BIO 044: General Zoology

GENERAL ZOOLOGY (LAB)  A position that is towards the hand/forepaw

Course Introduction
Important Anatomical and Zoological Terms
Anatomical Terminology
 A form of scientific terminology used by
anatomists, zoologists, and health professionals
 Uses (or derived from) Latin and Greek words
 Highlight the relative location of body structures, as
well as directional planes.
Standard Anatomical Position
 Regardless of how the specimen is viewed by the
observer, the aspects of the body and anatomical
directions always refer to the normal position of
the animal
 Humans = erect/upright position; Tetrapods, most
animals = horizontal position
 Different terms are used according to the axis of an
animal, or whether an animal is a vertebrate or
invertebrate
The Cardinal Anatomical Directions
 Cephalic / Cranial / Anterior (Superior in
humans)
 The head end
 Caudal / Posterior (Inferior in humans)
 The tail end
 Dorsal (Posterior in humans)
 The back or upper side
 Ventral (Anterior in human)
 The underside
 Lateral
 The sides (left side: Sinistral, right side:
Dextral)
 Median
 The middle
from the median plane
 Planter
 A position that is towards the foot/hindpaw
from the median plane
 Rostral
 A position that is towards the nose
Oblique Directions
 Used to indicate directions between 2 or 3 of the
cardinal directions.
 Example:
 Anterodorsal = refers to direction between the
anterior and dorsal direction
 Postero-dorsolateral = between the posterior,
dorsal, and lateral directions
Anatomical Planes
 Sagittal or Median Plane
 Divides body into left and right sides
 “Midsagittal” refers to the midline
 “Parasagittal” refers to all other sagittal planes
parallel to the midline
 Frontal or Coronal Plane
 Divides the body into front and back/dorsal and
ventral
 Transverse or Axial Plane (“Cross Section”)
 Divides body into cranial and caudal portions;
any plane that cuts vertically across the body at
right angles to the sagittal and horizontal planes

 Proximal
 Describes a position that is closer to the median
plane of the body/near a major point of
reference
 Distal
 Describes a position that is further from the
median plane of the body/away from a major
point of reference
 Palmer

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BIO 044: General Zoology
Other Descriptive Terms:
 Peripheral
 Near the surface of the body or organ
 Central
 Near or at the middle of the body or organ
 Superficial
 On the outer surface of the body or organ
 Deep
 Inner or below the surface of the body or organ
 Terminal
 Towards or the end of an extremity of a
structure
Directional Terms for Some Invertebrates
 The large variety of body shapes in invertebrates
presents a difficult problem when attempting to
apply standard directional terms
 Some terms are widely applicable in most
invertebrates:
 For appendages (e.g. tentacles): Proximal
refers to the part of an appendage nearest to
where it joins the body. Distal is a part furthest
from point of attachment.
 Central refers to the center point on an
organism with radial symmetry.
 In organisms without heads (no cephalization),
anterior is preferred instead of cranial.
Asymmetrical/Spherical organisms
(e.g. Amoeba)
 Most directional terms are meaningless
 Terms like superficial and deep, proximal and
distal are usefully descriptive only
Elongated organisms
(e.g. plankton, some protozoans, some sponges)
 Organisms that maintain a constant shape, with one
dimension longer than the other
 Longitudinal Axis = the points at the opposite ends
of an organism
 Transverse Axis = points on opposite sides of the
organism
 If the organism is sessile or attached to a surface:
 Basal End = part/point where organism is
attached
 Apical End = the end furthest from attachment
Zanoria, Carmelle R.
Radially symmetrical organism
(e.g. cnidarians, echinoderms)
 Have no distinctive axes, so “lateral”, “dorsal”, and
“ventral” have no meaning in such organisms
 Medial = indicates the central point
 Oral End = the end of the organism with a mouth
 Aboral End = the opposite surface of the oral end
 Becomes some cnidarians have appendages
(tentacles), proximal and distal can be applied.
Forms of Animals
Symmetry – the arrangement of parts in relation to planes
and straight lines.
1) Spherically symmetrical
2) Radially symmetrical
3) Bilaterally symmetrical
4) Asymmetrical
Asymmetrical Animals
 Body cannot be divided by planes into similar parts
 No definite form or arrangement of parts
 E.g. some protozoans, some sponges
Spherical (Universal) Symmetry
 Symmetrical around the axis of a sphere, like a ball.
 Can be divided into 2 similar parts by a cut in any
direction through the center
 Is disadvantageous since such animals can show
only an indefinite kind of locomotion (they are
mostly free-floating, or progress by rolling
movement)
 E.g. certain protozoans (radiolarians, Volvox)
Radial Symmetry
 A number of planes can be drawn through the
central axis, dividing the body into equal parts
 Possesses a number of similar parts called
antimeres, which radiate out from a central axis
 Best suited to sessile animals. Similarities of the
antimeres enables them to obtain food or repel
enemies
 E.g. Simple sponges, most cnidarians, most adult
echinoderms
Bilateral Symmetry
 There is only one plane through which the body can
be divided into 2 equal parts
 The animal is so constructed that the chief organs
are generally arranged in pairs on either side of an
axis
 The anterior end is differentiated into a head
(cephalization)
 A characteristic of the most successful animals
living at present time
Does PERFECT symmetry exist?
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BIO 044: General Zoology
 It is doubtful if perfect symmetry is to be found
anywhere in the animal kingdom
 “Spherical” animals only approach a spherical form
but symmetry is not perfect
 There are traces of bilateral symmetry in some
radially symmetrical animals
 The human form is the best example of bilateral
symmetry, but the right and left sides of the body
are never truly identical
Metamerism
 The repetition of structural subunits
 When the body is composed of more or less similar
parts, or have organs arranged in a linear series
along the main axis
 Each part is called a metamere / somite / segment
 May be exhibited in external structures or internal
organs
 Earthworm = a good illustration of both external
and internal metamerism
 Homologous segmentation – the metameres are all
more or less similar (e.g. earthworms, tapeworms)
 Heteronomous segmentation – dissimilarity of
metameres of different regions of the body (e.g.
insects, crustaceans, humans)
The Compound Microscope
 Eyepiece: The lens the viewer looks through to see
the specimen. The eyepiece usually contains a 10X
or 15X power lens.
 Diopter Adjustment: Useful as a means to change
focus on one eyepiece so as to correct for any
difference in vision between your two eyes.
 Body tube (Head): The body tube connects the
eyepiece to the objective lenses.
 Arm: The arm connects the body tube to the base
of the microscope.
 Coarse adjustment: Brings the specimen into
general focus.
 Fine adjustment: Fine tunes the focus and Chapter 1
increases the detail of the specimen.
Zanoria, Carmelle R.
 Nosepiece: A rotating turret that houses the
objective lenses. The viewer spins the nosepiece to
select different objective lenses.
 Stage: The flat platform where the slide is placed.
 Stage clips: Metal clips that hold the slide in place.
 Stage height adjustment (Stage Control):  These
knobs move the stage left and right or up and down.
 Aperture: The hole in the middle of the stage that
allows light from the illuminator to reach the
specimen.
 On/off switch: This switch on the base of the
microscope turns the illuminator off and on.
 Illumination: The light source for a microscope.
Older microscopes used mirrors to reflect light from
an external source up through the bottom of the
stage; however, most microscopes now use a low-
voltage bulb.
 Iris diaphragm: Adjusts the amount of light that
reaches the specimen.
 Condenser: Gathers and focuses light from the
illuminator onto the specimen being viewed.
 Base: The base supports the microscope and it’s
where illuminator is located.
 Objective Lenses: One of the most important parts
of a compound microscope, as they are the lenses
closest to the specimen. 
 A standard microscope has three to five
objective lenses
 Can be categorized in to three main categories
based on their magnification power:
• Low magnification: 4x to 10x
• Intermediate magnification: 20x to 50x
• High magnification: 100x
 With high magnification lens (100x) immersion
oil is often used to obtain high resolving power.
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BIO 044: General Zoology
The Science of Zoology and the Biological Principles of
Life
ZOOLOGY: the scientific study of animal life
(Greek zoion : animal + logos : a study)
 Encompasses all scientific knowledge about
animals, their embryonic development, evolution,
characteristics and physiology, ecological
distribution, and classification.
 Zoology is an old, old science (as old as man itself)
 Built on centuries of human inquiry into the animals
world
History and Key-Figures in Zoology
Prehistory: NeolithicRevolution
 Cave paintings
 Humans domesticated animals as people became
pastoralists and then farmers instead of hunter-
gatherers
 Zhuangzi (Ancient Chinese Empire)
 A Taoist philosopher from 4 th century
China
 Expressed ideas related to evolution:
speculated that species had developed
different attributes in response to different
environments.
 Aristotle (Ancient Greece)
 Created and first wrote about the science of
biology, based on the theory on
metaphysical principles and on observation
 Classified 540 animals species
 Started the idea that creatures were
arranged in a graded scale of perfection
rising from plants on up to humans, called
the Scala Naturae (Great Chain of Being)
 Al-Jahiz (781-869) “The first Islamic Zoologist”
 wrote “The Book of Animals”, which
described early evolutionary ideas, such as
the struggle for existence, the idea of the
food chain, and environmental determinism
 Albertus Magnus (1193-1280)
 a Dominican friar and catholic bishop
 dedicated life to expanding the work of
Aristotle
 wrote De animalibus libri XXVI: the most
extensive studies of zoological observation
 until the 1800s, his writings were
considered the most advanced in zoology
and the natural sciences
 St. Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274)
 student of Albertus Magnus
 believed that the creation story of the bible
should not be taken too literally and that
nature had some autonomous processes
The Renaissance (14th-17th century AD)
Zanoria, Carmelle R.
 This era represents a revival of learning and
progress in the sciences as well as other areas. The
invention of the printing press meant work could be
shared and spread farther afield.
 A number of important European universities were
founded that focused on plant and animal research
 The German Academy of Sciences (1651)
 The Royal Society of London (1662)
 The Academy of Sciences of Paris
 Conrad Gesner (1516-1565)
 his Historiae Animalium is considered the
beginning of modern zoology
 Leonardo de Vinci (1452-1519)
 dissected animals and humans to perfect his
art, providing realistic illustrations of
animal anatomy
 Erasmus Darwin (1701-1802)
 Emphasized the importance of
environmental factors in the development
of a species and suggested common descent
and survival of the fittest
 Carl von Linnaeus (1707-1778)
 Swedish botanist, physician, and zoologist
 “The Father or Modern Taxonomy”
 Published Systema Naturae, a basic
taxonomy for the natural world and
introduced scientific names for all his
species (but it only contained class, genus
and species)
 Antonie van Leeuwenhoek (1632-1723)
 Contributed greatly to the advances of
microscopy and was the first to really
discover the microbial world and bacteria.
 Robert Hooke (1635-1703)
 English natural philosopher, architect, and
polymath
 Designed the compound microscope
 Best known for discovering the
compartments in cork and coining the term
“cells”
 Jan Swammerdam (1637-1680)
 Described the detail metamorphosis of
insects
The Enlightenment and Industrial Revolution (1750-1800)
 A cultural movement of the elite promoting justice,
knowledge, and equality. Many explorations
occurred during this time.
 Jean-Baptist Lamarck (1744-1829)
 Studied taxonomy but classified things by
function rather than form
 Lamarckism: the Inheritance of Acquired
Traits (Use-or-Disuse Hypothesis)
 Gregor Johann Mendel (1822-1884)
 Discovered the fundamental laws or
inheritance, though his work on pea plants.
He deduced that genes come in pairs and
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BIO 044: General Zoology
are inherited as distinct units, one from
each parent. Mendel tracked the segregation
of parental genes and their appearance in
the offspring as dominant or recessive
traits.
 Charles Darwin (1809-1889)
 A naturalist in the Beagle’s voyage to the
Galapagos islands where he collected a
number of specimens and observations,
where his theories on evolution were
inspired.
 Published the most seminal book in all of
biology “On the Origin of Species by
Means of Natural Selection”
 Thomas Huxley (1825-1895)
 Believed in evolution but didn’t have
enough evidence to support the theory.
When he met Darwin and learned of his
theory, he believed in it strongly, acting as
Darwin’s supporter and promoted his idea,
earning the nickname “Darwin’s Bulldog”
Modern Era (1800s-present)
 Theodore Schwann (1810-1882)
 Studied the animal cell, eventually
publishing about it and its comparing to the
plant cell
 Robert Remak (1815-1865)
 Observed that cells divide to produce two
new cells, and proposed the “Cell Theory”
 Robert Koch (1842-1910)
 Discovered bacteria causes disease (“germ
theory”)
 Rudolf Virchow (1858)
 Omnis vivo e vivo; Omnis cellula e cellula
– “All living things come from other living
things & all cells come from other cells”
 Karl August Mobius (1884)
 Discovered the organelles within a cell
 He only studied single celled organisms,
and only later identified multicellular ones
Scope and Branches of Zoology
The Principles of Life
Zanoria, Carmelle R.
What is LIFE?
 No simple definition to define life
 Evolution: the history of life shows extensive and
ongoing change
 To study the origin of life, we must ask how
organic molecules acquired the ability for precise
replication
 We do not force life into a simple definition, but we
can readily identify the living world through its
history of common evolutionary descent
General Properties/Characteristic of Life:
 Chemical uniqueness
 Complexity and organization
 Reproduction
 Possession of genetic material
 Metabolism
 Growth and development
 Environmental interaction and irritability
 Movement
1) Chemical Uniqueness: Living systems demonstrate a
unique and complex molecular organization
 Biological macromolecules: large complex
molecules that are categorized into nucleic acids,
proteins, carbohydrates, and lipids, which are
generally present (with some modifications) in
every form of life
 The organization of these macromolecules gives
living systems both a biochemical unity and great
potential diversity
2) Complexity and Organization: Living systems
demonstrate a unique and complex hierarchical
organization
 There is an ascending order of complexity:
 Macromolecular Level
 Cellular Level
 Organism Level
 Population Level
 Speciation
3) Reproduction: Living systems can reproduce themselves
 Life does not arise spontaneously but comes only
from prior life
 Also hierarchical
 Organismal reproduction demonstrates both
heredity and variation:
 Heredity: the transmission of traits from
parents to offspring
 Variation: the production of differences
among the traits
 The interaction of heredity and variation is the basis
for organic evolution:
 If heredity were perfect, living systems will
never change.
 If variation were uncontrolled, biologic
systems would lack stability allowing them
to persist through time.
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BIO 044: General Zoology
4) Possession of Genetic Material: Provides the fidelity of
inheritance
 DNA: a very long, linear chain of subunits called
nucleotides, each containing a sugar phosphate
(deoxyribose phosphate) and one of four
nitrogenous bases (Adenine, Cytosine, Thymine, or
Guanine). The sequence of nucleotide basis
contains a code for the order of amino acids in the
protein specified by the DNA molecule.
 Genetic code: the correspondence between the
sequence of bases in DNA and the sequence of
amino acids in a protein
 There is a near consistency of this code among
living forms, providing strong evidence for a
single origin of life
5) Metabolism: Living organisms maintain themselves by
acquiring nutrients from their environment, which are used
to obtain chemical energy and molecular components for
building and maintaining the living system.
 Catabolism (destructive metabolism): the
breakdown of complex molecules to form simple
ones
 Anabolism (constructive metabolism): the synthesis
of complex molecules from simple ones together
with the storage of energy
 Physiology: the study of complex metabolic
functions
6) Growth and Development: All organisms pass through
a characteristic life cycle.
 The characteristic changes from its origin to its final
adult form, usually features changes in size, shape,
and differentiation of structures
7) Environmental Interaction & Irritability: All animals
interact with their environments
 Ecology: the study of organismal interaction with
the environment; how an organism or population of
organisms perceives environmental stimuli and
respond in appropriate ways by adjusting its
metabolism and physiology (adaptation)
 Irritability: all organisms respond to environmental
stimuli
 Life and environment are inseparable
8) Movement: Living systems and their parts show precise
and controlled movements arising from within the system
 The energy they extract from their environment
permits them to initiate controlled movement,
whether in the form of locomotion (get away from
harm, finding food, disperse to another geographic
location, etc.) or through growth and reproduction
All Living Systems Obey the Basic Laws of Physics
 THE CONSERVATION OF ENERGY (The 1st
law of thermodynamics)
 Energy is neither created nor destroyed but
can be transformed from one form or
another
Zanoria, Carmelle R.
 All aspects of life require energy and its
transformation
 ENTROPY (the 2nd law of thermodynamics)
 Physical systems tend to proceed towards a
state of greater disorder
 All forms of energy are subsequently
released by various mechanism and finally
dissipated as heat
 The ultimate fate of materials in the cells is
degradation and dissipation of their
chemicals bond energy as heat
ZOOLOGY: An EVOLUTIONARY Perspective
 Animals share a common evolutionary past and
evolutionary forces that influenced their history
 Organic Evolution is the change in genetic
makeup of populations of organisms over
time. It is the source of animal diversity
 A mechanism that could explain
evolutionary change was proposed by
Charles Darwin and has since been
confirmed
 Evolution not only explains why animals
appear and function as they do, but also
explains family relationships within the
animal kingdom
TLDR: There is diversity in the animal kingdom, but all
animals share a common evolutionary past that has shaped
their future. Organic Evolution explains why animals
change and diversify overtime. These evolutionary concepts
are keys to: (1) understanding why animals look alike and
act the way they do, (2) Why they live in their particular
habitat, (3) and why they share traits with other related
animals.
 Groups of individuals are more closely related if
they share more of their genetic material (DNA)
with each other than with individuals in other
group
 The more closely related individual
species/groups are, the more of their
physical characteristics resemble each other
 Organisms in the same species are more
closely related than organisms in the same
genus, and organisms in the same genus are
more closely related than organisms in the
same family, and so on
 Evolutionary relationships are the basis for the
classification or animals into a hierarchical
system.
 2-part name (binomial nomenclature)
 Higher levels of classification denote more
distant evolutionary relationships.
 When zoologists classify animals into taxonomic
groupings, they are making hypotheses about the
extent to which groups of animals share DNA, even
when they study variations in traits like jaw
structure, color patterns, and behavior, because
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BIO 044: General Zoology
these kinds of traits ultimately are based on the
genetic material.
 Ecology- is the study of the relationships between
organisms and their environment
 humans have depended on animals, and that
dependence too often has led to exploitation
 Extinction- is the termination of an organism or of
a group of organisms.
 The threat to the welfare of wild plants and animals  Prokaryotes: a unicellular organism that has neither
has increase dramatically in recent years –mostly as a distinct nucleus with a membrane nor other
a result of habitat destruction. specialized organelles (ex. Bacteria and archaea)
 Other causes of extinction: climate change, PROKARYOTE (Pro= before; karyon = nut/kernel)
population, and invasions from foreign - Thought to be one of the first living organisms
species - Include extremophiles (thrives in physically or
 Human overpopulation is at the root of virtually all geochemically extreme conditions that are
other environmental problems. detrimental to most life; thrives in hot springs and
 Stresses world resources hydrothermal vents on ocean floor; can survive in
 Pollution intense radiation)
 Contribute to climate change - Include Methanogens – microbes that produce
 Deforestation methane
As global population increases > more demands from  Eukaryotes: an organism consisting of a cell/s
environmental resources > depletion and destruction of which have a nucleus enclosed within membranes,
habitat > extinction of species and also contains membrane-bound organelles.
 Focus on the preservation of our forests will result EUKARYOTES (Eu = true)
in identification of new species of plants and
animals that could be important human resources
(new food, drugs, predators of pests, etc.)
 Saving species from extinction requires more than
preserving a few remnant individuals. It requires a
large diversity of genes within species groups to
promote species survival in changing environments.
This genetic diversity requires large populations of
plants and animals.

Chapter 2
Levels of Organization and the Complexity of the Both Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes DNA, use the same
Organism genetic code, and synthesize proteins. These fundamental
similarities imply common ancestry!
The CELL is the basic unit of LIFE.
 “Cell” – first coined by Robert Hook when he
discovered box-like cavities in corks and leaves
 the fabric of life and form the basic units of all
living organisms, composing all tissues and organs,
each performing specialized functions in organized Prokaryote DNA – 1 molecule in circular form
partnership Eukaryote DNA – more molecules in complex pattern,
 In single-celled organisms, all functions of life are bundled together into chromosomes. Numbers of
performed within the confines of one microscopic chromosomes of an organism depend on their species:
package Humans- 46
 The Cell Theory: all living organisms are Dog- 78
composed of cells Cat- 38
 Cytology: The study of the cell Fruit fly- 8
Chimpanzee- 48
Common ancestry: we, eukaryotes, are related to
prokaryotic bacteria. But very very distant cousins.

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BIO 044: General Zoology
First prokaryote and first eukaryote, both came from what
is known as LUCA (Last Universal Common Ancestor – est.
to live bet. 3.5-3.8 billion yrs ago)
Plasma Membrane
 A selectively permeable membrane enclosing the
cell
 Phospholipid bilayer: 2 layers of phospholipid
molecules, with their hydrophilic (water-soluble)
end toward the outside, and their hydrophobic (fat-
soluble) end towards the inside of the membrane. It
is fluidlike, giving the membrane flexibility.
 Glycoproteins: proteins with carbohydrates
attached. They are essential components of plasma
membrane. They function as:
 Transport of substances like charged ions
across the membrane
 Act as specific receptors/cell markers
 Form pores or channels through which small
polar molecules may enter
“Selective permeability” – allows some substances to pass
through rapidly, or slowly, or prevents them from passing at
all.
Glycoproteins – for transport across the membrane
- Small molecules (water, O2, CO2) can pass easily
(DIFFUSION)
- Larger molecules (glucose) require specific
transport protein (via facilitated diffusion/passive
transport)
- Some molecules will require an energy supply
(ATP) to be transported into the cell (active
transport)
Zanoria, Carmelle R.
- Sodium-Potassium Pump (Enzyme:
Na+/K+-ATPase):
- the protein pumps sodium (Na+)
out of the cells and Potassium (K+)
into the cell;
- for every ATP the glycoprotein
molecule uses, 3 Na+ ions are
exported, and 2 K+ are imported
- Involved in the excitability of nerve
cells in order to transmit nerve
impulses.
Cytoplasm - a term for all the contents of a cell other than
the nucleus, containing mostly water
Nucleus - the most prominent organelle which contains of
linear chromosomes suspended in a nucleoplasm.
Chromosomal DNA carries the genetic information.
 Nucleolus - specialized parts of certain
chromosomes that carry multiple copies of the
DNA information used to synthesized RNA, which
will later be used to synthesized proteins
 Nuclear Envelope - a double-layer membrane
enclosing the nucleus and contains pores to allow
molecules to move between nucleus and cytoplasm
Endoplasmic Reticulum
 a network of membranes throughout the cytoplasm
of the cell, which is continues with the nuclear
envelope
 Rough ER: (ribosomes are attached) It is where
most protein synthesis occurs in the cell
 Smooth ER: (no ribosomes attached)
synthesizes lipids and phospholipids in the cell
and detoxifies the cell of harmful substances.
Ribosomes
 made up of 2 subunits (small and large), which are
both necessary for protein synthesis
 When the 2 subunits are docked together with a
special information unit called messenger RNA
(mRNA), they make proteins
4 RNA bases:
(A)denine = (U)racil (*Thymine in DNA strands)
(G)Uanine = (C)ytocine
*tRNA (Transfer RNA) – an “adaptor” molecule, carrying
an amino acid as directed by a 3-nucleotide sequence called
CODON.
- this “adaptor” will match the codon to the
messenger RNA (mRNA) strands on the ribosomes
- their amino acids will link to others within the
ribosome and create a protein chain (protein synthesis)
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BIO 044: General Zoology
Rough ER vs Ribosomes in regards to protein synthesis:  Microfilament: thin, linear, structures, first
- Ribosome = in charge of protein synthesis observed in muscle cells, where they are
- RER = location where most protein synthesis responsible for the ability of a cell to contract
occurs  Microtubules: larger than microfilaments, they
Golgi Complex are tubular structures composed of a protein
 Composed of a stack of membranous vesicles that called tubulin, and play a vital role in moving
function in storage, modification, and packaging or chromosomes during cell division
polypeptide and protein products produce by the  Intermediate Filaments: larger than
rough ER. microfilaments but smaller than microtubules
Also: Protein chain synthesized by Ribosomes are picked up
and packaged by Golgi complex to be transported out of the
cell.
Apoptosis – cell death
Lysosomes
 formed by the Golgi complex, they contain
enzymes that are involved in the breakdown of
foreign material, including bacteria engulfed by the
cell through the process of phagocytosis Centrosome
 Also break down injured or diseased cells or  a type of microtubule that radiate near the nucleus,
worn-out cellular components (autophagy) containing a pair of centrioles which help organize
 If enough of the lysosome membranes rupture, the chromosomes before cell division
they can kill the cell itself.
Mitochondria
 present in all eukaryotic cells, they contain enzymes
that catalyse the energy-yielding steps or aerobic
metabolism to produce ATP (adenosine
triphosphate) – the most important energy-transfer
molecule of all cells.
Mitochondrions tend to behave as if they are a separate
entity within a cell (can replicate, have their own DNA)
Cilia / Flagella
Theory of how eukaryotic cells have mitochondria:
 Motile extensions of the cell surface that sweep
- Mitochondria may have been another organism
materials past the cell. In unicellular organisms and
most likely of prokaryotic origins
some small multicellular forms, they are used for
- An early eukaryotic cell may have
locomotion.
eaten/phagocytize it but did not digest because it
realized that it was good in producting energy
- Since then, the mitochondria became part of the
eukaryotic cell and was replicated along with it
Mitochondrial DNA is only transported in the female
gamete (ova)
Sperms have it in their tail but the tail is not taken up by the
ova during fertilization
Maternal DNA then can be traced through mitochondrial
DNA
The maternal line can be further traced back to possibly the
first known female human/hominin known as mt-MRCA or
nicknamed “Mitochondrial Eve” who lived est. 300,000
Cilia and flagella of Eukaryotic cells differ from that in
years ago in Africa.
prokaryotic cells:
Cytoskeleton
- Made up of microtubules in an arrangement called 9+2 (9
 A system of tubules and filaments that provide
fused pairs of microtubules surrounding 2 unfused in the
support and maintain the form of cells. They
center)
sometimes provide a means of locomotion and
Levels of Organization in Organismal Complexity
translocation of macromolecules and organelles
1) PROTOPLASMIC GRADE
within the cell
 All functions carried out by one cell
2) CELLULAR GRADE
 Differentiated cells w/ division of labor

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3) TISSUE-ORGAN GRADE
 cells develop into specialized tissues and group into
an organ
4) ORGAN-SYSTEM GRADE
 Group of organs that work together to perform one
or more functions
Protoplasmic grade = protozoans
Cellular = Volvox, sponges, cnidarians
Tissue-Organ = earliest organism in this grade are
flatworms (Platyhelminthes), specialized tissues become
organs for photosensitivity (eyespots), eating (proboscis),
and reproduction (ovary and testes)
Organ-System
- Each system does a particular job in maintaining
the physiology of the body
- Physiology and anatomy of an organ system may
vary depending on the organisms, its environment, and
evolutionary history
- Simpliest phyla in this grade is Nematoda
ANIMAL TISSUES
 Tissue: a group of similar or connected cells
specialized for the performance of a common
function
 The scientific study of tissues is histology.
 There are 4 basic types of animal tissue:
 Epithelial Tissue
 Muscular Tissue
 Connective Tissue
 Nervous Tissue
Epithelial Tissue
 Made up of layers of tightly packed cells that line
the surface of the body, organs, blood vessels, and
all body cavities. They are mainly for protection,
secretion, and absorption
 Epithelium: a sheet of cells (epithelial cells) that
covers an external or internal surface. On may
surfaces, epithelial cells are often modified into
glands.
 All types of epithelia are supported by an
underlying basement membrane.
Zanoria, Carmelle R.
Muscular Tissue
 Made up of cells containing contractile filaments
(muscle fibers) which can lengthen or shorten
 Smooth muscle
• In the walls of internal organs such as the
stomach and intestine.
• Contractions are involuntary.
 Skeletal muscle:
• Attached to bone.
• The most common type of muscle.
• Arranged in bundles making them appear
striated
• Contractions are voluntary.
 Cardiac Muscle:
• Found only in the walls of the heart and is
responsible for pumping blood
• Has the most mitochondria
• Also appears striated, but has involuntary
contractions.
Connective Tissue
 Made up of relatively few fibrous cells, which are
separated by an extracellular matrix. They are
responsible in holding other tissues together or
provide a framework. Connective tissues include
bone, cartilage, fats, and blood.
 Loose connective tissues: composed of fibers and
cells (either fixed or wandering) that are suspended
in a syrupy ground substance (e.g. adipose tissue,
blood, lymph)
 Dense connective tissue: composed largely of
densely-packed fibers, mostly made of a protein
material called collagen (e.g. bone, cartilage,
tendons, ligaments)
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Nervous Tissue  It is found in advanced triphoblastic animals\
 Made up of nerve cells called neurons that together 1) ACOELOMATE BILATERIA
form the nervous system.  No body cavity around gut. This region (between
ectodermal epidermis and the endodermal digestive
tract) is packed with mesoderm in the form of
parenchyma.
 E.g. flatworms – Platyheminthes
2) PSEUDOCOELOMATE BILATERIA
 Have a body cavity surrounding gut, with a “tube-
within-a-tube” arrangement, but is not lined with
mesodermal peritoneum.
 It is derived from the blastocoel and represents a
TISSUE COMPLEXITY
persistent blastocoel.
 The more different kinds of tissue, the more
 E.g. roundworms (Nematoda)
complex the animal
3) EUCOELOMATE BILATERIA
 Complexity is determined during the embryonic
 Known as the “true coelom”, it is completely lined
stage
with mesodermal peritoneum.
 GERM LAYER: a group of cells in an embryo that
The presence of a body cavity also determines complexity of
interact with each other as the embryo develops and
an organism.
contribute to the formation of all organs and tissues
*Mesodermal Peritoneum = covers the abdominal organs;
(Differentiation of cells).
supports them inside the abdomen to keep them in place

 Germ layers develop through the process of

gastrulation.

