CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO

HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

(Part 2)

OVERVIEW:
This 2nd part of Chapter 1 will aid in learning and understanding the anatomical
position and describe the human body using directional and regional terms. Identify three
planes most commonly used in anatomy as well as the anterior and posterior body cavities,
and the serous membranes.

7. Terminology and the Body Plan

Once you study anatomy and physiology, the terminology used can be bewildering
and may seem overwhelming. The purpose of this terminologies is not to confuse but to
increase precision and reduce error. It is easier and more interesting to learn if you pay
attention to the origin, or etymology of new words. Most of the terms are derived from
ancient Greek or Latin and are descriptive in the original languages. By using precise
anatomical terminology, we eliminate ambiguity.
Anatomical terms are made up of roots, prefixes, and suffixes. The root of a term
often refers to an organ, tissue, or condition, whereas the prefix or suffix often describes the
root. For example, in the disorder hypertension, the prefix “hyper-“ means “high” or “over”,
and the root word “tension” refers to pressure, so the word “hypertension” refers to
abnormally high blood pressure. Another example is the suffix “-it is” means an inflammation,
so appendicitis is an inflammation of the appendix.

7.1 Anatomical Position

Anatomist standardized the way in which they view the body to further
increase precision. The term anatomic position refers to a person standing erect with the
body standing upright, face directed forward, the upper limbs hanging to the sides, the palms
of the hands facing forward, the feet at shoulder width and parallel, toes forward. Using this
standard position reduces confusion. It does not matter how the body being described is
oriented, the terms are used as if it is in anatomical position. For example, a scar in the
“anterior (front) carpal (wrist) region” would be present on the palm side of the wrist. The
term “anterior” would be used even if the hand were palm down on a table.
A body that is lying down is described as either prone or supine. Prone
describes a face-down orientation, and supine describes a face up orientation. These terms
are sometimes used in describing the position of the body during specific physical
examinations or surgical procedures.

7.2 Directional terms

It refers to the body in the anatomic position, regardless of its actual position.
It is used to describe the position of structures in relation to other structures or body parts.
These terms are essential for describing relative locations of different body structures. In
human anatomy, the terms above is replaced by superior, below by inferior, front by anterior,
and back by posterior. For example, the neck is superior to the chest but inferior to the head.
Commit these terms to avoid confusion when you are studying or describing the locations of
particular body parts.
Table 7.1 Directional Terms for Humans
Terms Etymology Definition* Example
Right Toward the body’s The right ear
right side
Left Toward the body’s The left ear
left side
Inferior (Caudal) Lower Below The nose is inferior
to the forehead.
Superior (Cranial) Higher Above The mouth is
superior to the chin.
Anterior To go before Toward the front of The teeth are
the body. anterior to the throat.
Posterior Posterus, following Toward the back of The brain is posterior
the body to the eyes.
Dorsal Dorsum, back Toward the back The spine is dorsal to
(synonymous with the breastbone
posterior)
Ventral Venter, belly Toward the belly The navel is ventral
(synonymous with to the spine
anterior)
Proximal Proximus, nearest Describes a position The elbow is
in a limb that is proximal to the wrist
closer to the point of
attachment or the
trunk of the body
Distal Di + sto, to be distant Describes a position The knee is distal to
in a limb that is the hip
farther from a point
of attachment or the
trunk of the body
Lateral Latus, side Describes the side or The nipple is lateral
direction toward the to the breastbone
side of the body.
Medial Medialis, middle Describes the middle The bridge of the
or direction toward nose is medial to the
the middle of the eye.
body.
Superficial Superficialis, surface Describes a position The skin is
closer to the surface superficial to muscle.
of the body
Deep Deop, deep Describes a position The lungs are deep
farther from the to the ribs.
surface of the body
*All directional terms refer to a human in anatomic position
 Figure 7.1 Directional Terms Applied to Human Body

