentonite, and barite as given to prepare
the mud sample.

(ii) While using the measuring cylinder, I measure 400ml of water to prepare the mud
sample.

(iii) I poured the water into the steel cup and mix, while its mixing add the bentonite
and barite little by little.

(iv)After all the bentonite has been poured into the cup, we waited for a few minutes until its
fully mixed.

(v) When mixing is done, place the steel cup which contains the mixed mud sample on the
table and check for any lumps using a spatula.

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 (vi)Where we found any lumps, we attached the steel cup back to the mixer and allowed to
mix properly for few minutes.

(vii) If there are no lumps, I removed the cup from the mixer and pour the mud into a
clean bowl.

PROCEDURE

(i) I ensured each part of the cell is clean and dry, and that the rubber gaskets are not
distorted or worn. The screen should be free of sharp edges, burrs or tears.
(ii) I assembled the cell as follows: base cap, rubber gasket, screen, filter paper, rubber
gasket, and cell body.
(iii) We poured a freshly stirred sample of fluid into the cell to within 0.5 inch (13
millimeters) to the top in order to minimize contamination of the filtrate. Check the top
cap to insure the rubber gasket is in place and seated all the way around and complete
the assembly. Place the cell assembly into the frame and secure with the T-screw.
(iv) We placed a clean dry graduated cylinder under the filtrate exit tube.
(v) Then we turned the regulator T-screw counter-clockwise until the screw is free-turning
and the diaphragm pressure is relieved. The Safety Bleeder Valve on the regulator
should be in the closed position.
(vi) We connected the air hose to the designated pressure source. Opened the valve on the
pressure source to initiate pressurization into the air hose. This pressure must be
regulated to a maximum pressure of 250 psi. Do not exceed this pressure limit.
(vii) We adjusted the regulator by turning the T-screw clockwise so that a pressure of
100 ± 5 psi (690 ± 35kPa) is applied to the cell in 30 seconds or less. The test period
begins at the time of initial pressurization.
(viii) At the end of 30 minutes, I measured the volume of filtrate collected. Shutting off
the air flow through the pressure regulator by turning the T-screw in a counter-
clockwise direction. Then closed the valve on the pressure source and open the relief
valve carefully.

MAINTENANCE

 We checked to see that all pressure has been removed from the cell, and then
remove the cell from the frame. Disassemble the cell, discard any remaining mud
and using extreme care save the filter paper and deposited cake with minimum of
disturbance to the cake

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RESULTS

 Report the volume filtrate collected in cubic centimeters to the nearest 1/10th cm3 as the
API filtrate.
 Report the time interval and the mud temperature in OF (OC) at the start of the test. Save
the filtrate for running chemical analysis if desired.
 Measure and report the thickness of the filter cake to the nearest 1/32 inch (0.8
millimeter). A cake-thickness less than 2/32 inch is usually considered acceptable.
Observations as to the quality of the cake should be noted. Notations such as hardness,
softness, toughness, slickness, rubberiness, firmness, flexibility and sponginess are
appropriate descriptions.

CHAPTER 5

RESULT OF THE EXPERIMENT

In this experiment, the mud sample was prepared and the Filtration properties of the mud
determined using the API Filter Press.

Mud Sample : 25g of bentonite + 400ml of water + 10g of barite

The table below shows the filtration properties of drilling mud measured from our mud sample
prepared:

MUD Temperature Pressure Time (mins) Filtrate Filter Cake

SAMPLE ( oF) (psi) Volume(ml) Thickness(inch)
A 80.6 100 30 110.0 0.23

The following are the results obtained from the experiment conducted;

 The volume of filtrate collected- 110ml

 The time interval for the experiment was 30 minutes
 The mud temperature is constant -80.6 0F ( 27 oC).
 The thickness of the filter cake- 0.23 inch

Regarding to the Table above, a drilling mud was prepared with the total volume of 110ml using
a mixture of water and bentonite as mentioned their properties in the table as shown above. A
Standard API Filter Press used to press the mud and filtrated via a filter paper to a graduated
cylinder and the volume of filtrate has been measured after 30min of compressing. We noted the
temperature the experiment was carried out because the viscosity changes with temperature and

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also the rate of filtration changes. Addition to range of pressure should not exceed 100psi for
accurate readings. Also, in borehole condition temperature and pressure vary in each point
according to their depth.

PRECAUTIONS

(i) I ensured the pressure of the mud cell is always at 100psi

(ii) I ensured control valve is released before emptying the mud cell
(iii) I ensured the T screw is tightened and all valves closed before applying pressure
(iv) I made sure to take standard safety precautions.
(v) In order to do the experiment, I made care to dress appropriately by wearing a Lab
coat.
(vi) I made it a point to always follow the proper processes.
(vii) I avoided taking any shortcuts to get the outcomes.
(viii) I took responsibility for cleaning up the lab and lab area.