ORGANS AND ORGAN SYSTEMS

As embryos, most animals either form 2 germ layers:
- DIPLOBLASTIC (2 layers = endo and ectoderm)
*Ectoderm: outer components of body
(skin, hair, nervous system)
*Endoderm: digestive and respiratory tract
- TRIPLOBLASTIC (3 layers = endo, meso, ecto)
*Mesoderm: develops as a result of
reaction bet ecto and endoderm; will form muscles, bones,
connective tissue, heart, urogenital system
Phylum Porifera (sponges) do not have germ layers; just a
group of cells
***Transition from no layers to 2 layers then 3 layers are
important benchmarks in animal evolution
BODY CAVITY - any fluid-filled space in a multicellular
organism other than vessels.
COELOM
 A fluid-filled space that surrounds the gut and
provides a “tube-within-a-tube” arrangement.
 Organ: a group of tissues and joined in structural
unit to serve a common function. They are
composed of a main tissue called parenchyma,
which is unique for a specific organ, and sporadic
tissues called stroma.
Respiratory system
 For respiration and gas exchange
Digestive system
 Gastrointestinal tract (GIT)
 Stomach = secretes acid and enzymes to break
down food
 Small intestine = 90% of digestion and absorption
occurs
 Large intestine (colon) = water absorption from
remaining indigestible food matter, transmit waste
materials out through the rectum
 Liver = filters the blood coming from the GIT to
detoxify it

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 Gall bladder = stores bile, w/c is produced by liver,
helps break down food
 Pancreas = secretes enzymes that help further break
down food
Circulatory system
Or Cardiovascular system
 Blood circulation to transport nutrients, O2, CO2,
hormones, to provide nourishment, stabilize
temperature and pH, and maintains homeostasis
 Also transports blood cells that is part of immune
system to fight off disease (WBCs)
Excretory system
Or URINARY system
 Eliminates waste
 Regulates blood volume and BP
 Control levels of electrolytes and metabolites
 Regulate blood pH
Integumentary system
Skin and appendages
 Largest organ of the body
 Protect body from various kinds of damage
 Prevent water loss
 Also converts sunlight into vitamin D
Skeletal system
 Structural support and protection
 Mineral storage: esp. Calcium and Phosphorus
Endocrine system
 Chemical messenger system; for “communication”
within the body using HORMONES
 Hypothalamus = oxytocin, regulatory hormones
 Pituitary gland = FSH (follicle stimulating
hormone), LH (luitinizing hormone), Growth
hormone, oxytocin
 Thyroid gland = Thyroxine (T4), Triiodothyrine
(T3), Calcitonin
 Pancreas = Insulin, glucagon
 Adrenal glands = epinephrine/norepi, cortisol,
corticosterone, androgens
 Testes = androgens in the form of testosterone
 Ovaries = Estrogen, progestrin
 Some other organs also have endocrine function:
 Kidney = erythropoietin
 Liver = thrombopoietin
Immune system
 The host defense system comprising many
biological structures and processes that protects
against disease
 The Lymphatic system also a part of immune
system
 Thymus = where T cells (type of WBC that fights
of diseases and kills tumor cells) mature; most
active while young, atrophies by early teens
 Bone Marrow = where immature RBC and WBCs
are produced
 Lymphatic circulatory system = transport lymph
and WBCs throughout the body
Zanoria, Carmelle R.
 Lymph nodes = filters foreign particles and cancer
cells that circulated in the blood
 Spleen = basically a large lymph node; acts as
blood filter
Nervous system
 Collecting, transferring, processing information w/
the brain, spinal cord, peripheral NS, and sense
organs
Muscular system
 For manipulation of the environment, locomotion,
maintain posture, produce heat, and even stores
protein.
Reproductive system
 A system of sex organs which work together for the
purpose of sexual reproduction.
Chapter 3
Evolution: The Theories and the Evidences
“THEORY” (in everyday language):
- A hunch, a guess, or a suggested explanation,
making it more akin to the concept of a hypothesis.
“THEORY” (in science):
- A body of thoroughly tested and verified
explanations for a set of observations of the natural
world. It is an idea that explains several phenomena
at once.
IN SCIENCE, It is the THEORY that meticulously and
precisely explains the FACTS, and the FACTS are
INDISPUTABLE.
 SCIENTIFIC THEORY must be backed with
scientific evidence and have passed a rigorous
testing process.
 SCIENTIFIC THEORY are the most reliable,
rigorous, and comprehensive form of scientific
knowledge
 SCIENTIFIC LAW is simply an observation of the
phenomenon that the theory attempts to explain.
 A LAW is an observation. A THEORY is an
explanation.
a theory is the highest honor achievable in a scientific
field. Acknowledging the theory of evolution as a scientific
theory is acknowledging it as the greatest thing that
humans, through science, are capable of creating. The
theory of evolution is the best explanation of the observed
phenomena of evolution. 
EVOLUTION: the idea that gene distribution changes
overtime.
The THEORY of EVOLUTION:
- A large set of ideas that integrates and explains a
huge mass of observations from different disciples.
Lamarkism and the Inheritance of Acquired Traits
 Considered as the first scientific explanation of
evolution
 Proposed by Jean Baptiste de Lamark
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 “Organisms, by striving to meet the demands of
their environments, acquire adaptations and pass
them by heredity to their offspring”
 If an individual transforms, heredity will adjust.
 Now rejected: traits acquired by an organisms
during its lifetime cannot be inherited by their
offspring.
Darwinism and Evolution through Natural Selection
 Developed by Charles Darwin
 “Organisms change over time as a result of
changes in heritable physical or behavioural traits,
which will allow an organism to better adapt to its
environment and have more offspring.”
Darwinism Evolution encompasses several different, but
mutually compatible theories:
1) Perpetual Change
2) Common Descent
3) Multiplication of Species
4) Gradualism
5) Natural Selection
1) PERPETUAL CHANGE
The living world is neither constant nor perpetually cycling.
It is always changing.
 Organisms undergo transformation across
generations throughout time
 Evidence: the fossil record
 Regarded as SCIENTIFIC FACT: Has withstood
repeated testing and is supported by a number of
observations
99% of species that once lived on the planet are now
extinct.
All species are in a continuous state if change
Fossil record allows us to view evolutionary change across
the broadest scale of time
The remaining 4 theories are based of this
2) COMMON DESCENT
All forms of life descended from a common ancestor
through a branching of lineages.
 Different forms of life could not have arose
independently or in a linear descent
 Phylogeny: life’s history is a branching
evolutionary tree
 Species that share a recent common ancestry have
more similar features than do species whose most
recent common ancestor is an ancient one.
3) MULTIPLICATION OF SPECIES
The evolutionary process produces new species by splitting
and transforming older ones.
 Species = reproductively distinct populations of
organisms that usually, but not always, differ from
each other in form, and can no longer interbreed
among other members of different species.
 Species change over time and over distance
 Speciation: the DNA of a population of a species
will drift apart when separated by distance; they
Zanoria, Carmelle R.
may develop their own unique characteristics in
respond to their new environment
 Gene Flow: The exchange of genes between 2 or
more populations; prevents/slow down process of
speciation.
GENE FLOW
• When members of one population migrate into
another local population and introduce their genes
into it by mating with individuals of the population
they have just joined
• The continuous exchange of genes helps maintain
similarities between species and prevent/slow down
the process of speciation.
GENE FLOW
DNA of 2 separated populations of a species becomes less
and less alike overtime. Their DNA will become less and
less able to work together to create offspring. Horses and
donkeys can mate with each other, but horse DNA has
drifted so far from donkey DNA that the 2 can no longer
understand each other. Or they can mix well enough: to
make a living creature (mule/hinny) but not well enough to
make one that can reproduce itself.
4) GRADUALISM
The large differences in anatomical traits that characterize
diverse species originate through the accumulation of many
small incremental changes over very long periods of time.
 Small differences in the genes are raw material
from which the different major forms of life
evolved.
 Continuous changes can produce major differences
among species only by accumulating over many
thousands to millions of years
 Genetic changes (through mutations) can either be
harmful to an organism, or sufficiently beneficial to
be favored by natural selection
5) NATURAL SELECTION
Organisms are constructed to meet the demands of their
environments
 Adaptation: the expected result of a process that
accumulates the most favorable variants occurring
in a population throughout long periods of
evolutionary time.
Propositions of Natural Selection:
1) OVERPRODUCTION
2) COMPETITION
3) VARIATION
4) SELECTION
5) ADAPTATION
OVERPRODUCTION: Organisms have great potential
fertility (the ability to make a lot of offspring).
> more offspring are born but not all will live to adulthood.
COMPETITION: Natural resources are limited. Therefore,
there is a struggle for existence among members of a
population.
> “Survival of the Fittest”
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VARIATION: Populations show variation among
organisms. The variation is at least partly heritable so that
offspring tend to resemble their parents.
> The variations could be anatomical, behavioural, or
physiological traits.
SELECTION: Variants/traits that permit their possessors
most effectively to exploit/adapt to their environments will
preferentially survive to breed and pass on their
characteristics.
ADAPTATION: Over many generations, favourable new
traits will spread throughout a population. Accumulation of
such changes leads, over long periods of time, to the
production of new adaptations and new species.
Major obstacle during Darwin’s time:
 Natural selection lacked a successful theory of
heredity
 People assumed that heredity was a blending
process, therefore any favorable new variant
appearing in a population would eventually become
diluted or lost.
 Gregor Mendel’s “The Principle of Particulate
Inheritance”:
 “hereditary factors are discrete and
nonblending and that new genetic variant
therefore could persist unaltered from one
generation to the next”
EVIDENCES OF EVOLUTION:
 Embryologic Development
 Comparative Anatomy
 The Fossil Record
 DNA Comparisons
 Distribution of Species
1) EMBRYOLOGIC DEVELOPMENT
 Structures that are absent in some groups often
appear in their embryonic forms, and disappear by
the time the adult or juvenile form is reached.
 Genetic factors, developed through adaptation to
certain environments, determines if a certain
embryonic structure is silenced or further
developed.
 E.g. Gill-slits in humans and fish
Tail in humans
Hindlimb buds in cetaceans
2) COMPARATIVE ANATOMY
 Homologous structures = similar/semi-similar
structures in different species with a common
ancestor or developmental origin.
 Vestigial = structures that may have lose all or most
of its original function in the course of evolution
 Examples:
 Bones of forearm, wrist and hands
 Human tailbone (coccyx) = the beginning bone
of many animals’ tail
 All mammals, regardless of size and height,
share similar number of neck/cervical bones (7)
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 Vestigial pair of bones similar to hipbones in
snakes and cetaceans
 3 auditory bones in the ear in mammals = jaw
bones of reptiles, dinasours, fish
 Genetic code extremely similar in all living
organisms
Nictitating membrane – transparent/translucent 3rd eyelid to
protect and moisten the eye while allowing the animal to
see
 Analogous structures = structures with similar
function but evolved separately and do not share
common ancestor
 Developed independently as adaptations of
similar environmental pressures
3) THE FOSSIL RECORD
 Shows a progression of evolution and changes in
species distribution over time.
 Fossils give us information on what an organism
looked like, when it lived and died, what its diet
consisted of, and the environment they lived in
 If preserved well enough, some may be able to
provide genetic material to compare with other
living or extinct species.
 The record is highly incomplete for many lineages,
due to the rare conditions required for fossil
formation.
For some lineages (avians, horses, humans) the story of
their past and their evolutionary record are highly detailed
enough because of the recovered fossils.
4) DNA COMPARISONS
 The universality of DNA: The building blocks of
DNA are shared by all living organisms, including
bacteria.
 The relatedness of groups of organisms is reflected
in the similarity of their DNA sequences.
 Humans share around 99% of our DNA with the
chimpanzee. This does not mean that humans
evolved directly from chimpanzees, but indicates
that both split from a common ancestor a few
million years ago.
5) DISTRIBUTION OF SPECIES
 Biogeography = the study of species (plants and
animals) distribution across the planet, and why
such a distribution should exist.
 Species in one region were often very different to
species in another, even though their climate and
geography were the same.
 Inter-continental similarities between species could
be explained by the movement, and breaking, of
megacontinents.
 Geographic Isolation of a population between
islands due to rising waters can result in adaptation;
with new species looking different, but still similar,
to their ancestors
 Australia has an abundance of endemic species
that are found nowhere else. The great
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diversification of marsupials in Australia and
the absence of other mammals reflect
Australia’s long isolation.
 Inter-continental similarities between species could
be explained by the movement, and breaking, of
megacontinents.
 Geographic Isolation of a population between
islands due to rising waters can result in adaptation;
with new species looking different, but still similar,
to their ancestors
 Australia has an abundance of endemic species that
are found nowhere else. The great diversification of
marsupials in Australia and the absence of other
mammals reflect Australia’s long isolation.
Marsupials
- they give birth to relatively under developed young
that often resides in a pouch located on their
mother’s abdomen for a certain amount of time.
- All extant marsupials are endemic to Australia and
the Americas-
Evolution at Different Scales
 MICROEVOLUTION – the change in gene
frequency that occurs overtime within a population;
 small-scale evolution that could lead to
appearances of new variants of a species, and
after several generations may produce new
species as a whole.
 MACROEVOLUTION – evolution at the scale at
or above the level of a species;
 large-scale evolution that takes place after a long
period of time.
 BACTERIAL MICROEVOLUTION AGAINST
ANTIBIOTICS (ANTIBIOTIC RESISTANCE)
Antibiotic resistance is the ability of a microorganism to
withstand the effects of an antibiotic
- Evolves via natural selection through random
mutations, but can be engineered by applying an
evolutionary stress on a population
- When bacteria is exposed to antibiotics, they either:
Die, stagnate (not multiply), or they will survive
enough to multiply.
- Overuse and improper use of broad-spectrum
antibiotics greatly hastens the development of
resistance.
Chapter 4
Ecology and the Environment
LAYERS OF OUR ENVIRONMENT
Zanoria, Carmelle R.
1) BIOSPHERE
The thin outer layer if the earth capable of supporting life
 Includes all life on earth and the physical
environments in which living organisms exist and
interact
Different Biospheres:
 ATMOSPHERE
 The gaseous component of the biosphere
 Extends to some 3500 km above the earth’s
surface,
 But all life is confined to the lowest 8 to 15 km
(called the trophosphere)
 LITHOSPHERE
 the rocky material of the earth’s outer shell and
the ultimate source of all mineral elements
required by living organisms
 HYDROSPHERE
 the water on or near the earth’s surface
2) BIOMES
A major biotic unit bearing a characteristic and easily
recognized array of plant life (flora) and corresponding
animal life (fauna)
 A biome is identified by its dominant plant
formation
 Animals depend on plants, so each biome supports
a characteristic fauna.
 A biome’s distinctiveness is determined mainly by
climate, characteristic rainfall and temperature of
each region, and amount of solar radiation
6 Major Types of Land Biomes
1) Temperate Forest
2) Tropical Forest
3) Grasslands
4) Taiga
5) Tundra
6) Desert
The tundra and desert biomes are both severe environments
for animal life, but they are populated nevertheless with
organisms that have evolved appropriate adaptations
Temperate Forest
 Also known as Deciduous forest biome
 Flora and fauna adapt to withstand freezing
winters and exploit short summer growing
seasons
 Animal communities must adapt to respond to
rapid seasonal changes (ex. hibernating during the
winter, storing food supplies, migrations).
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Deciduous = broadleaved; trees/shrubs that sheds its leaves
annually
Tropical Forests
 Located mainly in the equatorial belt
 high rainfall, high humidity and high
temperature
 The riches biome, characterized in part by a great
diversity of plants and animals, but also the most
seriously threatened ecosystem
 Any modifications done in these forests may cause
permanent damage, as tropical soil rapidly
deteriorate.
Grasslands (Prairie)
 Vast expanse of grass, with few trees and bushes
 Conditions are dry; wildfires are common
 Known for large herds of herbivores
 The most modified and can be converted largely to
agriculture and grazing
Taiga
 Also known as coniferous forest or boreal forest
 Has short, wet summers and long, cold winters.
Precipitation is moderate in the taiga
 Gets plenty of snow during the winter and plenty
of rainfall during the summer
 There is not much variety in plants. Majority of
the plants are conifer trees.
 Many animals of the taiga biome have to migrate
to warmer areas or hibernate during the long, cold
winters
 Animals of the taiga have many specialized
adaptions including lots of thick fur or feathers
and the ability to change colors during different
seasons
Tundra
 characterized by extremely cold temperatures and
treeless, frozen landscapes
 Vegetation is limited due inhospitable conditions,
but may have a variety of short shrubs, grasses, and
perennials
 Animals that live in tundra regions are uniquely
suited to endure the harsh conditions
Desert
 Arid regions where rainfall is low and water
evaporation is high
 Hot daytime temperatures, but very cold by
nightfall
 Due to low vegetation, it can only accommodate
small animals, rodents, and reptiles. These animals
can escape the harsh sun by hiding under small
scrubs or hiding in burrows.
 Many desert animals tend to be nocturnal,
sleeping during the day and coming out at night
when the temperatures are more tolerable
Because there is hardly any standing water in the desert
biome, animals either store water in their bodies or get
their water needs met by the foods they eat
Zanoria, Carmelle R.
Because body fat retains heat, most desert animals have an
adaptation that allows them to store all their body fat in one
area of their body
Aquatic Biome
Inland Waters
 Fresh water: 2.5% of the world’s water (but only
0.01% is habitable)
 Lotic Habitat: (running-water) contain much
dissolved oxygen because of their turbulence, so
their fauna tolerates lower oxygen concentrations
 Lentic Habitat: (standing/still waters) have even
lower concentrations of oxygen, particularly in
deeper areas.
 Animals living on underwater substrates and
vegetation include snails, mussels, crustaceans,
and a wide variety of insects.
Fresh water comprises only 2.5% of the world’s water, and
mostly exist in polar ice caps or underground in aquifers
and soils, leaving only 0.01% as habitat for aquatic life.
Oceanic Waters
 largest portion of earth’s biosphere
 71% of earth’s surface
 Average depth: 3.75 km (the greatest depth
reaching 11.5 km)
 Marine fauna: 98% living on the seabed, 2% living
in open ocean
 Photic zone: or sunlit zone, supports photosynthetic
activity by phytoplankton
 Pelagic zone: the shallow water zone is the locus of
the world’s great fisheries
 Benthic zone: located in the ocean bed, have the
coral reefs as the most ecologically diverse in this
community.
 The deeper waters of open ocean occupy most of
the ocean’s area but have low biological
productivity.
OCEANS ARE THE CRADLE OF LIFE: reflected by the
variety of organisms living there, with about 98% living on
the seabed and only 2% in the open ocean.
3) ECOSYSTEM
Consists of all populations in a community together with
their physical environments
 No ecosystems are truly closed; all require new
energy input from the sun
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 Productivity
 The energy and materials required to construct
and to maintain life, and their incorporation into
biological systems.
 It is based on how organisms obtain energy and
materials, which are linked together into food
chains.
 Food chains connect to form food webs which
are pathways for transfer of energy and
materials among organisms within an
ecosystem.
Levels of Productivity in the Food Chain/Web
 Primary producers
 organisms that begin productivity by fixing and
storing energy from outside the ecosystem
(usally green plants).
 All organisms survive by consuming primary
producers.
 Consumers
 includes the herbivore, which eat plants
directly, and carnivores, which eat herbivores
or other animals.
 Decomposers
 the most important consumers, which are
mainly bacteria and fungi.
 They break down organic matter and returning
it to soluble form again to be available to
plants.
4) COMMUNITIES
Populations of different species co-occur in more complex
associations
 Species diversity: the complexity of a community,
which involves the number of species that coexist to
form the community.
 COMMUNITY INTERACTIONS: populations of
animals that form a community can interact in ways
that can either be detrimental (-), beneficial (+), or
neutral (0) to each species.
Predation ( + - )
 Survival of the prey is reduced (-), but benefits the
predator (+) because the food obtained from prey
increases a predators ability to survive and
reproduce.
 Coevolution: the predators get better at catching
prey, and prey get better at escaping predators.
 If the predator becomes so efficient that it
exterminated all its prey, the predator species
would become extinct.
 Prey reaches high art in the evolution of their
defenses (improving camouflage, developing
bitter taste or toxins, etc.)
Prey reaches high art in the evolution of their defenses by
escaping detection by matching their background of
resembling some inedible features of the environment
(cryptic defenses). Distasteful or toxic animals advertise
Zanoria, Carmelle R.
their strategy with bright colors and/or conspicuous
behaviour (aposematic defenses)
Parasitism ( + - )
 Parasite benefits by using host as home and source
of nutrition, and host is harmed.
 A parasite with high virulence is at a disadvantage
because a parasite’s fitness is diminished if its host
dies
 Coevolution between parasite and host is expected
to generate a increasingly benign, less virulent
relationship (e.g. the host will become uncommon
and/or difficult to infect, and the parasite will adapt
a higher transmission rate with more alternative
hosts)
Commensalism ( + 0 )
 benefits one species but does not harm nor benefits
the other
Commensalism example:
• Remora fish have a disk on their heads that makes
them able to attach to larger animals, such as
sharks, mantas, and whales. When the larger
animal feeds, the remora detaches itself to eat the
extra food
Mutualism ( + + )
 both species benefit from each other
 Some mutualistic relationships are not only
beneficial but necessary for survival of one or both
species.
Mutualism example:
• Oxpecker (a kind of bird) and the rhinoceros or
zebra. Oxpeckers land on rhinos or zebras and eat
ticks and other parasites that live on their skin.
• Sea anemones provide a safe and protective home
for the clownfish. And the clownfish benefits the
anemone in several important ways. These include
cleaning the anemone, providing nutrients in the
form of waste, and scaring away predatory fish
such as the butterfly fish.
Competition ( - - )
 Reduces fitness of both species.
 It is very common to have both interspecies and
intraspecies competitions for limiting resources
 It is considered the most common and important
interaction in nature.
Amensalism ( 0 - )
 the effect on one species in a competitive
relationship is negligible or unaffected but the other
species is harmed
 There is no apparent coevolutionary relationship
Amensalism example: Elephants stepping on ants or
levelling the brush/ground. Does not benefit the elephant
but cause harm to ants.
5) POPULATIONS
An organism exists in nature as a member of a population,
a reproductively interactive group of animals of a single
species.
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BIO 044: General Zoology
 Animals in nature coexist with others of the same
species. The properties of a population include:
 Genetic variability (polymorphism)
 Growth in numbers over time
 Factors that limit the density of individuals in
each area
Metapopulation Dynamics
 The interaction among geographically disjunct
populations of the same species (demes)
 All members of a deme can interbreed, therefore
share a common gene pool
 Changes in local environments may cause a local
deme to become depleted or eliminated
 Immigration is therefore a crucial source of
replacement among demes within a region
 Demography = the study of the statistics of a
population or deme (such as age structure, sex ratio,
and growth rate) and the factors that influence
them.
The Survivorship Curve - a graphic representation of the
number of individuals in a population that can be expected
to survive to any specific age.
3 principle types of survivorship:
 Curve I: high age-specific survival probability in
early and middle life, followed by a rapid decline in
survival in later life.
• Typical of species that produce few
offspring but care for them well
 Curve II: rate of mortality is constant over all ages.
 Some birds and some lizards follow this pattern
 Curve III: have the greatest mortality early in life,
with relatively low rates of death (high probability
of survival) for those that manage to survive
 Typical of species that produce a large number
of offspring
Population Growth
 Intrinsic Rate of Increase: (denoted by the symbol
r)
 the inherent ability of a population to grow
exponentially.
 If species continue to grow, earth’s resources
soon would be exhausted and extinction would
follow.
 Limiting resources
Zanoria, Carmelle R.
 environmental conditions that could limit the
growth, abundance, and distribution of a
population.
 Carrying capacity: (denoted by the symbol K)
 the largest population that can be supported by
the limiting resource in a habitat.
 Ideally, a population would slow its growth rate
in response to diminishing resources until it
reaches K, and is represented by a sigmoid
curve.
If resources is expendable (ex. Food), K is reached when
rate of resource replenishment equals rate of depletion by
the population; the population is then at K for that limiting
resource.
• When population density reaches K, rate of birth
and death are equal and growth of population
ceases or plateaus.
• In a situation where the K of a resource has finally
been depleted, the population will decrease. If the
resource is being replaced at a rate that support the
growth of the population, the logistic growth will
increase in response. This can occur multiple times
in different scales, causing oscillations.
• If K cannot be replenished relative to the demands
of the population, the growth rate will decline
further until the population reaches extinction.
Influences that can also limit population growth
(Extrinsic Factors):
 Abiotic Factors
 Floods, fires, storms, etc.
 Density-independent: no regulation of
population growth because their effect is
independent of population size.
 Biotic Factors
 Predation, parasitism, disease, etc.
 Density-dependent: they respond to changes in
density of their prey/host to maintain those
population at fairly constant rate
EXTINCTION
 The termination of an organism or of a group of
organisms (taxon), usually a species.
 Approximately 99% of all species that have ever
lived are now extinct
 Decline or extinction of one taxon often frees
resources to which another taxon becomes adapted
at a much later time, leading to evolutionary
proliferation of diverse species.
 E.g. the extinction of the dinosaur taxa at the
end of the Cretaceous are considered important
for the later proliferation of mammalian
adaptive and species diversity in the Cenozoic
era.
 Extinction rates in the geologic past are highly
episodic, with species extinction ranging from near
zero to 96% in different million-year intervals
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BIO 044: General Zoology
Hierarchical System of Classification
Chapter 5
Phylogeny and Taxonomy: The Classification of
Animals
PHYLOGENY
(Greek: phulon, “race/lineage”, genesis, “origin”)
A branching diagram showing the evolutionary
relationships of all extant and extinct species
 “The phylogenetic tree of life” – all life of Earth is
part of a single tree, indicating common ancestry
 Based upon similarities and differences in physical
or genetic characteristics
Character
 Any feature (morphological, chromosomal, and
molecular) that is use to study variation within and
among species.
 Homology: character similarity that results
from common ancestry
 Homoplasty: character similarity that
misrepresents common descent
 Comparative morphology, cytology, and
biochemisty are used to reconstruct nested
hierarchical relationships among taxa that reflects
the branching of evolutionary lineages through time
HOMOPLASTY: Similarity does not always reflect common
ancestry because similar features may have arose
independently in different lineages.
Patterns of common descent among species must be
assessed before higher taxa are recognized
The fossil record provides estimates of the ages of
evolutionary lineages
TAXONOMY (“arrangement law”)
Branch of science that encompasses the description,
identification, nomenclature, and classification of
organisms.
 Produced a formal system for naming and grouping
species.
 Part of a broader science of SYSTEMATICS (or
comparative biology)
 Variations among animal populations are used
to understand their evolutionary relationships
 The 3 major goals of Animal Systematics:
 To identify all species of animals
 To evaluate evolutionary relationship among
animal species
 To group animal species in a hierarchy of
taxonomic groups (taxa) that conveys
evolutionary relationships
 Designed by Carl von Linnaeus
 Organisms are arranges into an ascending series of
groups of ever-increasing inclusiveness.
 Includes seven mandatory ranks for the animal
kingdom, in descending series called taxa
 Taxa: groupings of species related by
evolutionary descent with modification, as
diagnosed by sharing homologous characters
 All organisms must be placed into at least seven
taxa, one at each of the mandatory ranks
 Taxonomists have the option of subdividing these 7
ranks further to recognize more than the seven taxa
 Usually by adding the prefix super- or sub-
(superfamily, subfamily, superorder, subclass,
etc.)
 Best for very large and complex groups (e.g.
fishes and insects)
These additional ranks are
need to express different
degrees of evolutionary
divergence. But this also
makes the system more
complex.
As one moves up the
taxonomic hierarchy, each
taxon represents the
descendants of an earlier
ancestor.
Rules of Binomial Nomenclature
 Linnaeus’s system for naming species
 Each species has a Latinized name composed of 2
words (binomial) that must be printed in italics, or
underlined if handwritten.
 First word is the genus
 Must always be capitalized
 Always a noun
 Second word is the species epithet
 peculiar to the species within the genus
 written in lower-case
 usually an adjective