7.3 Body Parts and Regional Terms

A number of terms are used when referring to different regions or parts of the
body. The upper limb is divided into the arm, forearm, wrist, and hand. The arm extends
from the shoulder to the elbow, and the forearm extends from the elbow to the wrist. The
lower limb is divided into the thigh, leg, ankle, and foot. The thigh extends from the hip to the
knee, and the leg extends from the knee to the ankle. Note that, contrary to popular usage,
the term arm and leg refer to only a part of the respective limb.
The central region of the body consists of the head, neck, and trunk. The
trunk can be divided into the thorax (chest), abdomen (region between the thorax and
pelvis), and pelvis (the inferior end of the trunk associated with the hips).
The abdomen is often subdivided superficially into four quadrants by two
imaginary lines – one horizontal and one vertical – that intersects at the navel. The
quadrants formed are the right upper, left upper, right lower, and left lower quadrants. In
addition to these quadrants, the abdomen is sometimes subdivided into nine regions by four
imaginary lines – two horizontal and two vertical. These four lines create an imaginary tic-
tac-toe figure on the abdomen, resulting in nine regions: epigastric, right and left
hypochondriac, umbilical, right and left lumbar, hypogastric, and right and left iliac. The
quadrants or regions are used by clinicians as reference points for locating underlying
organs. For example, the appendix is located in the right lower quadrant, and the pain of an
acute appendicitis is usually felt there.
Figure 7.2 Body Parts and Regions in (a) Anterior and (b) Posterior view

Figure 7.3 Subdivision of the abdomen in (a) Abdominopelvic regions and (b) Abdominopelvic quadrants
 7.4 Body Planes
At times it is conceptually useful to discuss the body in reference to a series
of planes (imaginary flat surfaces) passing through it. A section is a two-dimensional surface
of a three-dimensional structure that has been cut. Modern medical imaging devices enable
clinicians to obtain “virtual sections” of living bodies which we call scans. It can be correctly
interpreted if the viewer understands the plane along which the section was made. A plane is
an imaginary two-dimensional surface that passes through the body.
Three planes commonly referred to in anatomy and medicine.
a. Sagittal plane is the plane that divides the body or an organ vertically
into right and left sides. If this vertical plane runs directly down the middle of
the body, it is called
the midsagittal or
median plane. If it
divides the body into
unequal right and
left sides, it is called
a parasagittal plane
or less commonly a
longitudinal section.
b. Frontal plane is
the plane that
divides the body or
an organ into an
anterior (front)
portion and a
posterior (rear)
portion. The frontal
plane is often
referred to as a
coronal plane.
(“Corona” is Latin for
“crown”).
c. Transverse plane Figure 7.4 Planes of Section of the Body
is the plane that divides
the body or organ horizontally into upper and lower portions. Transverse
planes produce images referred to as cross sections.

Organs are often sectioned to reveal their internal structure. A cut through the
long axis of the organ is a longitudinal section, and a cut at a right angle to the long axis is a
transverse, or cross section. If a cut is made a cross the long axis at other than a right angle,
it is called an oblique section.

7.5 Body Cavities

Human body contains many cavities. Some of these cavities open to the
outside of the body and some do not. The dorsal cavity and the ventral cavity are the largest
body compartments. These cavities contain and protect delicate internal organs, and the
ventral cavity allows for significant changes in the size and shape of the organs as they
perform their functions. For example, the lungs, heart, stomach, and intestines can expand
and contract without distorting other tissues or disrupting the activity of nearby organs.
The posterior (dorsal) and anterior (ventral) cavities are each subdivided into
smaller cavities. The posterior cavity is subdivided to the cranial cavity (houses the brain)
and the spinal cavity/ vertebral cavity (encloses the spinal cord). The cranial and spinal
cavities that houses the brain and spinal cord make up a continuous structure. The brain and
spinal cord are protected by the bones of the skull and vertebral column and by
cerebrospinal fluid, a colorless fluid produced by the brain, which cushions the brain and
spinal cord within the posterior cavity
The anterior cavity has two main subdivision: the thoracic and the
abdominopelvic cavity. The thoracic cavity is the more superior subdivision of the anterior
cavity, and it is enclosed by the rib cage. The thoracic cavity is separated from the
abdominal cavity by the muscular diaphragm. It is divided into right and left parts by a
median structure called the mediastinum. The mediastinum is the partition containing the
heart, thymus, trachea, esophagus, and other structures. The abdominopelvic cavity is the
largest cavity in the body. It contains the abdominal cavity bounded primarily by the
abdominal muscles (stomach, intestines, liver, spleen, pancreas, and kidneys) and pelvic
cavity (bones of pelvis, urinary bladder, part of large intestine, and the internal reproductive
organs).

