The Brain

The study of how the brain and nervous system affect processes and behaviour is called neuroscience.
Communication in the Brain
The brain communicates with itself and the rest of the body over networks of specialized information
carrying cells called neurons. Neurons use a sophisticated communication system to conduct signals
across these neural networks, enabling us to control our bodies. For example, when you touch a hot stove,
neurons in your fingers tip sends information up your arm to your spinal column. In response to this
possible threat, signals are sent back out from the spine to the muscles in your arm. The result, a quick,
reflexive jerking of your arm away from the hot stove.
The brain may roughly contain 86 billion neurons and similar numbers of another type of cell called glia
cells. Glia cells are brain cells that provide important support functions for the neurons and are involved
in the formation of myelin (support include providing nutrients and waste removal). When specialized
glia cells wrap around a neuron they form myelin, resulting in a whitish, fatty, waxy coating that serves to
protect the neuron and speed up the neural signals it sends.
Multiple Sclerosis (MS) is one disease that attacks and destroy the myelin insulation on neurons. People
with MS have difficulty controlling the actions of their body and have sensory problems including
numbers and vision loss. When myelin breaks down neural signals are greatly slowed or halted altogether.
Initially, movement becomes difficult; as disease progresses, voluntary movement of some muscle may
become difficult. Sensory systems like vision may also fall because incoming signals from the eye do not
reach the vision-processing parts of the brain. Life becomes difficult as ‘orders’ sent to the brain are
delayed or lost along the way.
Anatomy of the Neuron
The neuron has a cell body that contains a
nucleus. The cell body is somewhat similar
in shape to a fried egg, with nucleus being
in the yolk. Like the nucleus of any cell,
the neuron contains DNA
(deoxyribonucleic acid), the chemical that
contains the genetic blueprint that directs
neuron development. Growing out of the
cell body are branchlike structures called
dendrites (Greek word for tree branch).
The dendrites (head) receive incoming
signals from other neurons.
Growing out of the other end of the cell
body is a long tail-like structure called an
axon (tail), which carries signals away from the cell body; when a neuron is insulated with myelin, it is
the axon that is covered or myelinated. Axons vary in length from a few hundred micrometers to many
centimeters, depending on its location in the nervous system.
The tail end of the axon splits into separate branches. At the end of each branch is an axon bulb that
contains small storage pouches called vesicles that hold neurotransmitters, the chemical messengers that
carry signals across the synapse. A synapse is the junction between two neurons where the axon bulb of
one neuron comes into proximity with specialized receptor sites on another neuron.
The neuron that is sending the signal at a synapse in the nervous system is called presynaptic neuron
whereas the neuron that is receiving the signal at a synapse in the nervous system is called postsynaptic
neuron.
Signals in the Brain: How Neurons Fire Up
Neural signals underlie much of the action in our bodies – breathing, movement, using our senses. To
understand how these neural signals are generated within a neuron, understanding the chemical
environment of it, is important since the brain uses electrochemical energy that is produced by charged
particles called ions to send neural signals. Brain tissue is made up of packed neurons and glia cells.
Brain tissue is made up of many ions, some positively charged, others negatively charged. Sodium (Na+)
and potassium (K+) ions are found in the human body fluids and play an important role in allowing
neurons to send signals.
Neuron at Rest: The Resting Potential
When a neuron is at rest, or not actively conducting a signal there is an imbalance in the types of ions
found inside and outside the cell walls of the neuron. This imbalance exists because openings in the axon,
called ion channels allow only some ions to pass into and out of the neuron.
At rest, these ion channels disallow sodium to enter neuron resulting in an imbalance found both inside
and outside neuron. The charge inside the neuron is more negative than outside. The difference in the
charges found inside and outside is called the neuron’s resting potential.
Neuron in Action: Firing an Action Potential
When a neuron receives input from other neurons, these incoming signals enter at the dendrites and travel
across the cell body to the axon. These signals can make cell inside more positive or more negative. If
more positive, it will be positive enough to reach the neuron’s threshold of excitation. When the threshold
of excitation is reached the ion channels along the axon opens and allows Na+ ions to enter cell. As Na+
ions flood into the cell the neuron’s inside become more and more positive. This is how a neuron fires.
These firing is called action potential.
A neuron firing an action potential is like flipping a standard light switch. All action potentials are strong,
once fired, they reach the synapse. These action potentials are said to fire in an all-or-none fashion.
Returning to the Resting Potential: The Refractory Period
As the action potential travels to the end of the axon, Na+ floods into the neuron and the axon’s insides
become positive. As the neuron returns to its resting potential it will experience a brief refractory period
during which it cannot fire another action potential.
Excitation and Inhibition
Excitation occurs when the neurotransmitter makes the postsynaptic cell more likely to fire an action
potential. It ensures that messages will continue to the nervous system.
However, sometimes the message needs to be stopped from continuing onward. This is called inhibition.
This occurs when the neurotransmitter makes the postsynaptic cell less likely to fire an action potential.
Neurotransmitter and Neuromodulators: Chemical Messengers in the Brain
Neuromodulators are substances that affect neural signaling without directly changing the resting
potential of the postsynaptic cell. They affect neural signaling in less direct ways than neurotransmitters
do, such as by protecting neurons from harmful substances.