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BIO 044: General Zoology
Turdus migratorius
(Latin turdos, “thrush”; migratorius, “of migratory habit”)
 The species epithet must never stands alone; the
complete binomial must be used to name a species
 The genus, when written with the species epithet,
can be shortened to its capital inital letter.
 No two generic/scientific names in any kingdom
can be the same.
 However, species epithet may be used in different
genera to denote different species
 Failed to classify unicellular organisms (some
forms had were plant-like or animal-like or
both.)
 Kingdom Protista was proposed to include all
single-celled organisms
 Failed to recognized the distinction between
prokaryotes and eukaryotes.
The 5 kingdom system was later proposed that
incorporated the prokaryote-eukaryote distinction and
further split eukaryotes by their mode of nutrition and other
fundamental differences

 Sometimes a species is divided into subspecies

using a trinomial nomenclature, such species are
called polytypic.
 It is usually used to distinguish geographic
variants. 6 kingdom system divided Monera further

 Tautonym: the scientific name of a species in

which the genus and the species epithet has the
same name
 Indicates that the species is the exact “type” of its
genus

DOMAINS
 a recently recognized classification of all life-forms
that has been proposed base on phylogenetic
information obtained from molecular data
 Situated above the kingdom level

 Law of Priority: The first name that is proposed

for a taxonomic unit and that is published and meets
other proper specifications has priority over all
subsequent names proposed
 International Commission on Zoological
Nomenclature (ICZN)
 formed on 1898
 makes the decision on naming animals Major Subdivisions of the Animal Kingdom
THE MAJOR DIVISIONS OF LIFE  Phylum: the largest formal taxonomic category in
 From Aristotle’s time to the late 1800s, every the Linnaean classification of the animal kingdom
organism was assigned to one of 2 kingdoms:  The study of zoology focuses on the phyla under
Plantae or Animalia. Kingdom Animalia, but will also tackle animal-
like protists because they provide an important

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BIO 044: General Zoology
phylogenetic context for the study of animal  Includes the earthworm and the leech
diversity. Phylum ANTHROPODA (jointed)
SYNOPSIS OF THE PHYLA  875,000 species; 3x as numerous in species as all
Kingdom PROTISTA (animal-like protists only) other animals
 30,000+ species  “Anthro” = Joint; “Pod” = foot
 Microscopic; usually single-celled or simple  Includes the crustaceans (crabs, lobsters, barnicles,
colonies of cells etc.), centipedes, millipedes, insects, and arachnids
 Aquatic (fresh/sea), soil, moist places (spiders, scorpions, mites, and ticks)
 Some species are parasitic; important species Phylum MOLLUSCA (mollusc)
produce disease in man (ex. malaria, amoebaiasis)  At least 90,000 species
Phylum PORIFERA (Sponges)  Soft-bodied animals, some are protected with a
 5000+ species shell of calcium carbonate
 Includes sponges or pore bearers  Characteristic organ of most species in a muscular
 Aquatic (mostly salt water) foot usually used for locomotion
 Perforated body/many pores  Includes a Mantle: an enclosing envelop, also
 Supported by skeleton of spicules made of Calcium produces the shell
carbonate, silica, or sponging  Includes snails, slugs, clams, oisters, squids,
 Commercial bath sponge cuttlefish, nautili and octopi
Phylum CNIDARIA (or Coelenterata) Phylum ECHINODERMATA (spiny-skinned)
 Around 10,000 species  Around 5000 species
 Includes hydroids, polyps, jellyfishes, sea  “Echino” = spiny; “Derma” = skin
anemones, corals  Aquatic marine
 Aquatic (mostly salt water), but a common fresh-  Radially symmetrical
water type is the Hydra  Skeleton of calcium carbonate often present
 Radially symmetrical  Has tube feet for locomotion
 Has single gastrovascular cavities  Includes starfishes, brittle stars, sea urchins, sea
 Most have nematocysts (stinging capsules) cucumbers, and sea lilies
Phylum CTENOPHORA (Comb jellies) Phylum CHORDATA (backbone)
 Around 100 species  Around 65,700 species
 Mostly free-swimming marine resembling  Possess a vertebrae (backbone), with the exception
jellyfishes of a few primitive species
 Includes sea walnuts or comb jellies  Considered to be the most complex in terms of
 Biradially symmetrical morphology and physiology
Phylum PLATYHELMINTHES (flatworms) Classes of Phylum CHORDATA
 Around 10,000 species  Subclass AGNATHA: Cylostomes (lamprays
 Wormlike, unsegmented, and bilaterally and hagfishes)
symmetrical  Class CHONDRICTHYES: Cartilagenous
 Includes planaria, flatworms, tapeworms, and flukes fishes (sharks and rays)
 Includes free-living and parasitic species that are  Class OSTEICHTHYES: Bony fishes
either aquatic or terrestrial  Class AMPHIBIA: Amphibians (frogs, toads,
 Hermaphodites and salamanders)
Phylum NEMATODA & NEMATHELMINTHES  Class REPTILIA: Reptiles
(roundworms)  Class AVES: Birds
 Around 12,000 species  Class MAMMALIA: Mammals
 Wormlike, unsegmented, and bilaterally
symmetrical Chapter 6
 Possesses both mouth and anus The Animal-like Protists
 Many are aquatic or terrestrial free-living but others PROTOZOANS / PROTISTS
are important parasites (Domain EUKARYA: Kingdom PROTISTA)
 Includes threadworms, roundworms, and  Level of complexity: Protoplasmic grade
hookworms  Wide distribution
 Most species have sexual dimorphism  Can adopt to their environment amazingly
Phylum ANNELIDA (segmented worms)  Mostly free-living (e.g. planktons)
 Around 13,500 species  Many are symbiotic to plants
 Wormlike and segmented (rows of rings)  May have mutualistic, commensalistic, or parasitic
 Aquatic and terrestrial relationships

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BIO 044: General Zoology
 Plant-like vs. Animal-like = based on mode of  Facilitated Diffusion = for important food
nutrition molecules (e.g. glucose, amino acids)
• Represents first level of biological complexity AMOEBA: Phagocytosis can occur at almost any point by
because it is usually only a specialized bit of envelopment of the particle with pseudopodia.
protoplasm surrounded by a membrane. Phagocytosis:
• A protozoan is comparable to the individual cells of 1. The cell membrane invaginates or folds around a
the body of multicellular animals, but the food particle
physiology of the protozoan is comparable to the 2. The invagination extends farther into the cell and
whole body of the multicellular animal (can then pinches off at the surface
reproduce, show irritability, metabolize, and • Phagocytosis can occur at almost any point by
perform the necessary biological functions of life). envelopment of the particle with pseudopodia.
• They are found in most habitats, including decaying a. The food particle is thus contained in an
organic matter, although they require moisture. intracellular, membrane-bound vesicles
• When subjected to extremely harsh conditions, they called a phagosome/food vacuole, and they
can encyst themselves into dormant forms marked are later digested by lysosomes.
by possession of resistant external coverings and a b. Any undigestible material may be released
complete shutdown of metabolic machinery. to the outside by exocytosis
Mode of Nutrition: REPRODUCTION:
Autotrophs: can synthesize their own food (ex. ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
Photosynthesis). Includes the plant-like protists, and those Binary fission: most common type. Results in 2 essentially
under kingdom Plantae and Fungi. identical individuals.
Heterotrophs: obtains organic molecules from other
organisms through ingesting their food in a soluble form or
in a particulate form. Includes all animal-like protest and all
under kingdom Animalia.
 Phagotrophs/Holozoic feeders: are heterotrophs
that feed on particulate food that is acquired
through phagocytosis
 Osmotrophs/Saprozoic feeders: heterotrophs that
ingest soluble food through osmosis Budding: occurs in some ciliates. A progeny cell is
LOCOMOTION: considerably smaller than the parent and then grows to adult
1) Cilia and Flagella size.
 “Flagellate” = has few long flagellas Multiple fission/Schizogony: division of the cytoplasm
 “Ciliate” = has many short cilia (cytokinesis) is followed by several nuclear divisions, so
 The central strand (axoneme) is composed of 9+2 that a number of individuals are produced simultaneously
microtubules joining at the basal body (kinestome)
 Movement through “beatings” produced by sliding
of outer paired microtubules
• Cilia and flagella are similar morphologically
• Not just movement but also to bring in food
particles
• Sliding Microtubule Hypothesis – current Sporogony: Union of gametes before multiple fission
explanation for ciliary/flagellar movement,
powered by ATP
2) Pseudopodia
 “False feet”
 extensions of cytoplasm
• They are the chief means of locomotion in
amoebas, but they can be formed by a variety of
flagellate protozoa, as well as by ameboid cells in
the human body (like white blood cells)
NUTRITION:
 Animal-like protist are holozoic = via phagocytosis
 Cytosome = “mouth” for phagocytosis in most
ciliates, many flagellates and apicomplexans SEXUAL REPRODUCTION

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BIO 044: General Zoology
Typically, all protozoan reproduce asexually, but there is a
wide spread occurrence of sex among protozoa, testifying to
its importance as a means or genetic recombination.
 Syngamy: fertilization of an individual gamete by
another
 the complete fusion of 2 cells or gametes
resulting in the formation of a zygote
 Autogamy: gametic nuclei arise by meiosis and
fuse to form a zygote within the same organism that
produce them / fusion of gametes from the same
parent
 In binary fission = nuclei divide by mitosis
 In autogamy = nuclei divide by meiosis
 Conjugation: an exchange of gametic nuclei occurs
between paired organisms (conjugants)
MAJOR PHYLA OF ANIMAL-LIKE PROTISTS
 Phylum SARCOMASTIGOPHORA
 Subphylum MASTIGOPHORA (“flagellates”)
 Subphylum SARCODINA
 Phylum APICOMPLEXA (“sporozoans”)
 Phylum CILIOPHORA (“ciliates”)
 Phylum DINOFLAGELLATA
Phylum SARCOMASTIGOPHORA
 Locomotory organ: Pseudopodia, flagella, or both
 Reproduction: Asexual (some sexual via syngamy)
 No spore formation
 1 type of nucleus: Except in some stages of
foraminifera
 2 subphylums: Sarcodina and Mastigophora
Subphylum MASTIGOPHORA
o “Flagellates”
o Replicates by binary fission or syngamy
o Contains many disease-causing species
The possession of flagella is a hallmark of the
Mastigophora, although some have pseudopodia
 Euglena
- most common free-living genus of flagellates found
in freshwater ponds to which they give a greenish
tinge if present in sufficient numbers
- They have a orange eye spot in the anterior end of
the body, which is part of a light-sensitive organelle
and probably serve in orienting the organism to
light
- They obtain nutrition largely by photosynthesis
 Giardia lamblia
- “giardiasis” = small intestine protozoal parasite
causing diarrheal disease
- Has 2 nucleus
- has a characteristic “smiley face” when stained
- Reproduces via binary fission producing
trophozoites
- Takes on 2 forms during its life cycle:
- Trophozoite = motile pear-shaped cell that
survives only in SI of host
Zanoria, Carmelle R.
- Cysts = non-replicative, shed in feces and can
survive in moist places for months. Remains
dormant until ingested by host
 Trypanosoma cruzi
- “African sleeping sickness / Chagas disease”
(humans), “Surra” in horses
- Feeds on blood and lymph
- Transmitted by an insect “assassin bug” or “kissing
bug” or other blood sucking fly “tsetse fly”
(Africa), Philippines Tabanid fly/horse fly
- Inside insect vector= EPIMASTIGOTES: only has 1
flagellum, reproduces via binary fission
- TRIPOMASTIGOTES = infectious form in the
saliva of insect host
 Leishmania donovani
- Phlebotomus spp. (sandfly): Vector host
Subphylum SARCODINA
o Pseudopods for locomotion and feeding
o Most free-living, some parasitic
o Reproduction: binary fission or syngamy
o Has naked forms, and some with “shells”
largest protozoan phylum
 Entamoeba histolytica
- Causes amoeboid dysentery
 Class Foraminifera
 Class Radiolaria
- Sarcodinas with perforated shells, or tests, through
which pseudopods may be extended
- Shells are made of calcium carbonate
Phylum APICOMPLEXA
 “Sporozoans”
 Obligate intracellular parasites
 Spores = oocysts
 Apical Complex = use to invade host cells
 Complex life cycle: has BOTH asexual and sexual
phases
Have no flagella (except in male gametes)
Gathers several species of obligate intracellular protozoan
parasites classified as Sporozoans, because the form
reproductive cells known as spores (oocysts).
APICAL COMPLEX: a cellular structure present in all
sporozoans, which consist of cytoskeletal and secretory
structures. It is usually present only in certain
BS- Psychology II
BIO 044: General Zoology
developmental stages of the organism. This enables
sporozoans to invade host cells.
Genus Plasmodium:
P. falciparum
P. malariae
P. vivax
P. ovale
Overview of Apicomplexan (Plasmodium) Life Cycle
 Asexual phase involves Schizogony (multiple
fission):
 Produces Merozoites > infect RBC
 Merozoite Inside RBC > becomes
Trophozoite
 Trophozoite > schizogony = new
merozoites
 Sexual phase involves Sporogony:
 Some trophozoites in RBC > sporogony =
spores/oocysts
 Oocysts > gametogony = male or female
gametocytes
 Gametocytes fuse to form zygote
 Inside mosquito = zygote > cell division =
new sporozoites
 Sporozoites migrate to salivary glands of
mosquito
 Blood meal > sporozoites travel to liver
 In liver cell > schizogony = new merozoites
> infect RBC
 Anopheles spp. (Vector of Plasmodium)
• Merozoite form = infectious form
• Trophozoite form = reproductive form (undergo
schizogony or sporogony)
• Gametocyte form = only have half chromosome
count
• Sporozoite form = new generation plasmodium
 Asexual phase involves Schizogony (multiple
fission):
• Produces Merozoites > infect RBC
• Inside RBC > merozoite becomes Trophozoite
• Trophozoite > schizogony = new merozoites
 Sexual phase involves Sporogony:
• Some trophozoites in RBC > sporogony =
spores/oocysts
• Oocysts > gametogony = male or female
gametocytes
• Gametocytes fuse to form zygote
• Inside mosquito = zygote > cell division = new
sporozoites
• Sporozoites migrate to salivary glands of mosquito
• Blood meal > sporozoites travel to liver
• In liver cell > schizogony = new merozoites >
infect RBC
Other notable disease-causing Apicomplexans:
 Babesia spp. (Tick-borne hemorrhagic fever)
 Eimeria spp. (Coccidiosis)
Zanoria, Carmelle R.
- Spreads form animal to animals through contact
with infected feces or ingestion of infected tissue
- Blood diarrhea is the primary symptom
 Toxoplasma gondii (Toxoplasmosis)
- One of the worlds most common parasites
- Infects rodent’s brain: removes rodents innate fear
of cats
- MOT:
 eating undercooked contaminated meat
 Exposure from infected cat
 Mother to child transmission in uterus
Phylum CILIOPHORA
 “ciliates/ciliophores”
 Many are carnivorous
 Has 2 nuclei (macronucleus and micronucleus)
 Reproduction: typically asexual; may be sexual via
conjugation
- complex freshwater or saltwater protozoans that swim
by the coordinated beating of their cilia.
- macronucleus containing a great deal more DNA
than the smaller nucleus (micronucleus)
 Paramecium caudatum
- Most notable ciliate
- Large protozoan
- Contain vacuoles which are essentially a primitive
mouth, stomach, excretory system
- Food Vacuole = where food is stored
- Contractile Vacuole = water is stored
- Pellicle = flexible exterior membrane; support and
maintain shape
- Gullet (Cytosome) = primitive mouth
Phylum DINOFLAGELLATA
 Most important marine primary producer
 Photoautotrophic and heterotrophic
 2 flagellas (equatorial & longitudinal)
 May be naked or enclosed in cellulose
- Ecologically considered the most important primary
producers in marine environments
- About half of this group are photoautotrophic while
the rest are colorless and heterotrophic
- They commonly have 2 flagella, one equatorial and
one longitudinal, each borne at least partially in
grooves on the body
- Body may be naked or enclosed in cellulose plates
or valves
- Dinoflagellates can damage other organisms when
they produce a toxic substance that may produce a
“red tide”
 Noctiluca scintillans
- Colorless dinoflagellate
- Voracious predator
- Long motile tentacle near single short flagellum
- Can produce light (bioaluminescence)
Other animal-like pathogenic protists:
Trichomonas vaginalis – STD – greenish frothy discharge
BS- Psychology II
BIO 044: General Zoology
Phylum Metamonad

Chapter 7
The Metazoan and the Simple Multicellular Animals
METAZOA
 Comprise all multicellular organisms
 Division of labor among somatic cells
(specialization)
 Germ cells (gametes) + somatic cells
The body of a true metazoan is always composed of germ
cells (gametes) and somatic cells
GERM CELLS: Cells of reproductive purposes only.
Mature cells are either female or male.
Ova (Egg): female gamete
Spermatozoa (Sperm): male gamete For each spermatogonia, 4 spermatids are produced
SOMATIC CELLS: cells that form a distinct body which through the process of meiosis.
carries on all the functions characteristic of animals, except The final result of oocyte divisions is 1 mature ova, and of
sexual reproduction spermatocyte divisions are 4 sperms.
Origin of Germ Cells:
MEIOSIS
• Spermatogenesis
• Oogenesis
MEIOSIS: Cell division that results in the production of
gametes, by producing four daughter cells each with half
the number of chromosomes from the parent cells. A single
cell divides twice to produce four cells containing half the
original amount of genetic information
OOGENESIS: the process of female gamete formation and
maturation
SPERMATOGENESIS: the production and development of
mature spermatozoa. The process is very similar to • During the division of the primary and secondary
oogenesis. oocytes, the number of chromosomes in reduced to
Mitosis: type of cell one-half that in the oogonia.
division that results in • For each oogonia, only 1 ovum is produced during
2 daughter cells with the process of meiosis.
same number of Oogonia: immature female germ cell that differentiated
chromosomes as from primordial female germ cells. They multiply by
parent nucleus mitosis. The number of oogonia that arise may be definite
(diploid). Occurs in as in some metazoans.
somatic cells. Primary oocytes: The oogonia after growing in size. They
Meiosis: type cell division that results in 4 daughter cells, undergo a division that produces 2 daughter cells that are
each having only half the original chromosome count unequal in size – one bigger than the other. The smaller
(haploid) of the parent cell, and each daughter cell is daughter cell is called a polar body, which will eventually
genetically different from each other due to the disintegrate.
recombination of genes during meiosis I. Secondary oocyte: the larger daughter cell. They also
Primordial Germ Cells divide unequal sized cells, with the smaller daughter (polar
Primordial Germ Cells: “immature” germ cells; diploid body) eventually disintegrating.
cells that are the ones that will undergo meiosis to form the Mature ova: the larger daughter of the secondary oocyte.
sex cells. Formed in the early stages of embryonic Development of the Zygote
development. They originate from the endoderm and  FERTILIZATION: Ova + Sperm = Zygote
migrate to the embryonic ovaries and testes to mature.
Male: SPERMATOGONIA (2n) > spermatogenesis >
SPERM (n)
Female: OOGONIA (2n) > oogenesis > OVUM (n)

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BIO 044: General Zoology
FERTILIZATION: The fusion of the mature ova and
sperm. The union of two nuclei, one from the female and the
other from the male, produced the zygote nucleus.
• The fertilized egg (zygote) will begin mitosis,
dividing (cleavage – series of divisions) into a
number of cells (blastomeres) and becomes a
blastula.
BLASTULATION: As cleavage advances, a cavity
becomes noticeable in the center of the blastula, until it
becomes a single layer ball of cells with a hollow cavity
within called blastocoel.
GASTRULATION: the cells on one side of the blastula
begin to invaginate (infold), creating a new cavity called
the gastrocoel. The process of gastrulation creates the germ
layers.
Animal phylas with only the ectoderm and endoderm are
Diploblastic.
Animal phylas with all germ layers are Triploblastic.
METAMORPHOSIS: the process by which an animal
physically develops after birth or hatching, involving a
conspicuous and relatively abrupt change in the animal’s
body structure through cell growth and differentiation.
In lower vertebrates and in most of the
invertebrates, the animal that is born or hatches from the
egg is very different in appearance from its parents and is
known as larvae.
Methods of Reproduction:
• Parthenogenesis
• Dioecious
• Monoecious
• Oviparous
• Viviparous
• Ovoviviparous
Zanoria, Carmelle R.
Parthenogenesis: Growth and development of embryo
without fertilization
As only females could develop eggs/ovas, offspring as a
result of parthenogenesis are always females.
DIOECIOUS: Animals are either male or female; each
possesses only one type of reproductive organ that gives
rise to either eggs or sperms.
MONOECIOUS: Animals are provided with both male and
female reproductive organs, and produce both eggs and
sperm. They are also known as hermaphrodites. (common
example are earthworms).
Self-fertilization: in some species of hermaphrodites, the
eggs of an individual are fertilized by sperm from the same
individual
Cross-fertilization: the eggs of one individual are fertilized
by the sperm from another individual.
OVIPAROUS: animals that lay eggs which hatch outside
the body of the mother (ex. Birds).
VIVIPAROUS: animals that give birth to young that
develop from within the body of the mother and are
nourished from her blood stream (ex. Mammals).
OVOVIVIPAROUS: animals that produce eggs that hatch
within the mother’s body, but are not nourished by the
mother’s blood stream (ex. certain sharks and reptiles).
Forms of Animals:
 Symmetry
 Metamerism
 Appendages
Symmetry
 the arrangement of parts in relation to planes and
straight lines.
 Asymmetrical: the body cannot be divided by
planes into similar parts, or the body has no definite
form or arrangement (ex. protozoans and sponges).
 Spherical Symmetry: animals that are symmetrical
around the axis of a sphere and can be divided into
2 similar parts by any direction through the center.
(ex. some protozoa).
 Radially Symmetrical (Radial): animals that
possesses a number of similar parts called which
radiate out from a central axis (ex. some sponges,
majority of coelenterates, adult echinoderms)
 Bilaterally Symmetrical (Bilateral): animals that
are divided in one plane through which the body
can be divided into 2 equal parts. It is characteristic
of the most successful animals living at present
BS- Psychology II
BIO 044: General Zoology
time, including all vertebrates and most  the pores where water enters; located at
invertebrates. pinacoderm
Metamerism  Food particles in water are collected by
 The repetition of structural subunits called choanocytes
metameres/somites.  Particles sized between 0.1 um and 50 um
Appendages (includes detritus, planktonic organisms, and
Outgrowths of the body, which are used for locomotion, bacteria) and are taken into choanocytes by
obtaining food, protection, respiration, and many other phagocytosis or pinocytosis.
purposes, some greatly modified for various functions. Canal Systems
Phylum Porifera: The Sponges  3 main canal designs (based on placement of
PORIFERA choanocytes):
(Latin porus, “pore”; fera, “to bear”)  Asconoid system
 Level of complexity: Cellular grade  Syconoid system
 No germ layers despite being metazoan  Leuconoid system
 All aquatic, mostly marine (15,000 species)
 Free-swimming embryos, sessile adults
 Draw food and water into its body through tiny
pores, which enter through a complicated system of
canals
 Irregularly shaped (asymmetrical), some radially
symmetrical, some branched/lobed
 Commensals to aquatic animals
 They are more complex than Protozoa, and in them, Asconoid System
division of labor among somatic cells has resulted  Choanocytes lie in a large chamber (spongocoel)
in cellular specialization, but there is no grouping  Simpliest organization
and coordination of specialized cells to form  Small, tube-shaped
definite tissues. Therefore, sponges have not  In Class Calcerae only
advanced beyond the cell-level of organization, Syconoid System
although they are multicellular animals.  Choanocytes lie in canals
Types of Cells in Sponge Body:  Look like large asconoids
 Choanocytes  Thicker walls w/ linings folded inward to make
 “collar cells” canals
 Has a collar of microvilla surrounding a  Pass through asconoid stage during development
flagellum  In Class Calcerae, some in Class Haxactinellida
 beating of the tiny microvilli draws water past Leuconoid System
each cell like a filter, bringing in food and  Choanocytes lie in distinct chambers
oxygen, as well as carrying away waste  Most complex
 Amoebocyte / Archeocytes  Permits increase in size
 Ameboid cells that can move in the mesohyl  Many tiny chambers allow sponge to pump a
 For phagocytosis remarkable amount of water
 Receive particles for digestion from  Mostly in Class Calcerae, but common in others
choanocytes Modes of Reproduction:
 Can differentiate into other specialized cells  Asexual Reproduction:
Other Cells in Sponge Body: 1. Regeneration
 Mesohyl/Mesenchyme 2. Somatic Embryogenesis
 Gelatenous matrix 3. Budding
 Collencytes o external budding
 Secretes fibrillar collagen o gemmule formation
 Lophocytes Most sponges are monoecious (have both male and female
 Also secretes collagen sex cells in one individual)
 Pinacocytes REGENERATION: the ability to repair injuries and
 Almost a true tissue; epithelial cells that cover restore lost parts.
exterior and some interior surface SOMATIC EMBRYOGENESIS: The complete
 Pinacoderm = outer epithelial layer reorganization of the structure and functions of participating
Water Pumping and Suspension Feeding cells or bits of tissue. If a sponge is cut into small
 Dermal ostea fragments, entire new sponges can develop from these
fragments or aggregates of cells.