Figure 7.5 Dorsal and Ventral Body Cavities

7.6 Serous Membrane

Serous membrane lines the trunk cavities and cover the organs of these
cavities. In the anterior body cavity, it covers the walls and organs in the thoracic and
abdominal cavity. The parietal layers of the membranes line the walls of the body cavity
(pariet- refers to a cavity wall). The visceral layer of the membrane covers the organs (the
viscera). Between the parietal and visceral layers is a very thin, fluid-filled serous space, or
cavity which is produced by the membranes. As an organ rubs against another organ or
against the body wall, the serous fluid and smooth serous membrane function to reduce
friction. Both the parietal and visceral serosa secrete the thin, slippery serous fluid located
within the serous cavities.
 Figure 7.6 Serous membrane. Imagine an inflatable balloon into which a fist has been pushed. The inner balloon wall in contact
with the fist (organ) represents the visceral serous membrane, and the outer part of the balloon wall represents the parietal
serous membrane

Three (3) Serous Cavities and their Associated Membranes

a. Pleura is the serous membrane that encloses the pleural cavity which surrounds
the lungs. The pleural cavity contains pleural fluid and it reduces friction between the lungs
and the body wall.
b. Pericardium is the serous membrane that encloses the pericardial cavity which
surrounds the heart. The pericardial cavity contains pericardial fluid and it reduces friction
between the heart and the wall of the pericardium.
c. Peritoneum is the serous membrane that encloses the peritoneal cavity which
surrounds several organs in the abdominopelvic cavity. The peritoneal cavity reduces friction
between the abdominal and pelvic organs and the body wall.

Additional information on peritoneum:

Mesenteries, which consists of two layers of peritoneum fused together, connect the visceral
peritoneum of some abdominopelvic organs to the parietal peritoneum on the body wall or the
visceral peritoneum of other abdominopelvic organs. The mesenteries anchor the organs to the body
wall and provide a pathway for nerves and blood vessels to reach the organs.
Retroperitoneal covers the other abdominopelvic organs that are more closely attached to
the body wall and do not have mesenteries. It includes the kidneys, adrenal glands, pancreas, parts
of the intestines, and the urinary bladder

Serous membranes provide additional protection to the viscera they enclose by

reducing friction that could lead to inflammation of the organs. The serous membrane can
become inflamed – usually as a result of infection. Pericarditis is inflammation of
pericardium, pleurisy is inflammation of the pleura, and peritonitis is inflammation of
peritoneum.
 Figure 7.7 Location of Serous membranes. (a) Fist pushing into a balloon. (b) Frontal section showing the pericardium and
pericardial cavity. (c) Frontal section showing the pleura and pleural cavities. (d) Sagittal section through the abdominopelvic cavity
showing the peritoneum, peritoneal cavity, mesentery, and retroperitoneal organs.

References:
● Seeley, RR, TD Stephens, & P Tate. 2005. Essentials of Anatomy and Physiology,
5th edition. McGraw-Hill.
● https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology/pages/1-6-anatomical-
terminology
● https://www.quora.com/Are-the-meninges-serous-membranes