Biological Bases of Behavior

Why study biology in a

psychology class?
 “Everything psychological is
simultaneously biological.”
 Every thought, behavior, emotion,
perception, etc. is rooted in our
biology, particularly our brain
 The brain is a “psychological
organ” as well as a biological one
 Biological psychology: studies
the link between our biology
and our behaviors and mental
processes
 a.k.a. biopsychology,
neuroscience
Starting small: The
Neuron
 neuron: a nerve cell;
receives signals from
other neurons or sensory
organs, processes these
signals, and sends signals
to other neurons,
muscles, or bodily organs
 the basic unit of the nervous
system
 The Neuron
 3 types of neurons:
 1. sensory neurons: respond to input from sensory organs
(skin, eyes, etc.)
 2. motor neurons: send signals to muscles to control
movement
 3. interneurons: connect the sensory neurons and motor
neurons
most of the neurons in the brain = interneurons
 average human brain  100 billion neurons
 plus 10x as many glial cells
 glial cell: a cell that fills the gaps between neurons, facilitate
communication between neurons, and help in the care and
upkeep of neurons
Structure of the
Neuron
 Structure of the
Neuron

 cell body (soma): the central part of the neuron, contains

the nucleus
 regulates cell functioning
 dendrites: the branching part of the neuron that receives
messages from other neurons and relays them to the cell
body
 Structure of the
Neuron

 axon: the long, cable-like extension that delivers messages to other neurons
 myelin sheath: layer of fatty tissue that insulates the axon and helps speed up
message transmission
 multiple sclerosis: deterioration of myelin leads to slowed communication with
muscles and impaired sensation in limbs
 terminal button: structure at the end of one of the axon’s branches that
releases chemicals into the space between neurons, when the neuron is fired
 The Neuron in Action
 resting potential: the negative charge
maintained within neurons that are at rest
 due to more sodium ions outside neuron than inside,
and more potassium inside neuron than outside
 messages from other neurons are either
excitatory (like pushing the neuron’s
accelerator) or inhibitory (like pushing the
neuron’s brakes)
 threshold: the level of stimulation required to trigger
a neural impulse
 The Neuron in Action
When the threshold is reached,
channels in the cell membrane open
and allow transfer of sodium and
potassium ions
action potential: a neural impulse; the
shifting change in charge that moves
down the axon to terminal buttons
all-or-none law
 From Neuron to Neuron
≈100 billion neurons in a human brain,
connected to an average of 10,000
others; some up to 100,000 (Shepherd,
1999)
synapse: the place where an axon of
one neuron meets with the dendrite/cell
body of another neuron
From Neuron to Neuron
 From Neuron to Neuron
 synaptic cleft: the gap
between the axon and
the dendrite/cell body
across which neural
transmission occurs
 neurotransmitters: a
chemical that sends
signals from one
neuron to another over
the synaptic cleft
 From Neuron to Neuron
 Neurotransmitters are
stored in vescicles in the
terminal buttons, and bind
to receptors on the cell
membrane of the next
neuron.
 Each receptor can only
bind with one kind of
neurotransmitter.
 Some of the
neurotransmitter remains in
the synaptic cleft, needs a
special chemical reaction
to reuptake (reabsorb) to
vescicles
 Neurotransmitters at
Work:
An Example
Low levels of the neurotransmitter
serotonin have been associated with
clinical depression.
depression treated with selective
serotonin-reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs)
e.g. Prozac, Zoloft, Paxil
 (Some)
Neurotransmitters
Neurotransmitter Function Examples of
malfunctions
Acetylcholine Enables muscle action, Alzheimer’s disease 
(ACh) learning & memory less ACh production
Dopamine Influences movement, Excess  schizophrenia
learning, attention, & Undersupply 
emotion Parkinson’s disease