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BIO 044: General Zoology
If a sponge is cut into small fragments, or if the cells are  Glass sponges
entirely disassociated and allowed to fall into small groups  Symbiotically houses 2 small spongicolid shrimp
(aggregates), entire new sponges can develop from the (male and female)
fragments Aphrocallistes
BUDDING: external buds, after reaching a certain size,  Cloud sponges
may detach from the parent and float away to form new  Usually a large cup
sponges, or remain to form new colonies.  Fragile, easily damaged
GEMMULE FORMATION: (Internal buds) (gemmules) Class DEMOSPONGIAE (“demos”, people; “spongos”,
are formed in mostly freshwater sponges (and some marine sponge)
species). When the parent sponge dies during freezing or  Spicules made of silicon or spongin, or both
drought, the gemmule survive and remain dormant until  Spicules not 6-rayed
such time passes, then they escape through an opening and  Leuconoid type
develop into new sponges.  One freshwater family, all other marine
 Sexual Reproduction  Includes commercial bath sponges
• Sponges = monoecious Demospongiae sample generas:
• Sperm sometimes arise from choanocytes Cliona
• Class Calcerea: choanocytes => oocytes  Includes the sulphur boring sponges (C.
• Class Demospongiae: archeocytes => californiana) and Neptune’s cup (C. patera)
oocytes Spongilla
• Viviparous or Oviparous  Freshwater sponges found in lakes and slow
• Parenchymula/Amphiblastula: streams
free-swimming larval form with flagellated  Attaches to rocks and logs
cells directed outwardly  Developed gammules as a means of dormancy
Classifications of Phylum Porifera during adverse environmental conditions
 Class CALCAREA Callyspongia
 Class HEXACTINELLIDA  C. vaginalis (branching vase sponge)
 Class DEMOSPONGIAE  C. siphonella (colonial tube sponge)
Class CALCAREA (“calcis”, lime)  C. crassa (prickly-tube sponge)
 Spicules of calcium carbonate
 Spicules form a fringe around main water outle Chapter 7 – Part 2
 Spicules needle-shaped, 3 or 4 rayed Phylum Cnidaria: Hydras, Jellies, Corals
 All types of canal systems present CNIDARIA (Greek knide, “nettle”)
 All marine  >9000 species
 Relatively small  Diploblastic acoelomate metazoans
Calcarea sample generas:  Level of complexity: Cellular-tissue grade
Sycon  Aquatic
 Small sponges  Radial symmetry (some display bilateral); no
 Tube-shaped cephalization
 White to cream color  No excretory, no respiratory systems
 “pineapple” sponges  Incomplete gut
Leucosolenia  Only 1 group with economic importance
 Curved “vases” • Greek for “nettle” – to sting
 Like a tiny bunch of bananas • Longest fossil history - Ancient group of metazoans
 Occur in a variety of colors, usually pale • Mostly marine, few freshwater, no terrestrial
 Asconoid type • Many cnidarians have little economic importance
Clathrina except for reef-building corals, where fishes and
 “Latticed” other animals rely for food and housing, and as
Class HEXACTINELLIDA (“hex”, six; “aktis”, ray) tourist attractions, jewelry, and ornaments.
 6-rayed spicules The Different Forms of Cnidaria (Dimorphisms)
 Spicules made of silicon and forms a network POLYPS: or a hydroid form, which is adapted to a
 Cylindrical or funnel-shaped sedentary or sessile life.
 Syconoid or leuconoid  They have tubular bodies, with a mouth surrounded
 All marine (deep) by tentacles at the oral end of the body. The mouth
Hexactinellida sample generas: leads into a blind gut (gastrovascular cavity).
Euplectella  The aboral end is attached to a substratum by a
 Venus’ flower basket pedal disc.

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BIO 044: General Zoology
MEDUSAE: or a jellyfish form, which is adapted for a
floating or free-swimming existence.
 A medusa is essentially an unattached polyp with
the tubular portion widened and flattened into a bell
or umbrella shape.
 Tetramerous symmetry: the body parts are The Nerve Net
arranged in fours
 The mouth is centered on the concave
(subumbrellar) side
 Tentacles extend outward from the rim of the
umbrella
 All sensory information is integrated with motor Ocelli
response by a nerve ring at the base of the bell
Anatomy of a Cnidarian body
 Epidermis
 Mesoglea
 Gastrodermis
 Gastrovascular cavity
 Mouth/Anus
 Pedal disc (polyps)
 Bell (medusa)
 Tentacles
MESOGLEA: an extracellular matrix (“jelly”) that lies
between the epidermis and gastrodermis and acts as a type
of elastic skeleton. Mesogleal jelly is just about 96% water.
GASTRODERMAL CELLS: Makes up the gastroderm
GASTROVASCULAR CAVITY: the incomplete gut. It is
often branched or divided with septa.
Mouth/Anus: As the gut is incomplete, cnidarians only
have one orifice for ingestion of food and excretion of
waste.
Pedal disc: aboral end, attached to substratum
Cnidocytes and Nematocyst
CNIDOCYTES
Ectodermal origin - Stinging cells - Produce cnidae (giant
secretory vesicle) which houses the nematocytes (stinging
organelle). Some are equipped with cnidocil
Cnidocil – trigger-like cilium/hairlike sensory process that
trigger discharge of nematocyst
 Cnidae house stinging organelles called
nematocysts that inject a toxin for prey capture and
defense. It consists of a chitinous “thread” with tiny
barbs or spines.
 Not all cnidae inject poison, but they can use these
“threads” to rapidly grasp prey with adhesive
Epitheliomuscular cells
 EPITHELIOMUSCULAR CELLS: perform
muscular contractions in an outer layer of
Zanoria, Carmelle R.
longitudinal fibers at the base of the epidermis, and
an inner layer of circular fibers at the base of the
gastrodermis.
 In hydras, the epidermal muscle fibers are
independent.
 Nerve net made up of nerve cells that create
synapses through diffuse conductions
 Statocysts
 Sensory organ
 Balance and orientation
Ocelli – photosensitive sense organ
Cnidarian Sexual Life Cycle (Medusa)
 Larva: Planula
 All Medusae forms reproduce sexually
 All Polypoid forms can undergo asexual
reproduction
 All Medusae form go through polyp stages, but not
all polypoids have medusa stages
• Dioecious (separate sexes)
• Fertilization is internal, with sperm being carried
by ciliary currents into the gastric pouch of
females.
Stage 1: internal fertilization of gametes > zygote >
Planula larva
Stage 2: Planula settles > polyp stage
Stage 3: Polyp undergoes strobilation > juvenile medusae
> adult
• Species with a life cycle of both attached polyp and
swimming medusa permits organisms to take
advantage of both open waters and benthic
environments (ex. all true jellyfishes of Class
Scyphozoa)
• Some cnidarians have life cycles that do not include
medusae (ex. all from Class Anthozoa, and Hydra)
Polyp Asexual Reproduction
 Budding
 Fission
 Pedal Laceration
Polyp Budding
Budding: a knob of tissue forms on the side of the polyp
and develops a mouth and tentacles. If the bud stays, as in
some species, it forms a colony. If it detaches, a clone is
formed.
- Polymorphism: occurs in colonies, where there is polyp
specialization for certain functions such as feeding,
reproduction, or defense.
Longitudinal Fission
Fission: a polyp divides in half as one side pulls away from
the other.
Pedal Laceration
Pedal Laceration: tissue torn from the pedal discs of
polyps develop into new polyps (ex. Sea anemones)
Feeding and Digestion
BS- Psychology II
BIO 044: General Zoology
Carnivorous
Catches prey with tentacles and pass them into mouth then
into gastrovascular cavity
• Extracellular digestion = gastrovascular cavity
• Intracellular digestion = gastrodermal cells >
produce gastric enzymes
• Food disintegrates into nutrients by digestive
enzymes
• Undigestible parts are later expelled (bones, shells,
etc.)
Classifications of Phylum Cnidaria
 Class HYDROZOA
 Class SCYPHOZOA
 Class CUBOZOA
 Class ANTHOZOA
 Subclass HEXACORALLIA
 Subclass CERIANTIPATHARIA
 Subclass OCTOCORALLIA
Class HYDROZOA (“hydra”, water serpent)
 Majority colonial, some solitary
 Can have just polyp stage, just medusa stage, or
both
 Mostly marine, some freshwater
 Gastrozooids/Hydranths: feeding polyps
 Gonozooids/Gonophore: medusa buds > planula
Typical hydroid composed of a base, stalk, one or more
terminal zooid
• Zooid: an individual polyp animal in a colony
• Hydrorhiza: a rootlike stolon where the base of
colonial hydroids attach to the substratum
• Hydrocauli: stalks that rise from the same
hydrocauli
• Gastrozooids/Hydranths: the feeding polyps in a
hydroid colony. They capture and ingest prey (tiny
crustaceans, worms, larvae) and provide nutrition
for the entire colony
Colonial hydroids bud off new individuals to increase size
of colony, or bud off medusae to leave the colony for sexual
reproduction.
In some species, medusae never develop. The gametes are
shed by male and female gonophores.
Some notable generas of Class Hydrozoa:
 Obelia “sea fur”
 Tubularia “pink-hearted hydroid”
 Hydra Solitary freshwater hydrozoan
 Physalia physalis “Portuguese Man o’ War”
 Free-swimming colonial hydrozoan (3 type of
medusoids and 4 polypoids)
 Mutualistic with Nomeus fish
 Nomeus gronovii (Man-o-war fish)
 Rather than using mucus
prevent nematocysts from firing, as is seen in
some of the clownfish sheltering among sea
anemones, the fish appears to use highly agile
swimming to physically avoid tentacles
Class SCYPHOZOA (“skyphos”, cup)
Zanoria, Carmelle R.
 True jellyfishes
 Drifts/swim in open sea upto 3000m deep
 Scalloped bells/umbrellas
 Tentacles or entire body may be supplied with
nematocysts
 Sexes separate
Some notable generas of Class Scyphozoa:
 Cassiopeia “Upside-down jellyfish”
 Symbiotic with the carrier crab (Dorippe
frascone), uses the jellyfish to defend itself
from predators
 Rhizostoma “barrel jellyfish / dustbin-lid jelly /
frilly-mouthed jelly”
 the favorite food of the leatherback turtle
 Cyanea capillata “Giant Jellyfish / Lion’s mane
jellyfish”
Class CUBOZOA (“cubo”, box)
 Tall, cube-shaped bell, tentacles found in corners of
square
 Bell/Umbrella not scalloped
 Predominant form is medusoid
 Verocious predators
 Fatal stings
 Polypoid form is unknown
 Fast swimmers
Some notable generas/species of Class Cubozoa:
 Tripedalia cystophora “Mangroove box jelly”
 Chironex fleckeri “sea wasp”
 “The most lethal jellyfish in the world”
Class ANTHOZOA (“anthos”, flower)
 Polyps with flowerlike appearance
 No medusoid stage
 All marine
 Solitary or colonial
 Forms supported by skeletons
Subclass HEXACORALLIA (Sea anemones, hard corals)
 Hexamerous symmetry (“hex”, 6 sides)
 Simple tubular tentacles around oral disc
Subclass OCTOCORALLIA (sea fans, sea pens, sea
pansies, soft and horny corals)
 Octomerous symmetry (“octo”, 8 sides)
 Always have 8 pinnate/featherlike tentacles around
oral disc
Subclass CERIANTIPATHARIA (Tube anemones, black
and thorny corals)
 Simple and unbranched tentacles
 Can burrow and build sand tubes
Chapter 7 – Part 3
Phylum Ctenophora: The Comb Jellies
CTENOPHORA
to
(Greek ktenos, “comb”, fera, “to bear”)
 ~150 species, all marine
 8 rows of ciliated comb-like plates
 Mostly free-swimming, few creeping or sessile
 Mostly in deep ocean, occationally come to surface
 Biradial symmetry; ellipsoidal or spherical shape
BS- Psychology II
BIO 044: General Zoology
 Diploblastic? Triploblastic? No one knows
 Complete gut
Anatomy of the Ctenophoran body:
• Colloblasts
• Muscle Fibers/Cells
• Mouth (with pharynx)
• Anal Pore
• 2 extensible tentacles
• Subepidermal plexus
 Nervous system; Sucker present only in Cestoda and Monogenea
 around mouth and beneath comb plates Syncytial tegument only in trematoda, monogenean, cestode
Colloblast: adhesive, catches prey Ciliated tegument only in turbellaria
Mucles fibers/cells control muscular contractions, instead Anatomy of a Flatworm:
of epitheliomuscular cells in cnidarians. Epidermis and Muscles
Ctenophoran Life Cycle  Free-living forms have a ciliated cellular
 Monoecious epidermis.
 Cydippid larva  Adult parasitic forms have a nonciliated body
Sample genera of Phylum Ctenophora: covering called a syncytial tegument or neodermis
 Pleurobrachia “Sea gooseberry”  Larval parasitic forms still have ciliated
 Mnemiopsis “Sea walnut” covering
 Cestum “Venus’ girdle”  The syncytial tegument is resistant to the
 Beroe immune system and digestive juices of the host
 Ctenoplana  Muscle fibers are found below the epidermis.
 Coeloplana  Parenchymal cells fills the space between muscles
and visceral organs.
Chapter 8  “Syncytial” means that many nuclei are enclosed
Phylum Platyhelminthes: within a single cell membrane
The Triploblastic, Acoelomated Body Plan  Larval forms shed ciliated covering once in contact
Phylum PLATYHELMINTHES (Greek platys, flat + with host
helmins, worm) Nutrition and Digestion
 Level of complexity: Tissue-organ grade  In general, they have a mouth, a pharynx, and an
(partially organ-system) intestine
 Range in sizes (<mm to many meters long)  Gut is incomplete. No anus, so undigested food is
 Bodies are slender, broadly leaflike, or long and egested through the pharynx.
ribbonlike  Food in the intestines undergo intracellular
 Has free-living forms and parasitic forms digestion by phagocytic cells of the gastrodermis.
 Habitat: Marine, freshwater, and moist terrestrial  In Class Turbellaria (planarian): pharynx is
 Bilateral symmetry, with body flattened enclosed in a pharyngeal sheath, and the intestine
dorsoventrally has 3 branches.
 No body cavity (acoelomate) – have only one  In Class Cestoda (tapeworms): have no digestive
internal space: the digestive cavity tract. Depends on host digestion, which they absorb
 Diploblasts also lack a coelom but are not called through their epidermis.
acoelomates; the term only applies to animals with Excretion and Osmoregulation
mesoderm  Protonephridia: excretory or osmoregulatory
 Paranchyma – a form of packing tissue containing organs; network of dead-end tubules lacking
more cells and fibers and less extracellular matrix internal openings
vs mesoglea of cnidarians  Flame cells: specialized excretory cell. Located at
 present between epidermis (from ectoderm) and the ends of protonephridia.
digestive lining (from endoderm)  Collecting ducts: collects fluids, mainly
 The phylum has no clear defining feature, or no osmoregulatory function.
single unique characteristic.  Excretory/Terminal pores: where fluids and waste
from collecting ducts are excreted out the body
Excretory – removes waste
Osmoregulatory – controls water balance
Proto = “first”

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BIO 044: General Zoology
In TREMATODA (flukes): have 2 collecting ducts that
empty in a excretory bladder, then exits through 1 excretory  Adults are endoparasites of vertebrates
pore
In MONOGENEA: have 2 excretory pores
In CESTODA: has 2 main excretory canals on each side
that are continuous through entire length of worm. The last  The mouth is at the anterior/cephalic end
segment of the worm has the excretory bladder that opens to  Structural adaptations for parasitism:
1 excretory pore
Nervous System
 Subepidermal nerve plexus: most primitive
nervous system; resembles nerve net of cnidarians
 Longitudinal nerve cords: usually 1 to 5 pairs Subclass DIGENEA (dis, double + genos, race)
found under muscle layer
 Cerebral Ganglia: the “primitive brain”; mass of
ganglion cells with neurons divided into sensory,
motor, and association types
Sense Organs
 Cephalization is present
 Ocelli: light-sensitive eyespots (common in
turbellarians, monogeneans, and larval trematodes)
 Auricles: tactile cells that form the earlike lobes on  Includes the most serious parasites of humans and
sides of the head of planarians
 Statocysts: for equilibrium
 Rheoreceptors: for sensing direction of water
currents
Reproduction and Regeneration
 Asexual reproduction by fission
 Planarians: can undergo regeneration.
 Flukes (parasitic): asexual reproduction occurs
in intermediate host, snails.
 Tapeworms (parasitic): budding off proglottids
 Sexual Reproduction: Almost all flatworms are
monoecious, but practice cross-fertalization
 Both male and female organs open through a
common genital pore
Reproductive system is complex, usually with well-
developed gonads, ducts, and accessory organs
Parasitic forms have complicated life cycles
 Tapeworms budding off its proglottids.
Classifications of Phylum Platyhelminthes
 Class TURBELLARIA (free-living)
 Class TREMATODA (flukes)
• Subclass DIGENEA
 Class MONOGENEA (fish flukes)
 Class CESTODA (tapeworms)
Class TURBELLARIA
 Mostly free-living
 Mouth on ventral sides and leads into gut cavity via
a pharynx
 Combine muscular with ciliary movements to
achieve locomotion
 Larger terrestrial turbellarians crawl in the same
manner of a snail
 Dugesia spp. (Common planarian)
 Pseudeceros spp. (marine flatworms)
Class TREMATODA
Zanoria, Carmelle R.
 All parasitic flukes
 Leaflike in form
 Monoecious
 Body covered with syncytial tegument without cilia
 Suckers: organs for adhesion
 Glands that produce cyst material
 Increased reproductive capacity
 Poorly developed sense organs
 Largest and best known Trematoda subclass
 Many species of medical and economic importance
 Have 2 suckers: oral sucker and ventral sucker
(or acetabulum)
 Complex life cycles: needs an mollusc
intermediate host, and a vertebrate final host
 Obligate parasites of different tissues and
circulatory system
domestic animals
 Oral sucker is part of the mouth, but ventral sucker
(acetabulum) functions only for attachment
 Cercaria: ciliated larval forms of flukes
 Larval forms penetrate the snail intermediate host.
 Clonorchis sinensis (Human Liver Fluke)
• Most important liver fluke of humans
• Common in eastern and southeast Asia
• Also infects cats, dogs, and pigs
• Normal habitat: Bile ducts of humans and fish-
eating mammals
• 2 intermediate hosts:
- Snail
- Cyprinid fish
• Eggs shed in water with the feces but do not hatch
until eaten by the snail IH
• Eggs hatch inside the snail, undergoes asexual
reproduction
• Cercaria excreted by snail and swims to find a fish
of family Cyprinidae
• Cercaria bore under scales into the fish’s muscle
where they loose their tail and encyst
• If mammal eats raw or undercooked infected fish,
cyst dissolves in intestines and young flukes
migrate to bile duct
• Flukes can live for 15 to 30 yrs
• Symptoms:
o Abdominal pain
o Liver cirrhosis
o Jaundice
o death
 Schistosoma spp. (Blood Flukes)
• Ranks among the major infectious diseases in the
world (200 million people infected)
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BIO 044: General Zoology
• Common in Africa, South America, Middle and Far
East
• Only dioecious fluke
• Large males have a gynecophoric canal, where
they embrace the long, slender female
• Eggs are discharged in human feces or urine into
water
• Eggs hatch and must find host snail within a few
hours to survive
• Undergoes asexual reproduction in the snail
• Cercariae escape from the snail and swims until
they contact and penetrate bare human skin
• Once inside body, they shed off tail and enter blood
vessels
• Undergoes a period of development in the liver Class CESTODA
before migrating to other sites
• Eggs are released by females and travel the body. If
they are extruded through wall of veins of gut or
bladder, they are released through feces and urine
• If eggs cannot leave body, it continues to travel
through different tissues and become the source of
the ill effects of the disease (intestinal wall
ulceration, bladder ulceration, abscesses, bloody
diarrhea with abdominal pain)
 Paragonimus westermani. (Lung Flukes)
• Infects wild carnivores, humans, pigs, rodent
• 2 intermediate hosts:
o Snail
o Freshwater crab
• Infection through eating raw/undercooked crab
meat
• Causes breathing difficulties that could be fatal
• Eggs are coughed up in the sputum, swallowed,
then eliminated with feces
• Hatches in water and penetrate snail host,
undergoes asexual reproduction
• Cercaria leaves snail host and infects crab, which
will encyst in crab tissue
When raw or undercooked meat is eaten by a suitable hosts,
the cyst wall dissolves, the scolex evaginates and attached
to intestinal wall and new proglottids begin to develop.
Class MONOGENEA
 Members all parasites of gills and external surface
of fishes
 Formerly part of Trematoda
 Opisthaptor: a posterior attachment organ with
hooks, suckers, and clamps
 Seem to cause little damage to their hosts under
normal conditions
Zanoria, Carmelle R.
 Tapeworms; adults are parasites in the digestive
tract of vertebrates.
 Have long flat bodies composed of:
 Scolex: provided with sucker/ suckerlike organs
or hooks to attach itself to host
 Strobila: the segmented part. Consists of a long
chain of proglottids.
 Proglottids: reproductive units
 Germinative zone: area just behind scolex
where new proglottids are formed.
 Lack a digestive system. Absorbs nutrient from host
through its tegument.
 Excretory and nervous similar to other flatworms
 No special sense organs
 Each proglottid is Monoecious. Can self or cross-
fertilize.
 Produces shelled embryos that are expelled through
a uterine pore
 Entire proglottids can break off from worm and can
still expel eggs
 Cysticercus (bladder worm): juvenile tapeworm
at a stage in which the scolex is inverted in a sac.
o Found encysted in the muscle tissues of host
 Taenia saginata (Beef Tapeworm)
• Juvenile forms occur in the muscles of cattle, adult
form occurs in human intestine
• Scolex has 4 suckers but no hooks
 Taenia solium (Pork Tapeworm)
• Juvenile forms occur in the muscles of pigs, adult
form occurs in human small intestine
• Scolex has both suckers and hooks arranged on its
tip (rostellum)
• More dangerous than T. saginata because the
cysticerci and adults can migrate to different organs
and cause cysticercosis.
 Dipylidium caninum (Dog tapeworm)
 Anoplocephala perfoliata (Horse tapeworm)
BS- Psychology II
BIO 044: General Zoology
 Hymenolepis diminuta and Hymenolepis nana  Digestion is intracellular
(Rodent tapeworm)  Intestines is one cell-layer thick
Food is sucked into mouth by contraction of anterior
Chapter 9 portion of pharyngeal muscles and then pushed down when
Phylum Nematoda and Nematomorpha: the muscles relax
The Pseudocoelomate Body Plan Food matter moves through nonmuscular intestine by body
Phylum NEMATODA (Greek nematos, “thread”) movements and by additional food being passed into the
 Level of complexity: Organ-system grade intestines
 25,000 named species (possible 50,000 species) Defecation accomplished by muscles that simply pulls anus
 Cosmopolitan distribution (sea, freshwater, soil) open
 Includes free-living and also parasites Nervous System
 Most important parasitic group: causes economic  Starts with a ring of nerve tissue and ganglia
loss in animal and plant-based livelihoods around the pharynx, which then gives rise to 2
 Many microscopic, but some can be as long as 1 nerve cords (ventral and dorsal nerve cord)
meter  Sensory papillae: found around head and tail
Distinguishing characteristics:  Amphids: pair of complex sensory organs that open
 Cylindrical shape on each side of the head, which enters into a pore
 Flexible cuticle with dendrites
 Lack of motile cilia or flagella (except in one  reduced in parasitic nematodes
species)  Phasmids: similar to amphids but found in
 More complex muscles posterior end (only in parasitic nematodes)
 Excretory system has no protonephridia
 Muscular pharynx
 Triploblastic Reproductive System
 Pseudocoelomate (no peritoneum): Fluid-filled  Most nematodes are dioecious, some monoecious.
pseudocoel contains the internal organs  Males are smaller than females
Anatomy of a Nematode  Copulatory spicules: needle-like mating structures
Epidermis found in posterior end of males to facilitate transfer
 Cuticle: thick, noncellular, outer covering of sperm
 Shed during juvenile growth stages  Nematode sperm lack flagellum and acrosome
 Comes in several layers  Fertilization is internal
 Made of collagen  Eggs stored in uterus until deposition
 Has high turgor to protect worm from hostile  Females have a genital pore where sperm is
environments received and eggs are released
 Hypodermis: underlying epidermal syncytium that  Growth from juvenile to adult via
secretes the cuticle molting/shedding of cuticle
Muscles  Life-cycle in parasitic forms may require
 Body-wall muscles lie beneath hypodermis and intermediate hosts
contracts longitudinally only  Many parasitic nematodes have free-living juvenile
 No circular muscle fibers stages
 Each muscle cell has: Copulatory spicules do not conduct sperm, but holds the
 Spindle = contractile fibrillar portion; has vulva of a female open while ejaculatory muscles rapidly
actin and myosin inject the sperm into here reproductive tract
 Cell body = noncontractile sarcoplasmic Nematode sperm become ameboid inside female
portion, contains the nucleus and a major depot reproductive tract and move by pseudopods
for glycogen storage in worm Representative Nematode Parasites:
 Muscle process = an “arm” from each cell  Intestinal Roundworms
body that extends to the ventral or dorsal nerve o Ascaris lumbricoides
of the worm o Toxocara spp.
Digestive System  Hookworms
 Consists of: o Necator americanus
 Mouth o Ancylostoma spp.
 Muscular pharynx  Trichina worms
 Long nonmuscular intestine o Trichinella spiralis
 Short rectum  Pinworms
 Terminal anus o Enterobius vermicularis