Structure of the Nervous System

Our nervous system is a vast, interconnected
network of all the neurons in our body.
Every part of the body’s functioning and
behaviour is influenced and monitored by the
nervous system. The nervous system is
divided into the brain and spinal cord, known
as the central nervous system (CNS), the
broadest part and the remaining is
collectively called the Peripheral Nervous
System (PNS).

The Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

The functions of the PNS are ensure that the CNS is informed about what is happening inside and outside
our body; and takes over as it acts out directives of the CNS. The PNS is equipped with sensory neurons
that convey information to the CNS from the outside world such as sights and sounds as well as internal
information such as aches and pains. The PNS is equipped with motor neurons that carry signals from the
CNS to our muscles.
Voluntary Action: The Somatic Nervous System
Somatic Nervous System is the branch of the peripheral nervous system that governs sensory and
voluntary motor action in the body. Eg reaching for an apple requires the activation of the somatic
nervous system. Brain makes the decision to reach the apple; then this “order” is sent downwards, across
the motor neurons of the somatic nervous system that controls arm muscle. The arm muscles react to
order and reaches for the apple. The SNS enables us to control our bodies in a deliberate and flexible
manner.
Involuntary Actions: The Automatic Nervous System (ANS)
The Automatic Nervous System is the branch of the peripheral nervous system that mainly governs
involuntary organ functioning and actions in the body. It controls the smooth muscles of the internal
organs, the heart’s muscles, and glands. The ANS frees up our conscious resources and enables us to
respond quickly and efficiently to the demands placed on us by the environment.
Parasympathetic Nervous System: operates under conditions of relative calm. When active, heart rate,
blood pressure and respiration are kept at normal levels.
Sympathetic Nervous System: operates under conditions of threat or stress. It evolved to protect us from
danger. When activated, heart rate increases, digestion slows, muscle tissue becomes engorged with
blood, pupils dilate and the hair on the back of the neck stands up.
Structure and Function of the Brain
The brain is divided into three (3) regions:
(a) Hindbrain: sits directly above the spinal cord and is named for its position at the bottom of the
brain. It is a series of structures that are essential for life. Small damages can be life threatening.
(b) Forebrain: resides in the top part of the skull and regulates complex mental processes such as
thinking and emotional control. It includes structure that regulate many emotional motivational
and cognitive processes.
(c) Midbrain: it acts as a connection between the hindbrain and forebrain. Without the midbrain, the
hindbrain could not supply the forebrain with the neural impulses it needs to remain active and
keep us conscious.
Hindbrain comprises the medulla, pons and cerebellum.
Forebrain comprises limbic system, thalamus, hypothalamus and cortex.
Midbrain comprises connection
The brain regulates motor activity, sensation and perception, emotions and our ability to learn and
remember and all the other elements of human behaviour.
The cerebral cortex is a thin layer of wrinkled tissue that covers the outside of the brain and is responsible
for cognition, decision making, and language that is unique to humans.
The brain is divided into the right and left hemispheres. The right hemisphere governs the left side of the
body whereas the left hemisphere governs the right side of the body.
Technologies for Studying the Brain
To assist in studying the brain and its functioning, technology such as CAT scans, MRIs, fMRIs, PET
scans, EEGs, and brain stimulation are all important tools.
The Endocrine System
The endocrine system contains glands that release chemical messengers – hormones – into the
bloodstream. Compared to the nervous system, the endocrine system is slower and more long-lasting
in its effects. The endocrine system is slower than the nervous system in relaying messages because it
relies on blood circulating through the veins and arteries of the cardiovascular system to transport
hormones throughout the body. The stimulation created by hormones, however, tends to last longer
than the stimulation caused by action potentials at the synapse.
Some of the bodily processes that are heavily influenced by
hormonal activity include sexual activity, eating, sleeping,
general physiological arousal, and growth. Communication
between the nervous and endocrine systems takes place
through the hypothalamus and its connection with the
pituitary gland. The pituitary gland, situated in the vicinity of
the limbic system under the hypothalamus (Figure 2.18), is responsible for regulating hormone
release in all the other endocrine glands.
When the endocrine system is called into action, the hypothalamus sends a signal to the pituitary
gland. The pituitary gland then releases hormones that travel through the bloodstream to the other
endocrine glands, stimulating them to release the hormones they produce into the bloodstream. These
hormones circulate to their target organs, where they bring about specific changes in the functioning
of these organs.

Integrating Psychology: The Big Picture

Neuroscience is the study of the brain and nervous system and the manner in which they influence
our mental processes and behavior. Understanding how the brain functions is one of the chief
concerns of modern neuroscientists. One could argue that the brain is the most important organ in our
bodies, because it is the organ that ultimately controls communication within our bodies via the
nervous and endocrine systems. The case study of Jean-Dominique Bauby highlights just how
important our brains are to our ability to function. When his brainstem was affected by a stroke,
Bauby lost the ability to move most of his body at will. The only part he could still control was his
left eye. Yet he managed to communicate with the outside world and to write a best-selling book – all
by blinking his left eye.
The locked-in syndrome that Bauby endured for the rest of his life left him a prisoner in his own
body. But it did not rob him of his ability to take in the world around him, his mind, the motivation to
accomplish great things in life, or his ability to feel emotion.