CHAPTER 6

DISCUSSION/OBSERVATIONS

The filtration and wall building characteristics of a drilling mud are important for providing a
relative measure of the amount of mud filtrate invasion into a porous and permeable formation
and the amount of filter cake that will be deposited on the wall of the well bore wherever
filtration occurs. From a drilling viewpoint these properties give an indication of the amount of
water(or oil) wetting that can take place in filtrate sensitive formations and the potential for tight
hole or differential sticking problems. For productive, hydrocarbon bearing formations these
properties give an indication of the amount of filtrate invasion and permeability damage that can
be expected.

Filter cake plays an important and essential role in stabilizing porous permeable formations.
The ideal (thin, tough, impermeable and flexible) filter cake can isolate the wellbore fluids from
the pore fluids at the wellbore wall. This is important in terms of wellbore stability and to
prevent differential sticking. If there is poor or no filter cake, the pore pressure near the wellbore
increases to the hydrostatic pressure and the effective radial stress is zero. The simultaneous
decrease in effective hoop stress reduces the stability of the formation and causes the stress state
to move left in the stability envelope. In simple terms, the ideal filter cake provides a more stable

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wellbore. The chemical composition of the mud and the formation permeability control the filter
cake quality and the time taken to form.

Filter cake can be some of the most difficult material to convey, not least because it can
potentially re-slurry or sometime ‘sweat’ moisture. If this happens then a situation can arise
where a belt conveyor is sliding underneath a stationary block of filter cake, while new cake is
added to the pile.

Also, there can be a great deal of difference between a continuous filtration process that delivers
a steady feed of cake onto a conveyor and a batch process that delivers several tonnes, in one go,
every 20 min.

Measuring filtration behaviour and wall-cake-building characteristics of fluids is essential to

drilling fluid control and treatment. This apparatus i.e the API filter press is the most effective
means of determining the filtration properties of drilling muds and cement slurries. It consists
essentially of a mud reservoir mounted in a frame, a pressure source, a filtering medium and a
graduated cylinder for receiving and measuring filtrate. For 400ml of mud, the volume of water
lost due to filtration is 110ml. The rate at which water is lost is due to the permeability of the
formation. The residue deposited on a permeable medium when drilling fluid is passed through it
forms a cake which will eventually affect the producing capacity of the reservoir and may cause
formation damage among many other drilling operation problems.

We took observation as to the cake quality;

 Observed the sleekiness of the mud cake

 I observed that the mud cake was not hard
 I observed the rubberiness of the mud cake

The counter started at 30mins counting downwards to zero seconds. At the beginning of the
experiment, it was observed that clear water started coming out immediately after pressure was
exerted. After

 Permeability of the mudcake was lower with decreased filtration

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 CHAPTER 7

CONCLUSIONS

The major effect of mud filtration to formation is damage to the formation. Deep bed filtration
of fines with capture and permeability takes place near production wells in drilling operation.
The particles are captured by straining or by other attachment mechanisms. The cake that forms
on permeable zones in the well bore can cause stuck pipe and other drilling problems. Reduced
production can occur from reservoir damage when a poor filter cake allows deep filtration
evasion. Excessive filtration causes: tight hole, excessive barrier, increased pressure, differential
sticking. Basically, the ability to effectively recover petroleum from the reservoir is highly
dependent on the permeability of the formation. The filtration and wall building characteristics of
a drilling mud are important for providing a relative measure of the amount of mud filtrate
invasion into a porous and permeable formation and the amount of filter cake that will be
deposited on the wall of the well bore wherever filtration occurs.

This experiment can conclude that, a drilling mud could form a mud cake and mud filtrate in
different pressure and temperature condition that can measure their rate of filtration and mud
thickness with a device named Standard API Filter Press.

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REFERENCES
 Mau, Mark; Edmundson, Henry (2015). Groundbreakers: “The Story of Oilfield
Technology” and the People Who Made It Happen. UK: FastPrint. ISBN 978-178456-
187-1.Ordons Oil & Gas Information& News.
 Amoco Production Company Drilling Fluids Manual, 1975, pp. 1-3.
 Introduction to Drilling fluids, petrowiki.org
 Hosterman, J.W. and S.H. Patterson. 1992. Bentonite and Fuller's earth resources of the
United States.U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1522. United States
Government Printing Office,Washington D.C., USA.
 Drilling fluids technology Max R. Annis July, Martin V. Smith Revised Edition August
1996 EXXONCOMPANY, U.S.A.

WEBSITES
 https://www.slideshare.net/AppleGreen6/mud-filtration-test


 www.onepetro.org/journal-paper

 https://www.pvisoftware.com/blog/tag/mud-filtration-test/


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