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BIO 044: General Zoology
 Whipworms
o Trichuris trichiura
 Filarial worms
o Wuchereria bancrofti
o Dirofilaria immitis
 Caenorhabditis elegans (Free-living nematode)
• The most common and well studied free-living
nematode
• Hermaphrodite (only few are males)
• Transparent and almost microscopic
• Has gut granules in intestines (unknown function)
• Feeds on bacteria and yeast that develop in
decaying organic matter
 Ascaris lumbricoides (The Large Roundworm of
Humans)
• The most common nematode parasite in humans
(1.27 billion people infected worldwide)
• Female may lay upto 200,000 eggs a day (carried
by feces)
• Eggs can hatch in soil and become infective
juveniles within 2 weeks
• Eggs and shelled juveniles can remain viable for
many months to years in soil
• Mode of Transmission: Feco-oral (spread via
unsanitary defecation habits)
• Infective juveniles can burrow through intestinal
wall into veins or lymph vessels and then carried to
heart and lungs
 Ascaris suum (The Large Roundworm of Pigs)
• Ascaris suum (large roundworm of pigs) is
morphologically close to A. lumbricoides and was
long thought to be the same species
• Life-cycle similar to A. lumbricoides
• Zoonotic: can also infect humans
 Toxocara canis (Intestinal Roundworm of Dogs)
• Life-cycle similar to Ascaris, but juveniles do not
complete tissue migration in adult dog
• But in pregnant bitches, juveniles can wander and
infect embryos in uterus
• Zoonotic: Do not complete life-cycle in humans,
but causes visceral and ocular larval migrans
 Necator americanus (Human hookworm)
• Anterior end curves dorsally (hook-like)
• Females can reach 11 mm long
• Have large mouth plates/”teeth” to cut into
intestinal wall of host
• Blood-suckers
• Heavy infections can lead to anemia
• In children, can lead to retarded mental and
physical growth
• Juveniles hatch in soil and are free-living until they
come in contact with skin where they can burrow
into host
• Route in host body is similar to Ascaris.
 Ancylostoma caninum (Canine hookworm)
• Similar life-cycle as Necator with free-living stage
Zanoria, Carmelle R.
• Also penetrates host’s skin through hair follicles
• Larva can cross the placenta and infect foetuses
(prenatal transmission)
• Can also enter mammary glands and transferred to
puppies through milk
• Zoonotic: can cause cutaneous larval migrans
 Trichinella spiralis (Trichina worm of pork)
• Tiny nematode
• Females are ovoviviparous and produce living
young in the small intestinal wall
• Juveniles enter blood vessels are travel the body,
where they are found in almost any tissue
• Eventually penetrate skeletal muscle cells and
encysts
• Mode of transmission: eating raw/undercooked
pork with encysted juveniles
• Also infects rats, cats, dogs, and humans
• No free-living stage. Spends entire life in host
 Enterobius vermicularis (The Human Pinworm)
• Most common nematode parasite in children (30%),
but causes relatively little disease
• Adults live in large intestine
• Female migrate to anus at night to lay eggs (very
itchy)
• Scratching contaminates hands and bedclothes
• When accidentally swallowed, they hatch in small
intestine, then mature in large intestine
• Eggs are seldom found in feces because eggs are
deposited on skin around anus (“scotch tape
method” is better than fecalysis)
 Wuchereria bancrofti (Human filarial worm)
• Causative agent of elephantiasis
• Adult worms live in lymphatic system, causing
inflammation and obstruction which leads to edema
(swelling) of affected parts (usually legs and arms)
• Microfilariae: larval form that is ingested by
mosquitos, where it will develop to its infective
stage
• Mode of transmission: bite of infected mosquitos.
 Dirofilaria immitis (Canine heartworm)
• Causative agent of dirofilariasis/heartworm
• Mode of transmission: bite of infected mosquitos.
• Microfilaria are located throughout the circulatory
system, but adult worms are found in the pulmonary
artery of the heart
Phylum NEMATOMORPHA
(Greek nematos, “thread” + morphe, “form:”)
 A.k.a. horsehair worms
 Previously a member of Nematoda (also has cuticle,
absence of circular muscles, same pattern of
nervous system)
 320 named species, found worldwide
 Free-living adults
 Juveniles are parasites of arthropods
Anatomy of a Horsehair Worm
 Body wall and muscles similar to Nematoda
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BIO 044: General Zoology
 Body extremely long and slender
 Digestive system is vestigial, with little function
and no anus
 Juveniles absorb food from hosts through body wall
 Adults can still absorb nutrients from vestigial gut
and body wall, but tends to live entirely on stored Anatomy of an Annelid
nutrients
 Lacks circulatory, respiratory and excretory system
Horsehair Worm Life Cycle
 Poorly understood
 Dioecious.
 Females discharge eggs into water
 Juveniles may encyst on vegetation to be likely
eaten by grasshopper or other arthropod; may also
infect host via drinking water
 In some cases, development continues even after
first host is eaten by a second host (as long as its an
arthropod)
 Juvenile worm stays in hemocoel (fluid in body
cavity of insects)
 Worms do not emerge from host unless water is
nearby (If the host is a terrestrial insect, parasite Digestive system
will stimulate host to seek water)
 Paragordius spp. Horsehair worm of the crickets
Chapter 10
Phylum Annelida: The Metameric Body Form
Phylum ANNELIDA
(Latin annelus, “little rings”)
 Segmented worms: includes earthworms, leeches,
and marine bristle worms, lugworms, and
clamworms
 15,000 species
 Worldwide distribution. 1 class is chiefly marine, Crop of leeches can hold upto 5x the leech’s mass in blood.
the rest are freshwater and terrestrial.
 Most free-living, some symbiotic, some down of food and absorption of nutrients
ectoparasitic
 Bilaterally symmetrical, often with distinct head
 Triploblastic, eucoelomate
 Level of complexity: Organ-system grade
Annelida External Body Plan
 Two(2)-part Head Portion:
 Prostomium: part of 1st segment. It is in front Respiratory and Circulatory system
of (but does not include) the mouth, usually a
small lip-like extension over the mouth.
Sometimes bear sensory palps or tentacles.
 Peristomium: 1 TRUE body segment.
st
Directly behind prostomium and contains the
mouth. Predatory/parasitic forms may contain
jaws or teeth.
 Segmented Body:
 New segments develop just in front of the
pygidium
 Oldest segments at anterior end
 Youngest segments at posterior end
Zanoria, Carmelle R.
 Each segments contains circulatory, respiratory,
nervous, and excretory structures, as well as a
coelom
 Pygidium: the terminal portion. Also bears the
anus.
Integumentary and Muscular system
 Epithelium secretes thin outer layer of cuticle made
of collagen
 Setae: tiny bristles made of chitin found in
epidermis. Usually paired.
 Short and needle-like in earthworms, to anchor
segments during locomotion
 Long and hair-like in polychaetes, usually for
swimming.
 Absent in leeches
 Bodies divided into similar segments (metameres)
arranged in linear series and externally marked by
circular rings (annuli)
 Body wall with outer circular and inner longitudinal
muscle layers
 Complete and not segmentally arranged
 Typical annelid digestive tract:
1. Mouth
2. Muscular pharynx
3. Esophagus
4. Crop: acts like an expanding storage
compartment. Absent in some earthworms.
5. Gizzard: strong, muscular organ. For
grounding food and minerals.
6. Intestines
7. Anus
Intestines may contain bacteria to assist in the breaking
Nervous system
 Consists of a double ventral nerve cord and a pair of
ganglia with lateral nerves in each segment
 “Brain”: Paired dorsal cerebral ganglia, present
around the pharynx, and connected to ventral nerve
cord
 Lack a well-developed respiratory system
 Gas exchange occurs across moist body surface
 Some polychaetes have gills
 Closed circulatory system:
 Aortic Arches: the “hearts”, usually 5 pairs.
Pumps blood to the 2 main blood vessels
 2 major blood vessels (Dorsal blood vessel and
Ventral blood vessel): runs parallel to
alimentary canal
 Transverse vessels in each segment (branched
off from major vessels)
 Blood vessels further branch off to smaller
capillaries
BS- Psychology II
BIO 044: General Zoology
 Annelid blood contains haemoglobin.  Peristomium may bear setae around mouth or
Excretory system chitinous jaws
 Metanephridia:  Some segments have Parapodia: paired muscular
 primitive “kidney” bristle-bearing appendages used for locomotion,
 Removes waste from blood and the coelom anchorage, sensation.
 Typically paired and found in each segment  Serves as chief means of respiration, although
(except the first 3 and the last one) some have gills.
 Nephridiopore:
 terminal opening where waste and water is
Reproduction in Polychaeta:
excreted out the body.
 Dioecious
 Found near the ventral row of setae in each
 Called “Atokes” when sexually immature, and
segment
“Epitokes” when mature
Reproductive system
 No permanent sex organs: reproductive organs
 Some can asexually reproduce by fission and
(gonads) appear as temporary swellings of the
fragmentation/budding (usually polychaetes)
peritonium
 Earthworms are capable of regeneration
 Fertilization is external: gametes exit via gonoducts
 Sexual reproduction:
(but some through metanephridia or rupture of body
 Leeches and earthworms are monoecious (but
wall)
practice cross-fertilization), with permanent
 Trochophore: early larval form
gonads.
 Polychaetes: dioecious with temporary or
Some species of polychaetes:
seasonal gonads.
 Nereis spp. (Clam worms/Sand worms)
 Clitellum: a thickened glandular, nonsegmented
- Errant polychaeta
section of body wall near the head in earthworms
 Hermodice carunculata (Fireworm)
and leeches
- Errant polychaeta; poisonous
 not present in polychaetes
 Spirobranchus giganteus (Christmas-tree worm)
 Functions to store the eggs
- sedentary, tube-dwelling polychaeta
 Secretes a viscid sac-like cocoon in which eggs
Class OLIGOCHAETA
are deposited
(Greek oligus, “few” + chaite, “long hair”)
 Only seen when worm is sexually mature
 >3000 species of mostly terrestrial or freshwater
Clitellum in earthworms will turn orange when they are
forms
ready to mate.
 Setae is less numerous than polychaetes
Classification of Phylum Annelida:
 Head indistinct/absent (but still display
 Class POLYCHAETA (Marine annelids)
cephalization)
 Class OLIGOCHAETA (Earthworms)
 Number of segments are variable
 Class HIRUDINIDA (Leeches)
 Scavengers, feeding on decaying organic matter and
Class POLYCHAETA
vegetation
(Greek poly, “many” + chaite, “long hair”)
 Most well-known and well-studied member is
 Largest class of annelids (>10,000 species)
Lumbricus terrestris (the common earthworm)
 Mostly marine, some freshwater
Additional/Unique structures in Oligochaeta:
 Has a distinct head
 Prostomium is lip-like to manipulate food into
 Many can tolerate a wide range of environmental
position to the mouth
salinity
 The crop stores food temporarily before being
 Mostly live under rocks, coral crevices, or in
passed to the gizzard, which grinds food into small
abandoned shells
pieces
 Some burrow into mud or sand and build their own
 Chloragogen tissue: surrounds the intestine and
tubes
dorsal blood vessel. Center for the synthesis of
 Important in marine food chain (eaten by fish,
glycogen and fat (function is almost equivalent to
crustaceans, hydroids, etc.)
liver cells)
 Some members are sedentary, some are errant
Reproduction in Oligochaeta:
(free-moving)
 Monoecious (cross-fertilization)
Additional/Unique structures in Polychaeta:
 External fertilization
 Prostomium may have eyes, tentacles, and sensory
 Reproductive systems of Lumbricus found in
palps.
segments 9 to 15.
 Eyes: may range from simple eyespots to well-
 Male genital ducts are found in segment 15,
developed organs
where they are expelled during copulation

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BIO 044: General Zoology
 Female genital pores are found in segment 14,
where the eggs will be discharged
 Sperm from mate is received and stored in 2
pairs of seminal vesicles in segments 9 and 10
 When mating, worms bring their anterioventral
surfaces together and held together by mucus
secreted by the clitellum
 The mucus will move anteriorly until it passes the
worm, while carrying the sperm and the eggs.
 mucus will form a cocoon where fertilization
and embryogenesis will take place.
 Development is direct, with no metamorphosis:
eggs will hatch to a young worm looking similar to
an adult but with no clitellum yet.
General Behavior of Earthworms:
 Among the most defense-less of creatures
 No specialized sense organs, but very sensitive to
stimuli
 Chemical and tactile responses are very important:
will not just sample food, but must also sense its
texture, acidity, and calcium content.
 Experiments show that earthworms have some
learning ability (ex. Can be taught to avoid electric
shock; can learn by trial and error)
Class HIRUDINIDA
 Divided into 3 orders, but only members under
Order HIRUDINEA are considered the “true”
leeches
 True leeches have fixed number of segments
(approx. 34 segments), but has many annuli
 More specialized than oligochaetes.
 Setae is absent
 Predominantly freshwater, few marine, some moist
terrestrials
 More abundant in tropical regions
 Almost flattened dorsoventally
 Known ectoparasites of carnivores and small
invertebrates
Additional/Unique structures in Hirudinida:
 Only annelid that lack distinct coelomic
compartment (other annelids have 2)
 Lacunae: a system of closely-packed spaces within
the coelomic cavity. Made of connective tissue and
muscle.
 Crop: can hold upto 5x the leech’s mass in blood.
 Chitinous jaws/cutting plates: for cutting through
skin in order to feed on blood
 Gills: present only in parasitic leeches of fish
 Possess anterior and posterior suckers used for
locomotion (instead of setae)
 Crawls with looping movements by attaching
one sucker then the other
Reproduction in Hirudinida:
 Monoecious (cross-fertilization)
 Also has clitellum
Zanoria, Carmelle R.
 Sperm are transferred by a penis/spermatophore that
penetrates the integument of their mate
(hypodermic impregnation)
 After copulation, formation of mucus cocoon is
similar to oligochaetes
 Leeches may bury cocoon in mud, or attach them to
submerged objects
 Development is similar to oligochaetes
General Behavior of Leeches:
 Highly sensitive to stimuli associated with presence
of a prey/host
 Attracted to host via body heat/warmth of animal,
oil secretions, or sweat
Some species of Hirudinida:
 Hirudo medicinalis (Medicinal leech)
 Haementeria ghilianii (Giant Amazon leech)
Chapter 11
Phylum Arthropoda: Success in Diversity
Phylum ARTHROPODA
(Greek arthron, “joint” + podos, “foot”)
 The most species-diverse phylum in the animal
kingdom (3/4th of all known species)
 Utilize all modes of feeding: carnivory, herbivory,
omnivory, and some parasitic
 Most widely distributed in all kinds of habitats,
some surviving in places where no other animal
could survive
 Segmented bodies
 Bilateral symmetry
 Triploblastic body
 Definite cephalization
Segmentation and Body Plan
 Segmented body divided into functional groups call
Tagmata:
 Head and trunk (sP Myriapoda)
 Head, thorax, abdomen (sP Hexapoda)
 Cephalothorax and abdomen (sP Crustacea,
sP Chelicerata)
Ancestral arthropod body plan likely just a linear series of
similar segments, each with a pair of jointed appendages
Appendages
 Appendages jointed and specialized for different
forms of labor (locomotion, feeding, etc.)
 May be either Uniramous (series of segments
attached end-to-end), or Biramous (2 branches,
each is a series of segments)
 Limb segments are hollow levers moved by internal
muscles
Cuticular Exoskeleton
 highly protective covering, without sacrificing
flexibility and mobility
 Arthropodization: the critical stiffening of the
cuticle to form a jointed exoskeleton
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BIO 044: General Zoology
 Cuticle: makes up the hard exoskeleton. Composed Reproduction
mainly of chitin and sometimes calcium
carbonate.
 The cuticle may be soft and permeable or may form
a coat of armor
 Also adopted for biting mouthparts, sensory organs,
copulatory organs, and ornamental purposes
Cuticle consists of:
 Epicuticle: outer, thin layer made of protein
that hardens to increase its protective
capability (called sclerotization)
 Procuticle: inner, thick but flexible layer. It is
further divided into:
• Exocuticle (secreted before molting)
• Endocuticle (secreted after molting)
o The cuticle is nonexpansible: impose restrictions on
growth
o Molting: shedding of outer covering at internals
and grow a larger one. The process of molting
terminates at the actual shedding of the skin (called
ecdysis)
o Can become heavier as body size increases.
o Terrestrial arthropods may be limited in body size
Digestive system
 Complete (mouth to anus)
 Digestive tract divided into foregut (lined with
cuticle), midgut, and hindgut (lined with cuticle)
 Mouthparts modified to adopt for different methods
of feeding
 Mouthparts modified to adopt for different methods
of feeding
Muscular System
 Complex muscular system
 Ingrowths in the cuticle to which muscles attach
 Striated muscles are abundant inside hollow limbs
and appendages for rapid actions
 Smooth muscles for visceral organs
Nervous and Sensory system
 Similar to annelids
 Dorsal brain connected by a ring around the
gullet to a paired nerve chain of ventral ganglia
(fusion of ganglia in some species)
 Sensory organs are well-developed (ex.
Compound/mosaic eye)
 Behavioral patterns much more complex than those
of most invertebrates, with wider occurrence of Subphylum Chelicerata
social organization
Zanoria, Carmelle R.
 Usually dioecious, most with sexual dimorphism
 Reproductive organs and ducts are paired (due to
bilateral symmetry)
 Usually internal fertilization
 Oviparous, ovoviviparous, or viviparous
 Parthenogenesis in some groups
 Many arthropods pass through metamorphic
changes, including a larval form that is
morphologically different from the adult
 Larval forms often are adapted for eating food
different from the adults, and they occupy a
different space, resulting in less competition within
a species.
Excretory system
 In some groups, paired excretory glands consisting
of either:
 Coxal glands: consist of a sac that collects
urine, a tubule for secretion and reabsorbtion,
and an excretory pore at the base of the legs
 Maxillary glands: the excretory pore is at the
base of the maxillae
 Antennel glands: the excretory pore is at the
base of antennae
 Malpighian tubules system: type of excretory and
osmoregulatory system consisting of branching
tubules extending from the alimentary canal that
absorbs solutes, water, and waste from surrounding
hemolymph
Respiration and Circulation
 Respiration is through:
 Body surfaces
 Gills (if aquatic)
 Trachea: cuticle-lined air tubes that branche
throughout the body and open in tine holes
called spiracles
 Book lungs: a series of highly vascular plates
that serves as respiratory system in arachnid
arthropods)
 Circulatory system is open, with a dorsal contractile
heart, arteries, and blood sinuses called hemocoel
Subphylums under Arthropoda
 Subphylum CHELICERATA
 Class MEROSTOMATA (horseshoe crabs)
 Class PYCNOGONIDA (sea spiders)
 Class ARACHNIDA (spiders, scorpions,
mites, ticks)
 Subphylum MYRIAPODA
 Class CHILOPODA (centipedes)
 Class DIPLOPODA (millipedes)
 Subphylum CRUSTACEA
 Class MALACOSTRACA (crabs, lobsters,
crayfish)
 Subphylum HEXAPODA (all 6-legged insects)
 Class INSECTA
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BIO 044: General Zoology
Subphylum CHELICERATA “claw and horn”
 Ancient group
 Arthropod body plan consists of 2 tagmata:
 Cephalothorax (“Prosoma”)
 Abdomen (“Opisthosoma”)
 6 pairs of appendages found in there cephalothorax:
 1 pair of mouthparts (“Chelicerae”)
 1 pair of pedipalps
 4 pairs of walking legs
 No antennae
 Sucks liquid food from their prey
[P: Arthropoda > sP: Chelicerata]
Class MEROSTOMATA
 Contains eurypterids (all extinct), and horseshoe
crabs
 Called the “living fossils”, with only 3 genera (a
total of 4 species) survive today
 Aquatic marine (prefers shallow water)
 Carapace: hard unsegmented, horseshoe-shapes
dorsal shield
 Telson: long tailpiece
 Have book gills on ventral abdomen
 2 pairs of eyes:
 1 pair of lateral, rudimentary eyes
 1 pair of simple eyes on the carapace
 Can swim and walk
 Comes to shore by the thousands during breeding
season
 Limulus spp. (Atlantic horseshoe crab)
[P: Arthropoda > sP: Chelicerata]
Class PYCNOGONIDA
 Includes sea spiders (~1000 species)
 Marine (shallow, coastal, deep). Most abundant in
polar waters
 Some are only millimetres long. Larger species can
reach legspans near 1 meter.
 Unique among chelicerates because segments are
duplicated (so they have 5 to 6 pairs of legs instead
of 4 pairs)
 Small head with 2 pairs of simple eyes
 Mouth is at the tip of a long proboscis
 Males carry the developing eggs in a pair of legs
called ovigers
 Because of small body, digestive system and
gonads have branches that extend to the legs
 Nymphon spp. - largest genus of pycnogonids (>200
species)
[P: Arthropoda > sP: Chelicerata]
Class ARACHNIDA
 80,000 species
 Exhibit enormous anatomical variation
 Free-living. Common in warm, dry regions
 Have 2 tagmata:
 Cephalothorax (1 pair of chelicerae, 1 pair
pedipalps, 4 pairs of walking legs
Zanoria, Carmelle R.
 Abdomen (may or may not be segmented; houses
reproductive and respiratory organs)
 Mostly predators (with fangs, claws, venom glands,
or stingers)
 Order ARANEAE (Spiders)
 Order SCORPIONES (Scorpions)
 Order OPILIONES (harvestmen)
 Order ACARI (ticks and mites)
Subphylum Myriapoda
Subphylum MYRIAPODA “Many footed”
 Body plan consists of 2 tagmata:
• Head
• Trunk
 Head appendages consist of 1 pair of antennae, 1
pair of mandibles, and 1 or 2 pairs of maxillae
 Trunk has many segments, with a pair of
appendages on each
[P: Arthropoda > sP: Myriapoda] Class CHILOPODA
 Centipedes (3,000 species worldwide)
 Terrestrial, preferring moist places under logs, bark,
and stone
 Flattened bodies
 Venomous claws
 Each segment bears a pair of jointed legs (except 1 st
segment behind head and last 2)
 Last pair of legs is longer and have sensory function
 Very fast, agile carnivores (feeds on other insects
and earthworms)
 Strong mandibles adopted for chewing
 Head has a pair of antennae, a pair of dorsal eyes
and groups of ocelli
 Dioecious; ovoviviparous/viviparous; no
metamorphosis
 Scutigera spp. (Common house centipede)
 Scolopendra gigantea (Amazonian giant centipede)
[P: Arthropoda > sP: Myriapoda] Class DIPLOPODA
 Millipedes (10,000 species worldwide)
 Not as active as centipedes; walk slowly in a
graceful motion
 Terrestrial, prefers dark, moist places
 Cylindrical body with 25 to >100 segments
 Each abdominal segment has 2 pairs of legs (larval
forms only 1 pair)
 Exoskeleton reinforced with calcium carbonate
 Head has 2 clumps of ocellis, 1 pair antennae,
mandibles, and maxilla
 Herbivorous, feeds on decayed plant material but
some eat live plants
 May roll into a coil when disturbed
 Repugnatorial glands: special glands on sides of
body that secrete toxic/repellent fluids as defence
mechanism
 Archispirosteptus gigas (Giant African
Millipede/Shongololo)
Subphylum Crustacea
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BIO 044: General Zoology
Subphylum CRUSTACEA “Shell”
 “the insects of the sea”: mainly marine, many
freshwater, few terrestrial
 2 pairs of antennae, 2 pairs of maxillae, 2 pairs
mandibles
 In some groups, not all segment bear appendages
 Depending on species, segments can be 16 to 60+
 The more segments, the more ancestral
 Major tagmata:
 Head (5 fused segments)
 Thorax (8 segments)
 Abdomen (6 or 7 segments)
 In some groups, tagmata is reduced to
cephalothorax and abdomen only
 Rostrum: nonsegmented anterior end
 Telson: nonsegmented posterior end
 Uropods: part of last abdominal segment that forms
a tail in many forms
 Carapace: dorsal section of exoskeleton that may
cover or fuse with some or all of thoracic and/or
abdominal segments
 Chela: the claw/nipper/pincer. Usually the 1st pair
(sometimes 2nd pair, or both) of limbs
 Dioecious (only barnacles are monoecious, but
cross-fertilize), some parthenogenic
 Brooders (cares for their eggs)
 Most crustaceans undergo metamorphosis
 Larval form: Nauplius (only has 3 pairs of
appendages)
 Crayfishes have direct development (no larva, no
metamorphosis)
 Further growth and development is through
molting
[P: Arthropoda > sP: Crustacea]
Class MALACOSTRACA
 Largest and most diverse class of Crustacea (20,000
species)
 Ancestral class. Body plan is the standard for
Crustacea
 Orders ISOPODA and AMPHIPODA: have no
carapace
 Orders EUPHAUSIACEA and DECAPODA:
have carapace
 Order DECAPODA: have complex eyes
 Order ISOPODA (isopods)
 Order AMPHIPODA (amphipods)
 Order EUPHAUSIACEA (krill)
 Order DECAPODA (shrimp, crabs, lobsters)
Subphylum Hexapoda
Subphylum HEXAPODA “six legs”
 3 tagmata:
 Head (6 fused segments, with appendages)
 Thorax (3 segments, with appendages including
3 pairs of jointed legs)
 Abdomen (usually 11 segments, appendages
absent)
Zanoria, Carmelle R.
 1 pair of antennae
 Mouthparts modified for different food habits
 Dioecious
 Usually oviparous; with metamorphosis
[P: Arthropoda > sP: Hexapoda] Class INSECTA
 Most diverse and abundant of all groups of
arthropods (1.1 million species recorded)
 Entomology: study of insects
 Well-developed, outwards projecting mouthparts
 Usually with 1 or 2 pairs of wings on thoracic
region
 Sclerites: a complex system of 4 plates that forms
its exoskeleton
 Tergum: dorsal plates
 Sternum: ventral plates
 Pleura: paired lateral sides
HEAD
 Head bears a pair of large compound eyes, a pair of
antennae, and 2 ocelli
 Antennae act as tactile, olfactory, and auditory
organs
 The type out mouthparts that an insect possess
determines how it feeds
THORAX
 Thorax consist of 3 segments, each bearing a pair of
legs:
 Prothorax
 Mesothorax (with a pair of wings)
 Metathorax (with a pair of wings)
 Legs also modified for species purposes depending
on insect
ABDOMEN
 9 to 11 segments
 Cerci: a pair of appendages on the posterior end of
the eleventh segment if present (sensory organs, but
can be modified for copulation or defence like
pincers)
 In larval/nymphal forms, appendages are present in
abdomen but become absent in adult
 Genitalia is found in segments 8 and 9
 Order EPHEMOREPTERA (mayflies)
 Order ODONATA (dragonflies, damselflies)
 Order ORTHOPTERA (grasshoppers, locusts,
crickets)
 Order BLATTODEA (cockroaches)
 Order PHASMATODEA (walkingsticks, leaf
insects)
 Order MANTODEA (mantis)
 Order DERMAPTERA (earwigs)
 Order ISOPTERA (termites)
 Order PHTHIRAPTERA (lice)
 Order HIMEPTERA (true bugs: bedbugs,
assassin bugs, stink bugs, cicadas etc.)
 Order COLEOPTERA (beetles, weevils,
fireflies)
 Order LEPIDOPTERA (butterflies and moths)
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BIO 044: General Zoology
 Order DIPTERA (true flies: mosquitos, fruit
flies, house fly, etc.)
 Order SIPHONEPTERA (fleas)
 Order HYMENOPTERA (ants, bees, wasps)
Chapter 12
Phylum Mollusca
Phylum MOLLUSCA (Latin molluscus, “soft”)
 90,000 living species (70,000 fossil species)
 Soft bodied invertebrates
 Modes of feeding may be herbivorous, predaceous
carnivores, filter feeders, or parasitic
 Marine, freshwater, and terrestrial habitats
 Bilaterally symmetrical (bilateral asymmetry in
some)
 Unsegmented; often with definite head
 Level of complexity: organ-system grade
MOLLUSCAN BASIC BODY PLAN
1) Head-foot portion:
 The more active area
 Contains organs of feeding, cephalic sensory,
and locomotion
 Depends on muscular action for its function
2) Visceral mass portion:
 Contains digestive, circulatory, respiratory, and
reproductive organs
 Depends primarily on ciliary tracts for its
function
 Includes the mantle, gills or a lung, and a
protective shell
1) HEAD-FOOT PORTION
 Well-developed heads that bears the mouth and
some specialized sensory organs
 Eyes: simple to complex forms
 Tentacles often present
 Radula: structure unique to Mollusca; a rasping,
protrusible, tonguelike organ found within the
mouth (not present in bivalves and solenogasters)
 Consists of a ribbonlike membrane with rows of
tiny teeth pointing backwards
 Odontophore: complex muscles that move the
radula in and out the mouth
 Function: for tearing and rasping fine particles
of food materials
Zanoria, Carmelle R.
 Foot: a ventral, solelike structure for locomotion;
may be modified to winglike of finlike for
swimming
2) VISCERAL MASS PORTION
 Mantle: a sheath of skin that hangs down on each
side of the body to protecting the soft parts of the
visceral mass.
 Outer surface of the mantle secretes the shell
 Mantle cavity: the space between the mantle and
visceral mass
 houses the respiratory organs (gills or lungs)
 Products from the digestive, excretory, and
reproductive systems are emptied into the
mantle cavity
 In cephalopods, the cavity can create a jet
propulsion for locomotion
 Shell: secreted and lined by the mantle. Absent in
some groups. Has 3 layers:
 Periostracum: outer layer, composed of
conchiolin
 Prismatic layer: middle layer, composed of
calcium carbonate
 Nacreous layer: very thin inner layer called
“nacre” that lies next to the mantle; increases
in thickness during life of animal; composed of
crystalline calcium carbonate; may be
iridescent
Digestive System
 Complex digestive system
 Complete (mouth to anus), but anus usually empty
into the mantle cavity
 In cephalopods, mouth contains a hard beak
 Equipped with extensive ciliary tracts
Respiratory and Circulatory System
 Ctenidium (plural: Ctenidia): a comb-like or
feather-like respiratory organ or gill with many
filaments that line up in a row
 gas exchange can also occur through secondary
gills and lungs, as well as body surface
 Open circulatory system with pumping hear,
blood vessels, and blood sinuses (blood not entirely
contained within vessels)
 Only Class CEPHALOPODA have a closed
circulatory system
Excretory System
 Most have a pair of kidneys called metanephridia
 Ducts of the kidneys in many forms also serve for
discharge of eggs and sperm
Nervous and Sensory System
 Simpler than that of annelids and arthropods
 Consists of several pairs of ganglia (cerebral,
pleural, pedal, and visceral) with connecting nerve
cords
 Contains neurosecretory cells that produce a
growth hormone and function in osmoregulation
 Highly developed direct eye with a retina
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BIO 044: General Zoology
Reproduction Gastropod Reproduction
 No asexual reproduction  Both dioecious and monoecious forms present
 Most are dioecious, with some monoecious.  Performs courtship ceremonies
 Trocophore: free-swimming larva that emerges  Fertilization is internal
from the egg (or occurs inside the egg in some  If monoecious, there is an exchange of
molluscs); Similar in appearance to annelid spermatophores (bundles of sperm) using siphons
trocophore.  After copulation, each partner deposits its eggs in
 Veliger: the larval form that follows after shallow burrows in the ground
trocophore stage in many molluscan groups. Also  Oviparous: some enclose eggs in tough capsules or
free-swimming, with beginnings of a foot, shell and cases. Sometimes, trocophores or veliger larva still
mantle. remain in the capsule after hatching.
 No larval stage (direct development) occur in  Ovoviviparous: usually freshwater snails brood
cephalopods and mostly freshwater snails. their eggs and young in their oviduct.
Classifications of Phylum Mollusca: Subclass PROSOBRANCHIA
 Class GASTROPODA (snails and slugs)  Largest gastropoda subclass
 Subclass PROSOBRANCHIA  Almost all are marine
 Subclass OPISTHOBRACHIA  One pair of tentacles
 Subclass PULMONATA  Dioecious
 Class BIVALVIA (clams, scallops, oysters,
mussels)
 Class CEPHALOPODA (squids, octopus,  Horse conchs (Pleuroploca)
nautilus, cuttlefish)  Abalones (Haliotis)
Class GASTROPODA “stomach foot”  Periwinkles (Littorina)
 The largest and most diverse (70,000 species)  Oyster borers (Urosalpinx)
 May be marine or air-breathing terrestrial Subclass OPISTHOBRANCHIA
 Sluggish, sedentary animals due to heavy shells and  Nearly all are marine; most found in shallow water,
slow locomotion few pelagic
 Main defence is by shells (if present) or by  2 pairs of tentacles
distasteful or toxic secretions  Reduced/absent shells
Coiling direction is genetically controlled and dextral shells  Monoecious
are far more common.  Sea hares (Aplysia)
 Univalve shell: one-piece shell, may be coiled or  Sea butterflies (Clione)
uncoiled. Depending on direction of coiling, it may  Sea slugs
be right handed (dextral) or left handed (sinistral). Subclass PULMONATA
 Apex: contains the oldest and smallest whorl.  Terrestrial and most freshwater snails and slugs
 Operculum: plate that covers the shell  Has “lungs” (pulmo)
aperture/opening when the body is withdrawn  1 pair of tentacles for aquatic forms
into the shell  2 pairs of tentacles for land forms, with the
posterior pair bearing eyes
 Monoecious
 Achatina fulica (Giant African Snail)
Class BIVALVIA “two valves”
 Composed mostly of sedentary filter feeders that
depend on currents produced by cilia on their gills
 No head, no radula, very little cephalization
 Marine, many in brackish water and in streams,
 Torsion: the rotation of the visceral mass, mantle, ponds, lakes
and shell 180 degrees with respect to the head and  Laterally compressed
foot. Bivalve Shell
 Brings the mantle cavity and the anus anterior  2 shells held together dorsally by a hinge ligament
and above the head. that cause the valves to gape ventrally
 occurs in all gastropods during development  Adductor muscles: controls the opening and
 Bilateral Asymmetry: as a result of some coiled closing of the 2 valves
shell types, structures like gills, heart atrium, and  Umbo: the oldest part of the shell; growth occurs in
kidney in one side of the body (usually right side) concentric lines around it
have been lost. Pearl Formation