Serotonin Affects mood, hunger, Undersupply 

sleep, and arousal depression
Norepinephrine Helps control alertness & Undersupply 
arousal depressed mood
Glutamate Excitatory neurotransmitter Excess 
involved in memory overstimulation of
brain, seizures
 The Nervous System
 comprised of the central nervous system and
the peripheral nervous system
 central nervous system: brain and spinal cord
 31 pairs of spinal nerves radiate from the spinal
cord
 reflex: an automatic response to an event
e.g. sensory neuron detects pain, send signal to spinal
cord  signal to interneurons  signal to motor neurons
 Why the middle man of interneurons? To allow
brain to prevent reflex responses when appropriate
 The Nervous System
Peripheral Nervous System: links
central nervous system to organs
comprised of the skeletal nervous system
and the autonomic nervous system
skeletal nervous system: controls voluntary
movements of our skeletal muscles
 The Nervous System
 autonomic nervous system: controls many of
the self-regulatory functions of the body (e.g.
digestion, circulation)
 comprised of the sympathetic and
parasympathetic nervous systems
 sympathetic: prepares us for defensive actions
against threats (e.g. faster heartrate, increased
breathing rate, inhibits digestion, dilates pupils to
allow greater light sensitivity)
 parasympathetic: counteracts effects of
sympathetic nervous system, calms us down
 Structure of the Brain
 The human brain is
comprised of “older”
and “newer” parts.
 “older”: lower level
structures, responsible
for basic survival
mechanisms
 “newer”: higher level
structures, responsible
for more advanced
human faculties
 Structure of the Brain
 brainstem: the set of
neural structures at the
base of the brain,
including the medulla,
the reticular formation,
and the pons
 facilitates
communication between
the brain and spinal cord
 The Brainstem
 medulla: controls
heartbeat, breathing, and
swallowing
 reticular formation:
regulates alertness and
autonomic nervous system
activity
 pons: bridge from
brainstem to cerebellum;
controls a variety of
functions, including sleep
and control of facial
muscles
 The Cerebellum
 “little brain” extending from
rear of brainstem
 coordinates physical
movement
 contributes to estimating
time and paying attention
 cerebellum + other lower
level brain structures occur
without conscious effort
 Much of our brain’s activity
occurs outside of our
awareness
 The Brainstem
 thalamus: the brain’s
sensory switchboard;
receives signals from the
sensory and motor
systems, and relays them
to the appropriate parts of
the brain
 also receives signals from
higher brain structures,
relays them to medulla and
cerebellum
 The Limbic System
 limbic system: doughnut-
shaped system of neural
structures at the border of
the brainstem and cerebral
hemispheres
 involved in the basics of
emotion and motivation:
fighting, fleeing, feeding, and
sex
 comprised primarily of the
hypothalamus, the
hippocampus, and the
amygdala
 The Limbic System
 hypothalamus: brain
structure that sits under the
thalamus and plays a
central role in controlling
eating and drinking, and in
regulating the body’s
temperature, blood
pressure, and heart rate
 “pleasure center”? (Olds &
Milner, 1954)
 The Limbic System
 hippocampus: brain
structure that plays a key
role in allowing new
information to be stored in
memory
 patient H.M.
 hippocampus does not
contain memories itself, but
does trigger processes that
store memories elsewhere in
the brain
 The Limbic System
 amygdala: almond-shaped
structure that plays a
critical role in anger and
fear
 Lesioning the amygdala of
the rhesus monkey turns the
animal into a mellow,
“unangerable” creature
(Kluver & Bucy, 1939).
 Electrically stimulating one
part of the amygdala leads to
anger response in cats;
another spot leads to fear
response.
 The Visible Brain
 cerebral cortex: the
convoluted pinkish-gray
surface of the brain, where
most mental processes take
place
 The brain is divided into two
halves (cerebral
hemispheres), separated by
a deep fissure
 hemispheres control opposite
side of body (e.g. right-
handers’ writing is controlled by
the left hemisphere)
 Our Divided Brains
 cerebral hemispheres
connected by the corpus
callosum, a large band
of neural fibers that
transmits messages
between hemispheres
 contains more than 200
million nerve fibers, can
transfer more than 1
billion bits of information
per second
 Our Divided Brains
 evidence of hemispheric specialization?
 left brain: written language, spoken language,
number skills, reasoning (analytical and verbal)
 right brain: insight, art awareness,
imagination/creativity, music awareness (intuitive
and perceptual)
 But it’s not as simple as simply “left-brained”
and “right-brained”... The two hemispheres
