Introduction

to
Human
Anatomy
 Some definitions
 Morphology
-form that structures take on.
-Morphology affects function
 Structure
-a part of the body. Can either be microscopic (small)
or macroscopic (large).
 Function
-refers to physical behavior. What a structure does.
-Function is related to structures=Functional
Morphology
Normal vs. Abnormal
-We must understand the normal
situation to be able to compare it with
and recognize the abnormal.

Topographic Anatomy
-Structures on the surface of the skin
can be used to identify and locate deeper
structures, organs, and tissues beneath
the skin.
 Structure defines and restricts function.
- certain joints can only move in one
direction. For example a hinge joint can
only have motion perpendicular to the
axis of the joint. The knee joint (hinge)
cannot have motion in the lateral
direction because that goes against the
axis.
 ANATOMY
 Study of structure.

ANA = apart

TOMY = to cut
 Anatomy

GROSS HISTOLOGY

Structures can only be

Surface Anatomy
seen with a microscope

Study of shapes and landmarks

Cells and cell parts
on the surface of the body

Structures can be seen with

the naked eye.

Dissection

Regional

All structures of a region are studied together

Systemic

All structures with related functions are

studied together

Our study of Human Anatomy will look at both, gross and histological anatomy.
Anatomical
Terminology
Anatomical Axes - axes
are like skewers which pass
through the body. They are
used to describe axes about
which rotation movements
take place - very similar to
the pin in a door hinge. The
door moves in a plane
around an axis - the plane is
determined by the
orientation of the pin in the
hinge.
Superior

Inferio
r
 Anatomical Position
 This is a reference position that allows for
the use of consistent directional
terminology.
 All descriptions of location are made from
within anatomical position.

Subject is facing forward with palms forward,

thumbs facing to the sides.
 Anatomical
Position

This is the position

from which all
directions and
descriptions are
made.

The person is
standing erect, palms
facing anteriorly, feet
together and facing
 Superior

TRANSVERSE
PLANE
Inferior
 Body Midline

EYES

Medial

Sagittal
Plane Latera
l EARS
The Extremities have a different set of terms

The arm is DISTAL

TO THE
TRUNK or
MIDLINE OF
THE BODY

The upper arm is

PROXIMAL
The eyes are SUPERIOR to
the mouth.

The mouth is INFERIOR

to the eyes.
BACK FRONT

C
O
R
The gluteus O The umbilicus is
maximus is N ANTERIOR to the
A
POSTERIOR to L
gluteus maximus.
the umbilicus.

IN BACK OF L IN FRONT OF
A
N
Also called Also called
E VENTRAL
DORSAL
In four legged animals, the head is
ANTERIOR to the tail. In two legged
animals, the head is SUPERIOR to the tail.

In four legged animals, the region toward

the head is CRANIAL. The region toward
the tail is CAUDAL.
 TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE
What is the relationship?

knee to thigh
Nipple to belly button
Chin to eyes
Little toe to big toe
 SKIN

SUPERFICIAL – toward the

surface

DEEP – away from the surface

 DIRECTIONAL TERMS FOR
MUSCLES

ORIGIN – attachment of
muscle on a fixed point,
closest to midline

INSERTION – attachment of
THIGH BONE (FEMUR) muscle that is moveable,
L farthest from midline.
E
G
B
O
N
E
 Medial vs. Median

A median structure is one which is in the median

(midline) plane of the body (such as the sternum,
the umbilicus and the symphysis pubis).

The term medial is a relative term and must be

used to compare two structures; one structure being
medial or closer to the median plane of the body
than the other structure.
 Hands and Feet:

Palmar or Volar means the anterior

surface or palm of the hand.

Plantar means the inferior surface or sole

of the foot.

Dorsum of the hand and foot refers to the

superior surface of the foot and posterior
surface of the hand.
Ipsilateral and Contralateral refer to the same or
opposite sides of the body, respectively.

Ipsilateral refers to the same side of the body,

e.g., the right arm and right leg are ipsilateral structures.