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BIO 044: General Zoology
 Results when a foreign object (grain of sand,
parasite, etc) becomes lodged between shell and
mantle
 The mantle produces many layers of nacre around Bivalve Reproduction and Development
irritating object
Bivalve Body and Mantle
 Visceral mass is suspended from the dorsal midline
 Muscular foot is attached to the visceral mass
anteroventrally
 Ctenidia (respiratory organ) hang down on each Class CEPHALOPODA “head-foot”
side and covered by a fold of mantle
 Folds in the mantle form a dorsal excurrent and
ventral incurrent openings/siphons (for water
circulation of food and waste, as well as for
reproductive mechanisms)
 Some marine bivalves have long muscular siphons
for burrowing, or for extending it above water
Bivalve Locomotion
 Initiate movement by extending muscular foot
between the valves, which anchors in mud and Cephalopod Shell
sand. Longitudinal muscles contract to shorted the
foot and pull the animal forward.
 Scallops swim by clapping their valves together to
create jet propulsion.
Bivalve Respiration
 Occurs through both mantle and gills
 Gills are highly modified for filter feeding
 Lamellae: plate-like junctions made of ctenidial
filaments that remore oxygen from water
 Water enters incurrent siphon, then enters through
the filaments of the lamellae, then proceeds into the Cephalopod Locomotion
common suprabanchial chamber, and then exits
through the excurrent siphon.
Internal Organs
 3-Chambered Heart (2 atriums, 1 ventricle)
 U-shaped kidneys (Nephridial tubules)
 Nervous system consists of 3 pairs of ganglia
connected by a system of serves
 Digestion is intracellular through a stomach with
ciliary tracts for sorting a continuous stream of
particles.
 The intestine ends in an anus and waste exits Cephalopod Respiration and Circulation
through the excurrent siphon
Sense Organs
 Sense organs are poorly developed
Zanoria, Carmelle R.
 Scallops have a row of small blue eyes along
mantle edge (each with cornea, lens, retina, and
pigmented layer)
 Dioecious
 External fertilization in most bivalves, but internal
for freshwater clams.
 Gametes (sperm/eggs) are discharged and carried
out through excurrent siphon
 If internal fertilization: Eggs of female clam are
dropped into the gills. Sperm enters female through
incurrent siphon and meets eggs in tubes of gills.
 Eggs hatches to a trocophore larva, and later
develops into veliger larva.
 Glochidia: bivalve larva form which is a
specialized veliger larva that lives parasitically in
fish hosts for several weeks.
 Modified foot is concentrated in the head region
that takes a form of a funnel for expelling water
from the mantle cavity
 Anterior margin is circular with a crown of arms or
tentacles
 All marine
 All are active predators; Mouth has a “beak” for
biting
 Include one of the largest invertebrates known
 Most are without shells (except for Nautilus). The
presence of a shell is an ancestral trait.
 Shelled forms are made buoyant by a series of gas
chambers
 Cuttlefish: have a small curved shell, but it is
entirely enclosed by the mantle (“cuttlebone”)
 Squids: most of the shell has disappeared, leaving
only a thin, proteinaceous strip called a pen
(“gladius”), also enclosed by the mantle
 Octopus: shell completely disappeared
 Ventral Siphon: a funnel where water is forcefully
expelled from the mantle cavity in a sort of jet
propulsion. It is mobile and can be pointed forward
or backward to control direction.
 Squids and cuttlefishes are excellent swimmers,
using their lateral fins.
 Octopus swims backwards by jet propulsion from
ventral siphon, but is better adapted to crawling
(using suction discs)
 Deep-water octopods have webbed/umbrella arms.
 One pair of gills (except for nautiloids). There are
no cilia on the gills.
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BIO 044: General Zoology
 One-way respiration system (because they only
have one siphon)
 Only molluscan class with a closed circulatory
system, but circulation route is reversed (systemic
circulation first before heart and gills).
Cephalopod Nervous and Sensory System
 Has the largest brain in any invertebrates
 Squids have giant nerve fibers (among the largest
known in the animal kingdom) to initiate maximal
contractions of mantle muscles for a speedy escape
 Octopods use arms for tactile exploration and can
discriminate between textures
 Lack a sense of hearing
 Well-developed sense organs, especially on eyes
 Nautilus has simple eyes
 Other cephalopods have highly complex eyes
with cornea, lens, chambers, and retina
 Pupils are slit-shaped, held in relation to gravity
so that they are always horizontal
 Excellent eyesight (better than our own in
water), but most are colorblind
 Capable of observational learning
Cephalopod Communication and Social Behavior
 Visual signals are the predominant means of
communication:
 Movement of arms, fins, and body (spreading,
curling, raising of arms)
 Color changes (by cells called
Chromatophores, which are under nervous
and hormonal control)
 Deep-water cephalopods depend more on chemical
or tactile senses, but may have luminescence for
visual signals
 Ink glands: secretes a dark fluid called sepia into
an ink sac, that empties to the rectum to release a
cloud of ink when animal is alarmed.
Cephalopod Reproduction
 Dioecious
 Before copulation, males often undergo color
displays against rival males
 Sperm are encased in spermatophores in a sac
inside the mantle cavity of males
 Hectocotylus: one arm of adult males is modified
as an intromittent organ that is used to pluck a
spermatophore from his own mantle cavity and
insert it into the mantle cavity of a female
 Eggs are attached to stones or other objects.
 Some octopods tend their eggs
 No free-swimming larva; Juveniles hatch from
eggs.
Zanoria, Carmelle R.
Major Groups of Class Cephalopoda
 Subclass AMMONOIDEA (entirely extinct)
 Subclass NAUTILOIDEA (2 pairs of gills,
w/shell)
 Genus Nautilus
 Subclass COLEOIDEA (1 pair of gills)
 Superorder OCTOPODIFORMES
• Includes octopuses and vampire squids
• 8 arm-tentacles (“octo” + “pod”)
 Superorder DECAPODIFORMES
• Includes squids and cuttlefishes
• 8 arms, 2 tentacles (“deca” = ten)
 Nautilus spp.
 Octopus vulgaris (Common octopus)
 Vampyroteuthis infernalis (Vampire Squid from
Hell)
 Sepia apama (The Giant Cuttlefish)
 Architeuthis dux (Giant Squid)
Chapter 13
Phylum Echinodermata
ECHINODERMATA
(echinatus, “prickly” + derma, “skin”)
 “prickly-skin”: presence of external spines or
protuberances
 Exclusively marine habitat; occur in all oceans at all
depths; all bottom dwellers with a few pelagic
 Free-living; No parasitic forms; a few are
commensals.
 Body is rounded, cylindrical, or star-shaped;
Unsegmented, with pentaradial symmetry (in
adult form)
 Triploblastic
 Coelom present and extensive
Anatomy of Echinoderms
 Echinoderms are secondarily radially
(pentamerous) symmetrical whose ancestors were
bilaterally symmetric
 Oral Side/Surface: the side with the mouth
 Large mouth at center
 Ambulacral grooves (grooves bordered by
spines that extends from the mouth and through
each arm)
 Tube feet/Podia
 Aboral Side/Surfae: the opposite side; usually
facing up, but not truly the “dorsal” side
 Madreporite (red/orange plate that filters water
inward)
BS- Psychology II
BIO 044: General Zoology
 Small anus (not present in some)
 Fixed spines
 Pedicellariae (small claw-shaped appendages)
Epidermis
 Epidermis is ciliated in most echinoderms and may
be highly pigmented
 Papulae (skin gills): projections in the coelom that
serves for respiration and waste removal
 Covered externally by epidermis and lined
internally with peritoneum
 Pedicellaria: small claw-shaped appendages with
movable jaws that
 Functions for defense, protect body surface
from debris, and sometimes aid in food capture
Spiny Endoskeleton
 Endoskeleton is made of dermal calcareous
ossicles/plates with spines or spicules covered by a
thin layer of tissue
 Catch collagen: connective tissues that hold the
calcareous ossicles
 Under neurological control
 Can change from “liquid” to “solid” form, and
provides echinoderms ability to hold various
postures without muscular effort
Because of the spiny nature of their structure, they are not
often prey of other animals. Most common predator to most
echinoderms are other echinoderms.
Digestive System
 Usually complete, and may be coiled or axial
 Mouth on the oral side
 Anus on the aboral side (may be inconspicuous or
absent in some groups)
 Mouth > short esophages > large stomach > short
intestine > sac-like intestinal ceca > anus (if
present)
 Stomach is has upper part (pyloric) and lower part
(cardiac)
 Cardiac part of stomach can be everted through
the mouth during feeding
 Most echinoderms are carnivorous (feeds in
molluscs, crustaceans, polychaetes, planktons,
sometimes small fishes, and other echinoderms)
Water-Vascular System
Zanoria, Carmelle R.
 A system composed of canals connecting numerous
tube feet and acts as a hydraulic system for
locomotion, food gathering, respiration and
excretion
 Coelomic compartment unique to echinoderms
 Madreporite: an essential part of the system; a
plate that filters water into the water-vascular
system and acts like a pressure-equalizing valve
 Main parts of Water-Vascular System:
 Madreporite > stone canal > ring canal (around
mouth) > radial canals (usually 5 / in each arm) >
lateral canals > tube feet
Nervous System
 Oral (ectoneural) system: composed of a nerve
ring around the mouth and a main radial nerve into
each arm that coordinates the tube feet.
 Deep (hyponeural) system: lies above the oral
system
 Aboral system: consists of a nerve ring around the
anus
 Epidermal nerve plexus/Nerve net: freely
connects all systems within body wall and related
structures
 No brain (therefore, no cephalization)
Sense Organs
 Sense organs are not well developed;
 Sea stars may have “eye” (ocellus) at tip of each
arm
 Reactions are mainly to touch, temperature,
chemicals and differences in light intensity
Asexual Reproduction
 Ability to regenerate lost parts; asexual
reproduction by fragmentation in some
 Autotomy: the adoptive detachment of animal body
parts as a defensive mechanism
Sexual Reproduction
 Most dioecious (with a few monoecious)
 Gonads are large and many in most echinoderms
(single in holothuroids)
 No elaborate copulatory apparatus or secondary
sexual structures
 Fertilization usually external; Eggs brooded in
some
 Some groups have a free-swimming planktonic
larval stage (that always has bilateral symmetry),
that undergo metamorphosis into adult (with radial
symmetry)
 Some have direct development
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BIO 044: General Zoology
Classifications of Phylum Echinodermata
 Class ASTEROIDEA (sea stars)
 Class OPHIUROIDEA (brittle stars)
 Class ECHINOIDEA (sea urchins, sand dollars)
 Class HOLOTHUROIDEA (sea cucumbers)
 Class CRINOIDEA (sea lilies, feather stars)
Class ASTEROIDEA (aster, “star”)
 Includes sea stars (starfish); about 1500 living
species and are easily obtainable
 Often brightly colored and range in size from a
centimetre to a meter in diameter
 Star-shaped, with arms not sharply marked off
from the central disc
 Ambulacral grooves are open
 Numerous tube feet on oral side, often with suckers
and used for locomotion
 Anus and madreporite on aboral side
 Pedicellariae is present
 Bipinnaria and Brachiolaria: the bilateral, free-
swimming larval forms of sea stars
 Metamorphosis of Bipinnaria & Brachiolaria =
the larval left side becomes the adult oral
side, and the larval right side becomes the
adult aboral side.
 Archaster typicus (Common sea star)
 Linckia laevigata (Blue Linckia)
 Echinaster luzonicus (Luzon Sea Star)
 Protoreaster nodosus (Chocolate Chip Sea Star)
 Acanthaster planci (Crown-of-Thorns)
Class OPHIUROIDEA (ophis, “snake”)
 Includes brittle stars and basket stars; probably the
most abundant echinoderms with >2000 living
species
 Also star-shaped, but arms slender and are sharply
marked off from central disc
 Ambulacral grooves are closed (covered by
calcerous ossicles)
 Tube feet has no suckers and not used for
locomotion (just feeding)
 Pedicellaria is absent
 Anus is absent
Zanoria, Carmelle R.
 Madreporite is found in the oral surface instead
 Ophiopluteus: brittle star larval form; already has
arms
 Ophiarachna incrassate (Green Brittle Star)
 Ophiothrix fragilis (Common Brittle Star)
 Astroboa spp. (Basket star)
Class ECHINOIDEA (echinus, “urchin”)
 Includes sea urchins, sea biscuits, and sand dollars;
around 950 living species
 More or less globular or disc-shaped
 Compact body with endoskeletal shell called test
 No arms, but their tests reflect pentamerous
symmetry of echinoderms
 The oral surface has expanded to the aboral side so
the closed ambulacral grooves and tube feet extend
up to the anus (called periproct)
 Tube feet with suckers and spines are movable and
aids in locomotion
 Pedicellariae is present, may deliver painful toxins
 Echinopluteus: free-swimming bilateral larval
form of sea urchins
 Diadema setosum (Long-spined sea urchin)
 Echinus esculentus (Common sea urchin,
“swaki”)
 Echinarachnius parma (Common sand dollar)
Class HOLOTHUROIDEA (holothourion, “cucumber”)
 Includes sea cucumbers (1150 living species);
normally crawls on sea floor or are burrowers
 Cucumber-shaped, with no arms (still pentamerous
internally)
 No spines; calcerous ossicles are reduced making
them leathery and soft-bodied
 Anus is present
 Ambulacral grooves closed
 Tube feet with suckers, also has circumoral
tentacles (modified tube feet)
 Pedicellariae absent
 Madreporite is internal
 Auricularia: free-swimming bilateral larval form
of sea cucumbers
Class CRINOIDEA (krinon, “lily”)
 Includes sea lilies and feather stars (625 species),
mostly found in deep-waters (but some in shallow
waters)
 Differ from other echinoderms by being attached
during a substantial part of their lives
 Flower-shaped body with a stalk and has 5 or more
feather-like arms with many barbs calles pinnules
 Madreporites, spines, and pedicellariae are absent
 Ambulacral grooves are open
 The adults are free-moving, but they just prefer to
remain in the same spot for a long period
 Doliolaria: feather stars and sea lilies larval form;
free-swimming for a time before attaching on
substrate to become adult
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BIO 044: General Zoology
Chapter 14
Introduction and Evolution of Chordates
Phylum CHORDATA (chorda, “cord”)
 Bilateral symmetry with segmented body
 Triploblastic, eucoelomate
 Members show a more fundamental unity of organs
and organ systems than do other phyla
 The most adaptable of organic forms and able to
occupy most kinds of habitat
The Five Hallmarks of Chordates:
1. The Notochord
2. A Dorsal Tubular Nerve Cord
3. Pharyngeal Pouches and Slits
4. Endostyle or Thyroid Gland
5. Postnatal Tail
These characteristic are always found at some embryonic
stage, although they may be altered or may disappear in
later stages of the life cycle
1) The Notochord
 A flexible, rodlike structure, extending the length of
the body
 First part of the endoskeleton (skeletal system) to
appear in the embryo
 Acts as an axis for muscle attachment
 In early chordates (Protochordates), it persists
throughout life
 In all vertebrates, a series of cartilaginous or bony ANCESTRY OF THE LIVING CHORDATES:
vertebrae are formed over the
notochord(mesodermal in origin)
 The presence of the notochord it an essential
characteristic that defines a chordate and must be
present at some stage in the life cycle
2) Dorsal Tubular Nerve Cord
 The chordate nerve cord is single and tube-like, and
must always be located dorsal to the alimentary
canal.
 The anterior end becomes enlarge to form the The Fishes: Chondrichthyes and Osteoichthyes
brain.
 In vertebrates, the nerve cord passes through the ichthys, “fish”)
neural arches of the vertebrae and the brain is
surrounded by a bony or cartilaginous cranium.
In most invertebrates, the nerve cord tends to be ventral to
the alimentary canal and is solid
Notochord vs Nerve Cord:
- Notochord is a skeletal rod and will eventually
become part of the skeletal system (vertebrae)
- Nerve cord is a solid strand of nervous tissue and External Anatomy of Sharks
eventually become the central nervous system
(brain and spinal cord)
3) Pharyngeal Pouches and Slits
 Openings that lead from the pharyngeal cavity to
the outside
 In protochordates: for filter-feeding
 In aquatic chordates: become pharyngeal slits, and
later evolved into internal gills
Zanoria, Carmelle R.
 In tetrapod (4-footed) vertebrates: pharyngeal
pouches give rise to several different structures
including the Eustachian tube, middle ear cavity,
tonsils, and parathyroid glands
4) Endostyle or Thyroid Gland
 Endostyle: found in protochordates and lamprey
larvae
 Thyroid gland: found in all chordates (adult
lampreys and all vertebrates), but in no other
animals
 Both are homologous structures that secrete
iodinated proteins
 Thyroid glands secrete iodine-based
hormones, which function to regulate body
temperate and metabolism
 T3 = Triiodothyronine
 T4 = Thyroxine
5) Postanal Tail
 In protochordates, it is covered in musculature and
provides motility for swimming
 Evolved into tail fins in fishes (more efficient in
swimming)
 Present in most other vertebrates and may aid in
balance
 Vestigial in humans (“coccyx”), but is present
during embryonic stages
 Subphylum UROCHORDATA (“tail chordates”)
 Subphylum CEPHALOCHORDATA (“head-
chordates”)
 Subphylum VERTEBRATA (“backboned”)
 Superclass AGNATHA (hagfishes and
lampreys)
 Superclass GNATHOSTOMATA (jawed fishes
and tetrapods)
Chapter 15
Class CHONDRICHTHYES (chondros, “cartilage” +
 970 living species; mostly marine with only 28
freshwater species
 Cartilagenous skeleton: Bone is entirely absent,
but phosphatized mineral tissues are retained in
teeth, scales, and spines
 Sharks, skates, rays, chimaeras, and ratfish;
Includes one of the largest living vertebrate species
 Fusiform body: streamline body that tapers at both
ends
BS- Psychology II
BIO 044: General Zoology
 Heterocercal tail (Upper Caudal  Teeth are just modified placoid scales
Tail): upper tail fin that is part of  Shark teeth are polyphyodont (teeth are continually
the vertebral column; it provides replaced throughout life)
thrust and some lift as it sweeps  Teeth are modified as grinding plates in chimaeras
back and forth Internal Anatomy
 Lower Caudal Tail: lower tail fin that is not part Skeletal System
of the vertebral column; it is smaller than the  Endoskeleton entirely cartilaginous
heterocercal tail  Notochord persistent but reduced; Vertebrae
 Pectoral fins complete and separate
(paired): lateral fins; Digestive System
supported by  Stomach: J-shaped (not present in chimaeras)
appendicular  Intestine is short and straight and contains the
skeletons and homologous to forelimbs (arms) spiral valve (helps slow passage of food and
 Pelvic fins (paired): fins located on the ventral increases the absorptive surface)
surface; supported by appendicular skeleton and  Liver is large and filled with oil for buoyancy
homologous to hindlimbs  Rectal gland: unique to chondrichthyans; attached
(legs) to the rectum; secretes a colorless fluid containing
 Median Dorsal Fin (one high concentrations of sodium chloride; assists the
or 2): usually triangular kidneys in regulating salt concentrations in the
fin/s on top (dorsal) central line of body blood.
 Median Anal Fin (unpaired): located at the  Cloaca: common chamber and outlet into which the
underside behind the anus intestinal, urinary, and genital tracts open
 Claspers: in males only; Circulatory and Respiratory System
modified pelvic fins that is used  Heart: 2 chambered, S-shaped; circulates blood in
the same pattern as in other gill-breathing
vertebrates
 Respiration by means of 5 to 7 pairs of gills leading
for copulation to exposed gill slits.
 4 pair of gills in chimaeras
 No swim bladder and no lungs
DORSAL PART OF HEAD Nervous and Sensory System
 Lateral eyes: lidless  Brain
 Spiracle: found  2 large olfactory lobes (smell)
behind each eye;  2 cerebral hemispheres
remnant of the first gill slit  2 large optic lobes (sight)
 Gill slits: usually 5, located anterior to pectoral fins  Cerebellum
 Medulla oblongata (hindbrain)
VENTAL PART OF THE HEAD  Senses of smell, vibration reception (through lateral
 Paired Nostrils (blind pouches): on ventral head, line system), vision, and electroreception are well-
anterior to the mouth developed.
 Mouth: located on ventral head Reproduction
 Ampullae of Lorenzini: electroreceptors located  Dioecious
on the head. Use to hunt prey by detecting  Direct development
bioelectrical fields that surround animals  Has paired gonad (sex organs) that have ducts that
 Lateral-line system: composed of special receptor open into the cloaca
organs called neuromast in interconnected tubes  Fertilization internal
and pores extending along the sides of the body  oviparous, ovoviviparous, or viviparous (depending
 use to detect prey from long distances by of species)
sensing their vibrations.  Eggs are horny capsules called “mermaid’s purse”
Scales and Teeth  All parental care ends once eggs are laid or young
 Placoid scales: scales are are born
small, conical toothlike “Mermaid’s purse” (shark eggs)
structures Types of sharks
 Some cartilaginous fishes
have smooth skin without
scales (naked)