continually work together on most tasks.
 Our Divided Brains
 How do we know about hemispheric specialization?
 split-brain patients: people whose corpus callosum has
been severed for medical purposes, so that neuronal
impulses no longer pass from one hemisphere to the
other
used to treat epilepsy: a disease that results in massive amounts
of uncontrolled neuronal firing that leads to seizures
prevents spasm from engaging both hemispheres, thus limiting
its severity
 split-brain patients typically function well; personality and
intelligence intact
 Split Brains
 left half of both eyes’ field of
vision sent to the right
hemisphere; right half sent to
left hemisphere
 corpus callosum allows
hemispheres to share information
 in split brains, information is
confined to the hemisphere that
receives it
 Objects in the left half of the visual
field can be difficult or impossible
to see and name. But they are
still seen...
 The Visible Brain
 The brain has “wrinkles” to
increase surface area,
while keeping the brain
compact.
 sulcus (plural = sulci): a
crease in the brain
 gyrus (plural = gyri): a bulge
between sulci in the cerebral
cortex
 cerebral cortex alone
contains roughly 30 billion
neurons and 300 trillion
synaptic connections
 Structure of the
Cortex
 cerebral cortex divided
into lobes, or regions
of the brain
 Each lobe is (roughly)
responsible for different
higher-level functions,
but remember that they
do not work merely in
isolation.
 Structure of the
Cortex
 occipital lobe: brain
lobe at the back of the
head
 responsible primarily
for vision; separate
areas specify visual
properties such as
shape, color, and
motion
 Structure of the
Cortex
 temporal lobe: the
brain lobe under the
temples, in front of the
ears
 many functions,
including processing
sounds, committing
information to memory,
and comprehending
language
 Structure of the
Cortex
 parietal lobe: brain lobe at
the top and center/rear of
the head
 involved in registering
spatial location, attention,
and motor control
 also involved in arithmetic
 Einstein’s parietal lobes
were found to be about
15% bigger than average
(Witelson et al.,1999)
 Structure of the
Cortex
 sensory cortex (a.k.a.
somatosensory strip):
the gyrus immediately
behind the central
sulcus
 registers sensation on
the body, and is
organized by body part
 Structure of the
Cortex
 sensory cortex (a.k.a.
somatosensory strip):
the gyrus immediately
behind the central
sulcus
 registers sensation on
the body, and is
organized by body part
 Structure of the
Cortex
 frontal lobe: the brain lobe
located behind the
forehead
 the seat of planning, memory
search, motor control,
reasoning, emotions, and
many other functions
 In many ways, the frontal
lobe is what makes us
uniquely human.
 Structure of the
Cortex
 motor cortex: the gyrus
immediately in front of
the central sulcus
 controls fine movements
and is organized by
body part (just like the
sensory cortex)
 Mapping Brain
Functions
 How do we know that
different lobes of the
brain are responsible
for distinct functions?
 brain damage patients
e.g. Phineas Gage
 marked personality
differences, and trouble
with social interactions
after frontal lobe damage
e.g. stroke victims
 Mapping Brain
Functions
 electroencephalograph (EEG):
an amplified recording of the
pulses of electrical activity
(“brainwaves”) that sweep
across the brain’s surface
 advantages:
 tracks electrical activity either in
response to a specific stimulus or
over time (high temporal
resolution; 1 msec)
 non-invasive
 drawback: electrodes on scalp
do not demonstrate precise
location of the electrical current
 An
Electroencephalogram
 Neuroimaging
Techniques
 brain scanning techniques that
produce a picture of the structure or
functioning of neurons
 computer-assisted tomography (CT
scan): the oldest neuroimaging
technique (1971 prototype),
produces a 3D image of brain
structure using X-rays
 advantages:
 allows direct view of level of interest
 high-contrast resolution
 disadvantage: potential for damage due
to high levels of radiation
 Neuroimaging
Techniques
 positron emission tomography (PET scan): a neuroimaging technique
that uses small amounts of radioactive glucose to track energy
consumption in the brain (functionality)
 neurons use more glucose when active; radioactive injection
delivered to most active areas of brain
 as the radioactive isotope decays, it shoots off protons, which then
give off a small burst of light when they meet with the scanner
 advantage: provides an estimate of amount of glucose
consumption in each part of the brain
 drawbacks:
radiation exposure
lengthy process (up to 40 seconds of brain activity to build an
image)
expensive equipment necessary to create radioactive isotopes
PET Scans