Contralateral refers to opposite sides of the body;

e.g., the right arm and the left arm are contralateral
structures.
Cardinal Body Planes

Cardinal Body Planes

Regional Terminology
 Organization of the Human
Body
 The body is organized from the smallest part to the
largest part.
 Chemical Level
- atoms, molecules
- carbohydrates, lipids, fats, proteins, nucleic acids
 Cellular Level
-simplest structural unit
-basic unit of life
-smallest unit that can live on its own
 Tissue Level
- a group of cells with common origin,
structure, and function.
- cells within a tissue all work toward a
common goal (i.e.: movement, nutrition, etc.)
 Organ Level
- a group of tissues that have a common
function.
 Organ System Level
- a group of organs with a special function.
- Digestive System, Nervous System, etc…
 Organismal Level
- A group of organ systems that at some point
in time is capable of sustaining life.
- All organ systems work together in an
organism.
 Human Body Plan
 Vertebrates Have Some Common Features
1. Tube within a tube body plan
inner tube – mouth to anus
- respiratory organs
- digestive organs
outer tube – axial skeleton
- axial musulature
2. Bilateral Symmetry

- left half of the body is a mirror image of the

right half.

- structures in the median plane are

unpaired, but have identical left and right
sides.
3. Dorsal hollow nerve cord
- develops into the brain and spinal cord.

4. Notochord
- stiff rod just deep to the spinal cord.
- present in the embryo, but is replaced by

the vertebrae later in development.

5. Segmentation

- repeating units of similar structures

running along the length of the trunk.

- examples include the ribs and intercostal

muscles and the vertebral column.
6. Pharyngeal Pouches

- pharynx – outpouchings called pouches

that correspond to the clefts between
the gills of a fish.

- present in the embryo only.

 Body Cavities and Membranes
 Dorsal Body Cavity
- cranial cavity
- vertebral cavity
 Ventral Body Cavity
- contains the viscera
- 2 divisions
1. thoracic cavity
a. Pleural cavity
b. Mediastinum
c. Pericardium
2. abdominal cavity
a. Abdomen
b. Pelvis
 Serous Cavities
- 2 layers
parietal layer - outer walls of the cavity
visceral layer – inner layer covers the visceral
organs
water between the membranes is a watery
fluid
The abdomen is divided into
four quadrants which are further
subdivided into nine regions.

Each region is named for its

relationship with the umbilicus.

Clinically, each region is

associated with specific organs.
Fertilization: Four Major Steps
1. Sperm contacts the egg
2. Sperm or its nucleus enters the egg
3. Egg becomes activated and
developmental
changes begin
4. Sperm and egg nuclei fuse
 Words to know…
Fuse- to physically join together
 Ovum – egg cell (female gamete)
 Cleavage – process of cell division during development
 Differentiation – the process of forming different kinds
of cells from similar cells of the early embryo
 Embryo – an organism in an early stage of
development
 Morula – solid ball of cells formed from cleavage
 Blastula – hollow ball of cells formed from cleavage
 Gastrula – a hollow ball of cells with an “in pushing”
and 3 layers (germ layers)
Fertilization
The Nuclei Fuse Together
 Development of the zygote, the
study of which is known as
embryology or developmental
biology.
 The zygote undergoes a series of mitotic cell
divisions called cleavage.
 The stages of development are: Fertilized ovum
(zygote)  2-cell stage  4-cell stage  8-cell stage
 Morula  Blastula  Early Gastrula  Late
Gastrula
Cleavage (divide via mitosis)
forms the 2 cell stage
And eventually form a Morula
And next, a gastrula
 The Regents Diagram…

 Sperm and ovum

1. Zygote (fertilized ovum)
2. 2-cell stage
3. 4-cell stage
4. Morula
5. Blastula
6. Gastrula
 Differentiation (Organogenesis)
 Organogenesis is the formation of the organs (Organo =
organs, genesis = creation)
 Arises from the layering of cells that occurs during
gastrula stage
 The layers are germ layers; they have specific fates in
the developing embryo:
– Endoderm
• The innermost layer
• Goes on to form the gut
– Mesoderm
• In the middle
• Goes on to form the muscles, circulatory system, blood and
many different organs
– Ectoderm
• The outermost
• Goes on to form the skin and nervous system
 Late Gastrula
Endoderm

Ectoderm
Mesoderm
Differentiation of Primary Germ Layers (from the gastrula)

Ectoderm Mesoderm Endoderm

Nervous Skeleton Digestive

system tract
Epidermis Muscles Respiratory
of skin system
Circulatory Liver, pancreas
system
Gonads Bladder
 Early Human Development
Summary
 Meiosis makes sperm in males and
ovum in females
 Sperm and ovum unite nuclei to

form a zygote
 Zygote undergoes cleavage and

becomes gastrula with 3 germ layers