Zanoria, Carmelle R. BS- Psychology II

BIO 044: General Zoology
Reys
 Majority of chondroichthyans (skates, electric rays,
sawfishes, stingrays, manta rays)
 Mostly bottom dwellers
 Dorsoventrally flattened body with enlarged
pectoral fins
 Gill openings are on the underside of the head, but
spiracle are on top
 Teeth are adopted for crushing prey like molluscs,
crustaceans, and small fishes
 Stingrays have slender, whiplike tail may be armed
with venomous spines
Chimaeras
 Includes the ratfish, rabbitfish, ghostfish, and
spookfish
 Jaws bear large flat plates instead of teeth (for
grinding instead of shearing)
 Mixed diet: seaweed, mollusc, echinoderms,
crustaceans, fish
 Beautifully colored with pearly iridescence
Class OSTEICHTHYES
(osteon, “bone” + ichthys, “fish”)
 The “true fishes”
 Aquatic (marine and freshwater)
 Exoskeleton of scales or bony plates
 Skeleton with bone of endochondral origin (“bony
fishes”)
 Body usually streamlined and laterally flattened,
but some are grotesque in shape
External Anatomy of Bony Fishes
 Caudal fin
 2 dorsal fins (spiny anterior fin and soft posterior
fin)
 Median anal fin (unpaired)
 Pectoral fins (paired)
 Pelvic fins (paired): closer to head compared to
chondrichthyans
 Operculum: composed of bony plates and attached
to a series of muscles; covers the gills and increases
respiratory efficiency
 Lateral-line system is present
Zanoria, Carmelle R.
Scales
 Scales are arranges like shingles on the roof of a
house
 Protects the fish from mechanical injury
 Mucous glands are abundant in the skin and
produces the “slime” (mucus) that makes fish
slippery
Skeletal System
 Scales and fin rays are part of the Exoskeleton
 Endoskeleton includes the skull, vertebral column,
ribs, pectoral girdle, and interspinous bones (aid in
supporting the unpaired fins)
 Body of the fish is supported by the surrounding
water so the bones do not need to be so strong
Muscular System
 Muscles are arranged in zigzag myotomes
Digestive System
 Teeth are borne on the mandibles, premaxillae,
and on the roof of the mouth; they are not used for
chewing food, but only for holding it
 Tongue: rudimentary; not capable of independent
movement, but functions as a tactile organ
 mouth > pharynx > esophagus > stomach >
intestines > liver w/ gall bladder > pyloric ceca >
anus
 Pancreas is found in first loop of intestine but is so
diffuse that it is hard to see
Circulatory and Respiratory System
 Blood of fishes are red (haemoglobin) and
nucleated
 2-chambered heart
 Circulation is similar to all vertebrates with gills;
slower than in higher vertebrates
 4 pairs of gills; each gill bears a double row of gill
filaments, which are supplied with capillaries
 Swim Bladder: a large, thin-walled sac lying in the
dorsal part of the body cavity. It is filled with gas
and is a hydrostatic organ or “float”
 The gas inside is a mixture of oxygen, nitrogen,
and carbon dioxide that is derived from the
blood vessels
 Helps the fish maintain a stationary position
without muscular effort
Excretory System
 Kidneys are paired (often fused) and lies just
beneath the backbone
BS- Psychology II
BIO 044: General Zoology
 Kidneys > urinary ducts (ureters) > urinary bladder  Tropical fish covered in movable spines
> urogenital opening (posterior to the anus)  When disturbed, they inflate their bodies by
Nervous and Sensory System swallowing water or air
 Brain is more highly developed than that of sharks  May contain toxins in skin and spines
 Chief divisions of the brain: CORAL REEF FISHES
 Cerebrum  Live in close relation to coral reef, which form part
 Optic lobes (sight) of their ecosystem
 Olfactory bulb (smell)  Very diverse, usually include brightly-colored fish
 Cerebellum species
 Medulla oblongata DEEP-SEA FISHES
 Lips serves as an organ of touch  May have large eyes (to catch more rays of light as
 Lateral-line detects vibrations in water possible) or small, rudimentary eyes that are blind
 Ears: a membranous labyrinth were soundwaves  Have large mouths with long sharp teeth
are transmitted; serves as an organ of hearing and of  May be luminescent, some with “lures”
equilibrium LUNGFISHES
 Experiments indicate that goldfishes can hear  Has the ability to breath air
 Otolith: a calcium carbonate structure in the  Possible intermediate stage between fishes and
inner ear amphibians
 Lidless Eyes with large pupils to allow entrance of  Swim bladder opens into the pharynx and functions
more light as a lung
 Many fish are nearsighted
 Some can distinguish color Chapter 16
Reproduction From Water to Land: Amphibia and Reptilia
 Dioecious Class AMPHIBIA
 Single ovary: result of fusion of two ovaries in the  Modern amphibians comprises >6000 living species
embryo  Quasiterrestrial: hovers between aquatic and land
 Ovary and testes lie in the body cavity environments, but still very dependent on very
 Mostly external fertilization (except in some moist environments
species)  Ectothermic: body temperature dependent upon
 Males fertilizes the eggs by depositing sperm over environmental temperature (cold-blooded)
them  Quadrupedal: has 4 limbs in 2 pairs with
 Female lays many thousands of eggs in a long associated shoulder or hip girdle (some forms may
ribbonelike mass have single pair of limbs, or no limbs at all)
 Some will brood eggs  Includes frogs, toads, salamanders and caecilians
Fish Diversity External Anatomy of Amphibians
FLYING FISH  Body forms vary greatly among species
 >65 species  Salamanders: distinct head, neck, trunk, and
 Strong tail fin used to propel fish forward while tail
long pectoral fins sustain the body in the air  Adult frogs and toads: compressed body with
EELS fused head and trunk and no neck
 Long and slender  Caecilians: elongated trunk not strongly
 Scales are not clearly visible demarcated from head
 Dorsal, caudal, and anal fins are continuous Integumentary System
 Can move from freshwater rivers to the sea  Skin is smooth, moist, and glandular
STICKLEBACKS  In adults, it is modified for cutaneous respirations
 5 large spines on back  Chromatophores are common; color change
 Nest-builders; uses sticks held together by mucus dependent on external and internal condition (high
secreted by males temperature = lighter color)
 Females lay eggs on the nest and males guard them  Mucus glands: produces mucus for cutaneous
from intruders respiration, reproduction, thermoregulation, and
SEAHORSES and SEADRAGONS defense
 Small and unusual shape  Granular glands: produce toxic or noxious
 Swims using dorsal and pectoral fins and holds substances
themselves in vertical position  Macroglands: clusters of granular glands located in
 Males are the brooders and carry eggs in a pouch certain regions of the body
PORCUPINE and PUFFER FISHES