Dementia patient’s brain

Normal human brain

 Neuroimaging
Techniques
 magnetic resonance imaging (MRI): a
technique that uses magnetic
properties of atoms to take sharp
pictures of the structure of the brain
(and other soft tissue)
 different atoms resonate to
different frequencies of magnetic
fields
 background magnetic field aligns
all the atoms in the brain
 second magnetic field turned on/off
repeatedly many times per second
 atoms align with second field at
proper frequency, then swing back
to background when second field is
turned off
 Neuroimaging
Techniques
 functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI): a type of MRI that
detects the amount of bloodflow in different regions of the brain
 bloodflow = proxy for oxygen delivery
 MRI = structure, fMRI = function
 advantages:
indicates specific regions of activity (high spatial resolution, 3-6
millimeters)
non-invasive, does not require radiation or X-rays
quick process (only a few seconds)
 disadvantages:
brain is never “off”, consistently consuming oxygen
 fMRI compares brain function while doing a task vs. at rest
(but what’s going on in rest?)
can be uncomfortable for participant (lie very still in a small,
noisy tube)
 fMRI Scans
(D’Esposito & Ranganath, 2000)
 The Brain’s Flexibility
 plasticity: the brain’s capacity for modification, as evident in brain
reorganization following damage (brain most plastic in childhood)
 After finger amputation, the sensory cortex reassigns that
finger’s section to receive information from adjacent fingers,
making them more sensitive. (Fox, 1984)
 Blind: sensory cortex for blind people’s Braille finger expands
as sense of touch invades visual cortex (Barinaga, 1992;
Sadato et al., 1996)
temporarily “knocking out” visual cortex with magnetic
stimulation leads blind people to make more errors on a
language task (Amedi et al., 2004)
 Plasticity cont.
 Deaf: temporal lobe gets no auditory signal,
eventually seeks out signal from other
systems (vision)
deaf people often have enhanced
peripheral vision (Bosworth & Dolkins,
1999)
 typically reorganization, though there is now
also evidence for regeneration of nerve cells
too (Kempermann & Gage, 1999; Van Praag
et al., 2002)
Brain Organization and
Handedness
close to 90% of people are right-handed
(Medland et al., 2004)
close to 10% are left-handed
a small number are ambidextrous
95% of right-handers process speech
primarily in the left hemisphere
left-handers: 50% in left hemisphere, 25%
in right hemisphere, 25% in both
 Is Handedness
Inherited?
 human bias for right-handedness has been
around a long time and is pervasive
 studies of prehistoric cave drawings, tools, and
arm/hand bones (Corballis, 1989; Steele, 2000)
 right-handedness prevalent in all human cultures
before effects of culture: more than 9 of 10 fetuses suck the
right hand’s thumb in the womb (Hepper et al., 1990, 2004)
 chimpanzees and gorillas (closely related to
humans) = 65% right-handed (Hopkins et al.,
2005)
 other, more distant primates are more evenly split
 Lefties vs. Righties
 Lefties are more likely than righties to
experience reading disabilities, allergies, and
migraine headaches (Geschwind & Behan,
1984).
 Iranian university students report handedness
on entrance exam; lefties consistently
outperform righties in all subjects (Noroozian et
al., 2003)
 left-handedness more common among musicians,
mathematicians, professional baseball and cricket
players, architects, and artists