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BIO 044: General Zoology
Pharmacological effects of amphibians toxins may be
cardiotoxic, haemotoxic, neurotoxic, myotoxic, hypotensive,
hypertensive, and anesthetic
Skeletal System and Musculature
 Skeleton is well-developed and made of mostly
bone and cartilage, with varying number of
vertebrae
 Vertebral column lost much of its original
flexibility characteristic of fishes
 Ribs present in some
 Forelimbs usually with 4 digits (but sometimes 5 or
fewer)
 Strong and complex muscular system, especially in
limbs, and organized into powerful muscular bands
Respiration and Circulation
 3 respiratory surfaces for gas exchange:
 Skin (cutaneous breathing)
 Mouth (buccal breathing)
 Lungs
 Aquatic larval forms have gills, which they lose
during metamorphosis into adult form
 Many salamanders retain gills and an aquatic
lifestyle throughout life
 Paired nostrils open into nasal cavity to enable
breathing in forms with lungs
 Skin is abundantly supplies with blood vessels for
cutaneous respiration
 3-chambered heart
 Blood is red and nucleated
Vocalization
 Presence of vocal chords, located in the larynx, are
much more developed in male frogs than in females
 Produce sound by passing air back and forth over
the vocal chords between the lungs and a pair of
vocal pouches in the floor of the mouth
Digestion and Feeding
 Amphibians are mostly carnivorous
 May have a protrusible tongue for
snapping/catching prey
 Teeth are present to prevent escape of prey, but not
for biting or chewing
 Short digestive tract (characteristic of most
carnivores
 Larval stages of frogs are usually herbivores
Nervous and Sensory
 Brain is divided into forebrain (large olfactory
center and small cerebrum), midbrain (optic lobes),
and hindbrain (cerebellum and medulla)
 Ears is simple: middle ear closed externally by
tympanic membrane (eardrum) and containing
stapes (columella) that transmit vibrations
 Very good vision
 Eyes with lids and lacrimal glands to protect and
wash eyes
Reproduction
 Dioecious
Zanoria, Carmelle R.
 Fertilization mostly external in frogs and toads
 Internal fertilization in most salamanders and
caecilians
 Predominantly oviparous, some ovoviviparous or
viviparous
 Metamorphosis usually present
 Eggs are moderately yolky with jellylike membrane
 Some species are brooders
 Larva are fishlike with gills (called tadpoles or
pollywogs)
Hibernation
 Amphibians in temperate habitats undergo period of
hibernation during winter
 Vital processes are reduced; no air is taken into
lungs since all necessary respiration can occur
through skin
 No food is eaten; relies on store nutrients in the
body
 Body temperature of cold-blooded animals adjusts
with surrounding environment, so in hibernation
they cannot freeze entirely, since death ensues if the
heart is frozen.
 Amphibians in warm countries will aestivate
(spends a hot/dry period in a prolonged state of
dormancy in moist, concealed places)
Regeneration
 Regenerating lost parts is remarkably well
developed in many amphibians, usually with limbs
and tails (if present)
Phylum CHORDATA >Subphylum VERTEBRATA
>>Superclass GNATHOSTOMATA
Class AMPHIBIA
 Order GYMNOPHIONA [APODA] (caecilian)
 Order URODELA [CAUDATA] (salamanders)
 Order ANURA [SALIENTE] (frogs, toads)
Order GYMNOPHIONA (Greek gymnos, “naked”
+ ophioneos, “snake”) Previously: APODA (“no feet”)
 Includes the caecilians (3 families, 33 generas,
approx. 173 species)
 Elongated body with limbs and limb girdle absent
(wormlike or snakelike)
 Dermal scales present in skin of some
 Tail is short or absent
 Strong head with small concealed eyes
 burrowers
Order URODELA (Greek oura, “tail” + delos,
“evident”)
Previously: CAUDATA (“tailed”)
 Includes all salamanders and newts (9 families, 64
generas, approx. 553 species)
 Body with head, trunk, and tail
 No scales, and usually with 2 pairs of equal limbs
 Ambystoma tigrinum (Tiger salamander)
- does not need to metamorphose and reproduces while
it is in larval form (called axolotl)
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BIO 044: General Zoology
Order ANURA (Greek an, “without” + oura, “tail”)
Previously: SALIENTIA (“to jump”)
 Includes all frogs and toads (largest amphibian
group with 44 families, 362 generas, approx. 5,283
species)
 Head and trunk fused
 No tail (vestigial tail called urostyle or coccyx)
 No scales
 2 pairs of limbs (strong hindlimbs for jumping)
 With lungs
 Larval forms (called tadpoles) are born with gills
and a tail
Class REPTILIA
 Also known as the “nonavian reptiles”
 Better adopted for living on land than amphibians
 Anatomy is intermediate between amphibians and
of an avian (bird)
 most abundant in warmer regions of the world; few
in colder/temperate zone, none in the Artic or
Antartica
 Reptiles are Amniotes: produces eggs with 4
extraembryonic membranes, have rib ventilation of
the lungs, and have thicker and more waterproof
skin
 Also ectotherms (cold-blooded) tetrapods
Advances of Reptiles vs Amphibians
1. Better developed lungs.
2. Tough, dry scaly skin that offers protection
against desiccation and physical injury.
3. Shelled and amniotic eggs permits rapid
development of large young in dry environments.
4. Jaws are efficiently designed for crushing or
gripping force, and tongue is muscular and mobile.
5. Efficient and versatile circulatory system,
functionally divided into pulmonary and systemic
circuits/routes
6. Have efficient strategies for water conservation.
7. More complex nervous system.
Integument
 Body covered with keratinized epidermal scales
and sometimes bony plates
 Integument with few glands
Musculoskeletal
 2 pairs of limbs, usually with 5 toes (vestigial or
absent limbs in snakes and some lizards)
 Skeleton well ossified
 Ribs with sternum forming a complete thoracic
basket (except in snakes)
 Complex muscular system that is standard for
tetrapods
Respiration and Circulation
 Respiration primarily by lungs that is filled by
aspiration
 No gills
 Pharynx, skin, or cloaca is used for respiration by
some
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 The ventricles of the heart is divided into 2 for
oxygenated and deoxygenated blood
 Blood is red (haemoglobin) and nucleated
Nervous and Sensory
 Well-developed brain with large cerebrum for
better integration of sensory information and
control of muscles during locomotion
 Very good vision in some groups
 Smell is not as developed in most reptiles, but
snakes use a highly sensitive sense of smell to find
prey and mates
 Jacobson’s organ: a specialized olfactory chamber
in the rook of the mouth; enhances sense of smell
Reproduction
 Dioecious
 Internal fertilization
 Male copulatory organ is almost always present
(either a penis or hemipenis)
 Eggs are covered with calcerous (calcium-based) or
leathery shells
 Direct development; no larval stages
Phylum CHORDATA >Subphylum VERTEBRATA
>>Superclass GNATHOSTOMATA
Class REPTILIA
 Order TESTUDINES [CHELONIA] (turtles)
 Order SQUAMATA
 Suborder SAURIA (lizards)
 Suborder SERPENTES (snakes)
 Order CROCODILIA (crocodiles, alligators)
Order TESTUDINES (Latin testudo, “tortoise”)
Previously: CHELONIA (“shelled”)
 Includes all turtles and tortoises (approx. 300
species)
 Body constructed to live in either water or land
 Body in a bony case. Dorsal part is called
carapace, ventral is called plastron
 Jaws with beaks instead of teeth
 Vertebrae and ribs are fused
 Omnivorous, but some are entirely vegetarian
Order SQUAMATA (Latin squamatus, “scaly”)
 Skin of keratinized epidermal scales or plates,
which is shed
 2 suborders:
Suborder SAURA (“lizard”)
 All lizards (~4800 species)
Suborder SERPENTES (“to creep”)
 All snakes (~2900 species)
 Left lung is reduced or absent
Order CROCODILIA (Latin crocodilus, “crocodile”)
 All crocodilians, including alligators, caimans, and
gharials (23 species)
 Prehistoric lineage (Triassic period)
 Skull is elongated and massive
 4-chambered heart
 Forelimbs with 5 digits, hindlimbs with 4 digits
 With advanced social behaviour
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BIO 044: General Zoology
Chapter 17
The Birds: Class Aves
Class AVES
 “avian reptiles/dinosaurs”
 Endotherm: maintains its body at a metabolically
favourable temperature by the use of heat set free
by its internal bodily functions instead of relying on
environmental temperature (warm-blooded)
 Also amniotes
 Characterized by feathers, toothless beaked jaws,
and a high metabolic rate.
 Approx. 10,000 living species, making them the
worlds most successfully diverse class of tetrapods
 Cosmopolitan distribution, found in all habitats
including Antartica
 Forelimbs evolved into wings that gives almost all
species the ability of flight
 Digestive and respiratory systems are uniquely
adopted for flight
 Many species are economically important
External Anatomy of an Avian
 Body usually spindle-shaped, with four divisions:
head, neck, trunk, and tail
 Head is prolonged into a pointed horny beak/bill
which also contains the nostrils
 Neck is elongated and S-shaped and flexible
 Tail feathers are found at the posterior end of the
trunk
 2 wings can be folded close to the body
Integument: Feathers and Scales
 Feathers are homologous to scales
 Highly pigmented
 A typical feather consist:
 Rachis = the stiff axial shaft
 Quill (Calamus) = hollow and semi-
transparent proximal end
 Vane = flattish, distal portion
 Barbs = comprises the vane
 Barbules = hooklets in each barb which hold
together adjacent barbs
 Types of feathers:
 Contour feathers = gives the bird its outward
form
 Flight feathers = main feathers for flight
 Down feathers = soft tufts hidden behind
contour feathers
 Filoplume Feathers = hairlike, degenerative
feathers
Zanoria, Carmelle R.
 Molting of feathers is a highly orderly process.
They are discarded gradually to avoid appearance
of bare spots
 Flight and tail feathers are lost in exact pairs, one
from each side, to maintain balance
 Some lose all primary feathers at once
 Penguins molt once only
 Feet are covered with horny epidermal scales
 The epidermis and dermis itself is very thin
 No sweat glands
 Preen gland: found at base of tail; produces oil that
keeps feathers waterproof
Skeletal System
 Fully ossified skeleton with air cavities, making
them lightweight
 Air cavities connect with the respiratory system
 Each jaw is covered by a keratinized sheath (beak)
 Hindlimbs and pelvic girdle are modified for
bipedal locomotion
 Forelimbs and pectoral girdle are modified for
flight
 Pygostyle: reduced tail
 Keel: extension of the sternum and anchors the
pectoral muscles (which are the main muscles for
flight); reduced or absent keel means little to no
flight ability
Muscular System
 Muscles of the neck, tail, wings, and legs are well-
developed
 Flight muscles:
 Pectoralis major = largest muscle in bird;
produces downward stroke of wings
 Pectoralis minor = raises the wings
 Strong tendons in the hindlimbs and toes allow
birds to maintain itself on a perch even while asleep
Digestive System and Feeding
 Because of high metabolism, they require large
quantities of food, and digestion is rapid
 Mouth > esophagus > crop > stomach >
proventriculus > gizzard > coiled intestine > rectum
> paired ceca > cloaca > vent
 Crop Milk: In pigeons and doves, the crop can
produce a protein-rick “milk” that are regurgitated
to feed their chicks
 Liver is present; gall bladder present in most birds
except pigeons
 Herbivorous, carnivorous, omnivorous; 1/5 th of all
birds feed on nectar
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BIO 044: General Zoology
 The diet of a bird determines the evolution and
shape of their beak
Respiratory and Circulatory System
 Most complex respiratory systems of all animal
groups
 Air Sacs: (usually 7 to 9 sacs) extensions of the
lungs that connects with air spaces in the bones to
fill them with air; takes up 75% of inhaled air (the
remaining 25% goes to the lungs)
 Syrinx: (voice box of birds) muscular chamber in
the trachea which produces sound
 4-chambered heart is generally larger when
compared to body mass (allows more blood to be
pumped to meet the demands associated with flight)
 Red blood cells are nucleated.
Excretory System
 Kidneys extract waste from bloodstream and
excrete it as uric acid
 No urinary bladder or external urethral opening.
Uric acid is excreted with feces as a semisolid
waste, and emerge out from the cloaca.
Nervous and Sensory System
 The most developed part of the brain is the one that
controls flight-related functions
 Most birds have poor sense of smell
 Vision is usually highly developed (large optic
lobes in brain)
 Eyes with upper and lower lids, and a 3rd eyelid
(nictitating membrane)
 Most have good hearing; Ears divided into 3
regions (external, middle, inner). Inner ear posses a
non-spiral cochlea (organ of hearing).
Reproduction and Mating
 Testes of males are tiny bean-shaped most of the
year and enlarges during breeding season
 Most males have no penis, so copulation is by
meeting cloacas
 If with penis, it is lengthy and adopted to remove
other competitors sperm
 Only left ovary and oviduct develop in most
females
 As eggs pass down from ovarys to oviduct, they
form albumin (egg white) and later develop shell
membrane and calcerous shell.
 Newly hatched birds may be Prococial (covered
with down feathers and can run and swim right after
hatching), or Altricial (naked and unable to see or
walk at birth)
BEHAVIORS:
Migration and Navigation
 Not all birds migrate, but those that do migrate
twice a year (biannual journey/migration)
 Birds navigate chiefly by sight and memorize
topographical landmarks or follow a familiar route
Zanoria, Carmelle R.
 “Birds of the same feather flock together”: relies
on experience and navigational resources from
older birds
 Uses the sun, the North Star, and earth’s magnetic
field to maintain compass direction
 Natural selection eliminates individuals making
errors in migration, leaving only the best navigators
to propagate the species
Social and Reproductive
 Sea birds tend to gather in large colonies to nest
and rear young: provides mutual protection,
greater ease in finding mates, and for mass huddling
during low night temperatures
 Land birds tend to seek isolation for brooding and
rearing young
 Establish territorial claims and sometimes vivid
courtship rituals during breeding season
 Breeding season is determined by pituitary activity
in response to seasonal changes
 Mating systems may be polygamous (whether
polygyny “many females” or polyandry “many
males”), or monogamous (more than 90% of birds)
 Displays brooding and nesting behaviour in both
males and females
Flight
 Birds fly by applying the same aerodynamic
principle as an airplane and using similar
equipment:
 Wings for lift, support, and propulsion
 Tail for steering and landing control
 Slots between wings for control at low flight
speed
 Flightless birds evolved independently in several
bird orders, usually on islands with no terrestrial
predators
Bird Diversity:
Flightless Birds
 5 orders of living birds are flightless
 Ostritches: largest living bird that can run at a
speed of >50 miles/hr
 Rheas: smaller than ostritches; confined to South
America
 Cassowaries: ostritch-like, confined to New Guinea
and neighboring islands
 Emus: confined to Australia
 Kiwis: small, wingless birds in New Zealand
Aquatic Birds
 Penguins: most adopted for aquatic life; forelimbs
modified as paddles and has a thick layer of fat to
maintain body heat
 Loons and Grabes: birds that swim and dive with
great agility
 Albatrosses: have the longest wingspans and are
strong fliers
 Pelican: has huge pouch on lower jaw for scooping
small fishes
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BIO 044: General Zoology
 Herons and Flamingos: wading birds
 Seagulls, Puffins, Terns: shorebirds
 Ducks, Geese, Swans: ducklike waterfowls
Birds of Prey
 Characterized by powerful wings, a stout hooked
bill, and strong toes with sharp claws
 Falcons, Kites, Hawks, Eagles: standard falconlike
birds of prey; diurnal
 Owls: nocturnal birds of prey; large eyes for
excellent vision; disk-shaped head for better sound
detection; soft fluffy plumage/feathers makes them
noiseless during flight
 Vultures: scavengers; lives on carrion (dead
animals)
Perching Birds
 All those belonging to Order PASSERIFORMES
(more than half of all living birds)
 Small to medium sized birds; 4-toed feet adopted
for grasping
 Includes songbirds, with some nonsinging
 Includes Sparrows, Swallows, Canaries,
Cardinals, Ravens, Crows, Jays, Magpies,
Wrens, Flycatchers, Kingbirds, and many more
Psittacines
 All those belonging to Order
PSITTACIFORMES
 Have a strong curved bills, upright stance, strong
legs, and clawed feet
 Many are vividly colored
 Are among the most intelligent birds with some
have ability to imitate voices
 Includes all Parrots, Cockatoos, Budgerigars,
Parakeets, and Lovebirds
Domesticated Birds
 Birds that have been raised for various human
needs, mostly for food
 Chicken/Red jungle fowl (Gallus gallus)
 Greylag Goose (Anser anser)
 Mallard Ducks (Anas platyrhynchos)
 Common Peacocks (Pavo cristatus)
 Domestic Turkeys (Meleagris gallopavo)
 Pigeons and Doves
Others…
 Cuckoos: tropical birds that lay their eggs in the
nest of other birds
 Road Runners: desert bird, excellent runner
 Hummingbirds: the smallest birds with the fastest
wing speed; feed on nectar
 Woodpeckers: excavate holes in trees to dig out
grubs
Chapter 18
The Mammals
Class MAMMALIA (mamma, “breast”)
 Not a large group, but is among the most
biologically differentiated groups in the animal
kingdom
Zanoria, Carmelle R.
 Name is derived from the possession of mammary
glands which secrete milk for the nourishment of
their young
 Endothermic (warm-blooded) and homeothermic
(able to maintain a stable internal body
temperature)
 Tetrapod
 Found in all kinds of habitats (terrestrial and
aquatic)
 Only 4300 species from 26 orders (1 order for
monotremes, 7 orders of marsupials, 18 orders of
placental mammals)
Integument of Mammals:
The Cutis
 Skin is thicker in mammals vs other vertebrate
 Cutis: epidermis + dermis
 Epidermis: thinner, outer layer of the skin that is
protected by hair
 in places that are subject to much contact and
use (ex. Palms, soles of feet), it is think and
cornified with keratin.
 Dermis: the layer below the epidermis that consist
of dense connective tissue and cushions the body
from stress and strain
Hair
 Hair: characteristic of mammals and mostly covers
the body (but reduced in some); it grows from hair
follicles and is made from a dense fibrous protein
called keratin.
 Provides insulation and protection against external
environment
 Arrector Pili Muscle: small muscles attached to
hair follicles in mammals. Causes hairs to stand on
end to make animal look bigger. (humans: causes
“goosebumbs”)
 Hair of mammals has become modified to serve
many purposes
 spines of porcupines and hedgehogs,
 bristles of hogs/pigs
 scale-like plates in armadillos
 Vibrissae (“Whiskers”): sensory hairs that provide
a tactile sense; very long in nocturnal animals
Hair derivatives
 Derivatives of hair includes nails, claws, horns,
and antlers
 Horns: hollow sheaths of keratinized epidermis that
embrace a core of bone from the skull
 it is not shed and grows continuously
 present in both sexes
 Present in Bovines (cattle, goat, sheep, etc.)
 Antlers: also keratinized, it is branched and
composed of solid bone when mature
 Present only in males; it develops a vascular
soft skin covering (“velvet”) every spring that
is later shed.
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BIO 044: General Zoology
 Whole antlers are shed after breeding season
and new buds appear for the next
 Present in Cervids (deer family)
Glands
1) Sweat Glands: tubular, coiled glands occur over much
of body surface. 2 types:
 Eccrine glands: secretes watery fluid that draws
heat away from the skin and cools it;
 occurs in hairless regions, but is all over in
horses and primates; absent in rodents, rabbits,
and whales
 Apocrine glands: larger glands that is open into a
hair follicle and secrets milky yellow/white fluids
that dry on skin to form a film
 It does not regulate heat
 develops near puberty, usually in the
axillae/armpits, breasts, prepuce, scrotum, pubis
 Activity is correlated with reproductive
function
2) Scent Glands: used for communication with members of
the same species, for marking territory, for warning, or for
defense
 Usually located (depending on species) between the Feeding Specializations
digits, behind eyes, on cheeks, on axillaries, on the
penis, base of the tail, back of the head, and on anal
regions
 Strong scents are released during mating season to
attract potential mates
3) Sebaceous glands: associated with hair follicles, it
produces a fatty accumulation which eventually dies to
expel a greasy mixture called sebum into the hair follicle
 The sebum keeps skin and hair pliable and glossy
 Most mammals have it all over the body
 In humans, it is numerous in the scalp and face
4) Mammary Glands: occur on all female mammals and in
a rudimentary form in males
 Increase in size at maturity, and even larger during
pregnancy and nursing of young
 In human females, adipose (fat) tissue accumulates
around it during puberty
 Milk is secreted via nipples or teats
 Monotremes (egg-laying mammals) lack nipples
and simple secrete milk into a depression on the
mother’s belly
Food and Feeding:
Teeth
 Teeth reveals the life habit of a mammal and their
modifications are correlated with their diet
 Heterodont Teeth: mammalian dentition possesses
more than a single tooth morphology in order to
perform specialized functions. Have 4 types of
teeth:
 Incisors: has simple crowns and is mainly for
snipping or biting. It is the front group of teeth.  Carnivores: feed mainly on herbivores
Zanoria, Carmelle R.
 Canines: has long conical crowns, specialized
for piercing. Usually 2 pairs (lower mandibular
and upper maxillary)
 Premolars and molars: have compressed
crowns and suited for shearing, slicing,
crushing, and grinding
 Diphyodont Dentition: mammals only have 2 sets
of teeth: a temporary set called deciduous teeth
(“milk teeth”), which is replaced by a permanent set
when the skull has grown large enough.
 Deciduous set only includes incisors, canines, and
premolars. Molars are never replaced.
 Teeth, jaws, tongue and alimentary system are
adapted to particular feeding habits
 4 basic feeding categories:
 Insectivores
 Carnivores
 Omnivores
 Herbivores
 Insectivores: tend to be small mammals (except for
the giant anteater). Mainly feed on insects and
occasionally small invertebrates
 Intestinal tracts tends to be short
 Teeth are modified to puncture the exoskeleton
of insects
 Diet is low in fiber due to lack of plant material
but rich in protein
 Herbivores: feed mainly on grass and vegetation
 Canine teeth may be absent or reduces, but
molars are broad and high-crowned for grinding
 Gnawers (like rodents, rabbits, beavers) have
chisel-sharp incisors that grow throughout life
 They have large, long digestive tracts and must
eat a considerable amount of plant food to
survive
 Harbor bacteria in fermentation chambers in
their gut that help break down cellulose in
plants
 Ruminants (cattle, goats, sheep, deer, etc.)
have a 4-chambered stomach, which helps
process their food further
 Well-equipped with biting and piercing teeth
and powerful claws for killing prey
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BIO 044: General Zoology
 Digestive tracts are shorter because protein diet
is more easily digestible vs fibrous diet
 Do not need to feed continuously; can organise
feeding into small meals so they have more
leisure time to find and catch prey
 Known for their intelligence, stealth and
cunning in hunting
 Omnivores: use both plants and animals for food
 Are more able to adopt in situations when one
type of food source is scarce
 Includes pigs, many rodents, bear, and most
primates including humans
Body Weight and Food Consumption
 The smaller the mammal, the greater is its
metabolic rate and the more it must consume
relative to its body size
 Small mammals must spend much more time
hunting and eating than do large mammals
 Large carnivores can remain fat and healthy with
only one meal every few days
Reproduction:
Reproductive Cycles
 Most mammals have definite mating seasons
 Many male mammals are capable of fertile
copulation at any time
 Female fertility is restricted to a specific time
during a periodic cycle called Estrous cycle. They
only mate with males during brief period of that
cycle known as Estrus (“heat”).
 Menstrual cycle: applied only in Old World
monkeys and humans. Ovulation is terminated by
menstruation, during which the lining of the uterus
collapses and is discharged.
Reproductive Patterns
3 patterns of reproduction in mammals:
 Monotremes
 Marsupials
 Placental
1) Monotremes: egg-laying (oviparous) mammals
(Platypus and echidnas)
2) Marsupials: pouched, viviparous mammals.
 The embryos do not truly implant in the uterus
 Gestation (length of pregnancy) is brief and they
give birth to tiny premature young
 Early birth is followed by a prolonged interval of
lactation and parental care (inside the pouch)
 Include kangaroos, koalas, wombats
3) Placental Mammals (Eutherians): viviparous mammals
 Reproductive investment is in prolonged gestation
 Embryos remain in the uterus and is nourished by
food supplied by a membranous connection
between mother and young called the placenta
 The larger the mammal, the longer the gestation
period (except for the baleen whale)
 The larger the animal, the smaller the number of
young in a litter
Zanoria, Carmelle R.
Diversity of Mammals:
Monotremes
 The most primitive mammals of the Order
MONOTREMATA
 Confined to Australian region
 Oviparous mammals
 After hatching, they are nourished by milk from a
teat-less mammary gland
 Includes echidnas (like the spiny anteater) and the
duck-billed platypus
Marsupials
 The pouched mammals are from 7 orders under
Infraclass METATHERIA
 Also confined in Australia and neighbouring
islands, but a few are native to the Americas
 Includes the opossums, kangaroos, koalas,
wombats, and wallabies
Insect-Eating Mammals
 The most primitive placental mammals
 Majority under Order INSECTIVORA
 Tend to be nocturnal in habit, burrowers or at least
travel on the ground
 Includes moles, shrews, and hedgehogs
Flying Mammals
 The only true flying mammals are bats (Order
CHIROPTERA)
 Wings are modified forelimbs with the digits
elongated to support a thin integumental membrane
for flying
 Majority are nocturnal and hunts prey via
echolocation
Toothless Mammals
 Have no teeth or have a few that are not well-
developed
 From the Order XANARTHRA
 Include sloths, anteaters, and armadillos
Gnawing Mammals
 Mostly from the Order RODENTIA, the most
numerous of all mammals both in numbers and
species
 have 2 pairs of chisel-like incisors that grow
throughout life
 Impressive reproductive rate and adaptability
 Includes mice, rats, squirrels, gophers, porcupines,
hamsters, gerbils
 Others are from Order LAGOMORPHA (rabbits
and hares) which are true herbivores
Carnivorous mammals
 Flesh-eating mammals live in 2 types of habitat:
terrestrial and aquatic
 From Order CARNIVORA:
 Family Canidae = dogs family
 Family Felidae = cat family
 Family Ursidae = bears
• Only member not carnivorous are Pandas
 Family Otariidae = seal and sea lions
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BIO 044: General Zoology
 Family Mustelidae = skunks, weasels,
wolverines, otters
 Family Procyonidae = racoons
Aquatic Mammals
 Adapted to life in the water and includes one of the
largest living animals
 Forelimbs modified into flippers and the posterior
limbs are absent
 From the Order CETACEA, which includes
whales, dolphins, porpoises
 Also from the Order SIRENIA, which include the
sea cows and manatees
Ungulates (Hoofed mammals)
 Toes are covered by a cornified hoof
 Herbivorous
 Order PERISSODACTYLA (odd number of
toes): horses, asses, zebras, rhinoceroses
 Order ARTIODACTYLA (even number of toes):
swine/pigs, camels, deers, giraffes,
hippopotamuses, antelopes, cattle, sheep, goats
 Order PROBOSCIDEA, the elephants, are
considered sub-ungulates because toes are not
entirely covered by hoof
Primates
 All from Order PRIMATES, like Prosimians Appendicular Skeleton
(lemurs, aye-aye, bush babies), tarsiers, New
World Monkeys, and Old World Monkeys
 Family Hominidae includes the orangutan, gorillas,
bonobo, chimpanzees, and the genus Homo (with
only 1 living species left: Homo sapiens)
Chapter 19
Activity of Life I: Vertebrate Skeletal System and
Movement
Skeletal System
 Consists principally of bone, but a small amount of
cartilage is also present
 Skeletal system is divided into 2 regions:
 Axial Skeleton: consist mainly of the skull, The vertebrate skeleton provides:
ribs, sternum, and vertebral column
 Appendicular Skeleton: consist of the pectoral
girdle, forelimb bones, pelvic girdle, and
hindlimb bones
Skeletal System:
Axial Skeleton
 Skull: encases the brain and sensory organs;
formed of both cartilage and membrane bones
 Each bone in the skull are movable while still
young as an adaptive mechanism for during
labor/childbirth
 It later undergoes ossification so that individual
bones become immovable
 The mandible is not fused to the rest of the
skull and is supported by muscles
Zanoria, Carmelle R.
 Vertebral column: supports the body and protects
the spinal cord. They move upon one another but
are separated by cartilage (intervertebral disks)
 Cervical vertebrae: first group, the neck
bones; all mammals have 7 in number
 Thoracic vertebrae: chest area; articulates the
ribs
 Lumbar verterbrae: lower back/trunk area
 Sacral vertebrae: usually has 3 bones fused
together to support the pelvis
 Caudal vertebrae: form the skeletal axis of the
tail
Vertebral formula of humans: C7 T12 L5 S5 Ca4
Vertebral formula of dogs: C7 T13 L7 S3 Ca20-30
 Ribs and Sternum: constitute the framework
(“cage”) of the thorax and protect the vital organs in
that region. Also plays an important role in
respiration
 Humans have 12 pairs of ribs (24 in total)
 Each rib are connected to the sternum via
cartilage (costal cartilage)
 In some mammals, the last few pairs of ribs do
not meet the sternum (known as floating ribs)
 Xyphoid process: last sternum segment
 Pectoral girdle: provides attachment for the
forelimbs, it consists of 2 scapulas and 2 clavicles
 Forelimb bones: Humerus > radius + ulna >
carpals > metacarpals > phalanges
 Pelvic girdle: consists of 3 bones (2 pairs each)
called the ilium, ischium, and pubis, fused
together.
 Hindlimb bones: Femur > tibia + fibula > tarsals
> metatarsals > phalanges
 Sesamoid bones: small bones embedded in the
tendons of some of the limb joints (ex. patella or the
“knee cap”)
Protection and Movement
 Protection
 Cranium of skull protects the brain
 Vertebral column protects spinal cord
 Sternum and ribs protect heart and lungs
 Support
 Surfaces for the attachment of muscle
 Leverage for locomotion
Joints
 Locomotion require movable joints
 Gliding Joints: allow only gliding movement (ex.
Between carpal bones)
 Hinge Joints: permit motion in one plane only
(elbow)
 Pivotal Joints: rotary movement in one direction
which permits the head from turning from side to
side (neck)
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BIO 044: General Zoology
 Ball and Socket Joints: has a rounded head lying
in a cuplike cavity allowing 360 degree motion
(shoulder and hip joints)
Muscles and Movement
 Many of the muscles are more or less the same as in
the lower vertebrates, but the mammals have a
smaller amount on the vertebrae and ribs
 Highly developed muscles on the head, neck, and
limbs
 3 types of muscles: Smooth, Cardiac, and Skeletal
 Skeletal muscles make up 40% of the weight of
man and is responsible in voluntary locomotion
(except for the diaphragm, which also has
involuntary control)
Attachments
 Origin: where a skeletal muscle is attached to a
bone that is immobile for an action
 Insertion: a skeletal muscle is attached on a bone
that moves during an action
 Tendon: attaches muscles to a bone
 Ligament: connects 2 bones or cartilage or holds
joint together
Achilles tendon- longest tendon
Actions
 Flexion: bending; decreasing the angle between 2
bones
 Extension: straightening; increasing the angle
 Abduction: moving away from the body’s midline
 Adduction: moving towards the body’s midline
 Pronation: rotation inward
 Supination: rotation outward
 Elevation: moving body part up (if down:
Depression)
 Protraction: moving a bone forward without
changing angle (if backward: Retraction)
 Inversion: turning sole of the foot inward (if
outward: Eversion)
Physiology of Muscle Contraction
 Neuromuscular Junction (NJ): site of chemical
communication between nerve fiber and muscle cell
 Neurotransmitters: chemical messengers released
by nerve impulses to stimulate muscle contraction
 Acetylcholine (Ach): it opens sodium
channels, which releases calcium ions from the
muscle cells to stimulate contraction
 Muscle contraction continues as long as
calcium ions remain in high concentrations,
otherwise it begins to relax
 Muscle fiber during contraction:
Zanoria, Carmelle R.
Takes in glucose (in the form of glycogen)
stored in liver
 oxygen is used, carbon dioxide (CO2) is
released
 There is a breakdown of ATP
 Muscle fiber after contraction:
 Glycogen is broken down into Lactic acid
Chapter 20
Activity of Life II: Metabolism and Transport
Transport of Nutrients:
1) DIGESTION
2) ABSORPTION
3) RESPIRATION
4) CIRCULATION
5) EXCRETION
DIGESTION
 The process of digestion is the breaking down of
food material so that it is in a soluble form and can
pass through membranes to be absorbed
 The products of digestion are used by the body to:
 Produce energy when they are oxidized
 Be built up into the cell
 Be stored for future needs
 Manufacture special substances (like hormones)
 Mechanical Digestion: initial breakdown of food
through chewing, and the grinding and mixing of
food as it moves through the digestive canal
 Chemical Digestion: through the help of digestive
enzymes that breakdown the complex molecules in
food into simpler ones
 Carbohydrates, fats, and proteins are not easy to
absorb and must be broken down:
 Proteins > amino acids
 Fats > glycerol and fatty acids
 Carbohydrates > glucose
Chemical Digestion
Via Salivary glands
 Amylase: an enzyme in saliva that breaks down
starch (a carbohydrate) and converting it to maltose,
a smaller carbohydrate
Via Stomach:
 Hydrochloric Acid (HCl): denatures proteins to
make it more accessible for enzymatic degredation
by pepsin
 Pepsin: Partly digests protein
Via Pancreas:
 Protease: proteins > peptides and amino acids
 Lipase: fats > fatty acids
 Amylase: starch > maltose
Via Liver:
 Bile: fat globules > fat droplets
Via Intestines:
 Peptidase: protein peptides > amino acids
 Sucrase: sucrose (sugar) > glucose and fructose
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 Lactase: lactose (milk sugar) > glucose and  WATER: the vehicle of the principle foods and
galactose excretion products. It is fundamental for all
 Maltase: maltose > glucose physiologic processes.
ABSORPTION  MINERALS: Iron for haemoglobin, Iodine for
 Water, mineral salts, and digested food must be thyroid hormones, Calcium and Phosphorus for
absorbed from the digestive tract and pass into bones
circulating blood before being distributed into  CARBOHYDRATES: the breakdown into glucose
tissues for cellular metabolism is used for immediate energy use (by insulin) and/or
 Little absorption takes place in the stomach (except storage (converted into glycogen)
alcohol)  FATS: utilized for production of energy and heat, a
 Most of water is absorbed in the large intestine process that requires more time than is the case with
 90% of absorption of nutrients occurs in the small glycogen
intestine  PROTEINS: amino acids are important for growth,
RESPIRATION building muscles, skin, hair, nails, and various
 The production of energy through the intake of organs; may also be stored and later used as energy
oxygen and the release of carbon dioxide from the
oxidation of complex organic substances Chapter 21
 Internal Respiration: the use of oxygen by the Activity of Life III: Vertebrate Coordination and
cells Animal Behavior
 External Respiration: involves the entrance of Nervous Coordination:
oxygen into the lungs to the cells, and of carbon
The Nervous Systems
dioxide from the cells and out through the lungs  Central Nervous System (CNS): includes the
 Nose > Trachea > Bronchi > Bronchioles > brain and the spinal cord
Alveolar ducts > Alvioli  Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): consists of all
 Alvioli: the basic unit of the respiratory system and body nerves
in direct contact with circulatory system;  Somatic Nervous System (SNS): picks up
CIRCULATION sensory information or sensations from the PNS
 Digested food absorbed through intestinal walls will and sends them to the CNS
diffuse into the blood capillaries and carried into the Autonomic Nervous System (ANS): controls
blood stream nerves in the body of which has involuntary
 Goes to the liver for further metabolism and control (heartbeat, digestion, breathing, etc.)
detoxification, before the blood flows back to
Central Nervous System
the heart  The Brain: consist of 4 principal parts:
 Oxygen extracted by lungs from inhaled air enter  Medulla oblongata (brain stem)
red blood cells then goes into circulation, and then  Cerebellum
back again to expel carbon dioxide collected from  Cerebrum
tissues  Diencephalon
EXCRETION  Medulla oblongata (brain stem)
 The principle excretory organs of vertebrates are  controls autonomic functions, like breathing,
the kidneys digestion, heart and vessel function,
 Nephron: the most basic unit of the excretory swallowing, and sneezing
system  Cerebellum:
 is in direct contact with the circulatory system  it receives sensory stimuli and regulates motor
to collect waste products and fluids from the movements and voluntary actions like posture,
circulation balance, coordination and speech
 may also return fluid and electrolytes back into Cerebrum:
blood if the body needs it  largest part and divided into 2 hemispheres
 Metabolic waste products (like urea and ammonia)  same function as cerebellum but also controls
are filtered along with water and electrolytes and intelligence and memory
are formed into urine in the kidneys  Left hemisphere controls right side of body
 Urine from kidneys > ureters/urinary ducts > and performs tasks that have to do with logic
urinary bladder > urethra  Right hemisphere controls left side of body
and performs tasks that have do with creativity
Utilization of Food in the Body  Diencephalon:
 OXYGEN: production of energy and protein (in  includes the thalamus and hypothalamus
the form of hormones) in cells by oxidation

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BIO 044: General Zoology
 controls many autonomic functions, connects
with endocrine system, and manage emotions
and memories
Sensations
 Sensation results when receptors in sensory cells
are stimulated
 Sensory nerves are abundant in major sense organs
(skin, nose, eyes, ears, tongue)
 5 general types:
 Chemoreceptors (smell, taste)
 Thermoreceptors (skin)
 Mechanoreceptors (skin, hearing)
 Photoreceptors (sight)
 Nociceptors/Pain receptor (all over the body,
except the brain)
 Hunger: receptors in stomach wall are stimulated
by contractions of this organ when empty
 Appetite: may be due to similar receptors for
hunger, but also triggered by nerves of taste and
smell
 Thirst: stimulation of nerves in pharynx or other
tissues affected by prolonged deprivation of water
 Equilibrium: depends on visions, prioreceptors
(receptors that aid coordination), sensitivity to
pressure on limbs, and organ of balance in the inner Animals with parental care or social interactions may
ear
Chemical Coordination:
Role of Hormones
 Regulated by the endocrine system
 Hormones act as chemical coordinators influencing
the activities of various tissues and the behaviour of
the animal
 Released into bloodstream to reach parts of the
body (target sites)
 Hormones in most vertebrates have similar action in
humans
 Hormones secreted by the different glands may
affect one another: the removal of one gland may
regress other organs
Zanoria, Carmelle R.
Animal Behavior
 Behavior: Action in response to stimulus
 The most beneficial behaviors make an animal
better at surviving and reproducing
 An animal’s behaviour is limited to its morphology
and physiology, and therefore makes it heritable
(adaptive behavior).
 Some behaviors can be learned
 Ethology: the study of the behaviour of an animal
in its natural habitat
 Comparative Psychology: general laws of
behaviour that are applied to many species,
including humans; studying behaviour of one
species on the basis of experimental approaches
concentrated on other species.
Instinct
 Innate Behavior (Instinct): an inborn pattern of
behaviour often responsive to specific stimuli
 Performed without any previous experience and are
characteristic for each type of animal
 Instincts are products of evolutionary change and is
subjected to natural selection
 Instinct is “programmed behavior” and is important
for survival, especially for animals that never know
their parents.
develop changes in their behaviour by learning.
Genetics of Behavior
 Genes and environmental factors can influence
behavioral traits
 Most inherited behavior do not show segregation
and independence: hybriding subspecies or species
commonly show intermediate or confused
behaviour.
Learning
 Learning: modification of behaviour through
experience
 Habituation: a simple form of learning in which an
animal will stop responding to a stimulus after
prolonged exposure to it.
 Sensory systems may stop sending signals to
the brain
 Animals that habituate to less important signals
allows them to focus attention on changes in
their environment
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BIO 044: General Zoology
 Sensitization: opposite of habituation; learns to
react more often or more strongly to a repeated
stimulus
 Changes in nerve cells and pathways take place
after having been stimulated repeatedly
 Imprinting: the imposition of a stable behaviour in
a young animal by exposure to a particular stimuli
during a critical period in the animal’s
development.
 Example: a newly hatched duckling will only
follow its mother. Unless if separated before
hatching, then it will follow the first large
object they see.
Social Behavior
 Any interaction resulting from a response of one
animal to another of the same species is a social
behavior
 Social Aggregations: gathering of animals of the
same species; depend on signals from the animals
themselves, causing them to remain together and to
influence one another
 Not all animals showing sociality are social (some
animals limit sociality to breeding)
 Some can form lifetime bonds (ex. mother to
young, monogamous mating)
 Social aggregations are beneficial for defense, both
active and passive, against predators
 Passive Defense: a herd of oxens will form a
circle when threatened by a wolf pack
 Active Defense: Seagulls will alert others in a
breeding colony when a potential predator is
near and will attack together
 Other advantages of social aggregation:
 Facilitates encounters between males and
females for potential mates
 Synchronizes reproductive behaviors
 Cooperation in hunting for food
 Huddling for mutual protection
 The potential for learning and transmitting
useful information through a society
Altruism
 Altruistic Behavior: a type of cooperative
behaviour in which one animal may reduce its own
fitness, or “sacrifice” themselves, to increase fitness
of others
 Natural selection occurs at the level of the
group, not at the level of an individual
 Kin Selection: the recipient of an altruistic act
tends to be closely related to the altruist so that the
recipient’s survival would benefit the genes they
shared
Kin Selection = natural selection that favors altruism by
increasing the reproductive success of relatives
Zanoria, Carmelle R.
Agnostic Behavior
 Agnostic Behavior (Competative Behavior): any
activity related to fighting, whether it be aggression,
defense, submission, or retreat, as animals compete
for food, water, mates, or shelter.
 Aggression within a species seldom produces injury
or death because many animals have evolved
symbolic ritualized threat displays that carry
mutually understood meaning of dominance.
 Losers will simply run away, or signal defeat by a
specialized subordination ritual
Territoriality
 Territory: a fixed area whose occupant excludes
intruders of the same species and sometime other
species
 It ensures access to limited resources (like food
source or foraging area), reduced disease
transmission, and reduce vulnerability to predators
 Territoriality = dominance: therefore it enhances
attractiveness to females
Animal Communication
 Communication of one animal can influence the
behaviour of another
 By sound, scents, touch (including electrical
and thermal signals), pheromones, and
movement
 Nonhuman animal communication consist of
limited signals (each signal conveys only one
message). However, it may contain several bits of
relevant information.
 Ex. A cricket’s song is generally for attracting
mates, but it could also inform other crickets its
species (different species, different songs), his
sex (only males sing), and his location (source
of song).
Animal Cognition
 Animal Cognition: the mental function, including
perception, thinking, and memory, in animals.
 Some mental processes of animals are similar to
those of humans
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BIO 044: General Zoology
 Chimpanzees and Gorillas were taught the
American Sign Language in a similar way as
teaching deaf people
 Parrots able to mimic and then comprehend
simple human language, and crows observed to
have problem solving skills
 Dogs can be taught to memorize names of
familiar toys and fetch them, but when suddenly
provided with a new name, can select a new,
unfamiliar toy by process of elimination

Zanoria, Carmelle R. BS- Psychology II