Control and Coordination

Organisms move in response to various kinds of stimuli like light, heat, nutrients/food, etc.

The changes in the environment to which the organisms respond and react are called stimuli (singular of
stimuli is stimulus). The living organisms show response to stimuli such as light, heat, cold, sound, smell,
taste, touch, pressure, pain, water, and force of gravity, etc.

All the activities in animals are controlled and coordinated by the nervous and endocrine systems. In
animals, the nervous system and hormonal system are responsible for control and co¬ordination.

Nervous System: The nervous system is composed of specialized tissues, called

nervous tissue. The nerve cell or neuron is the functional unit of the nervous system. It
is the nervous system which is mainly responsible for control and coordination in
complex animals.

Functions of the nervous system

 Nervous system receives information from the environment.

 To receive the information from the various body.
 To act according to through muscles and glands.
A neuron is the structural and functional unit of the nervous system. Neuron is a highly
specialized cell which is responsible for the transmission of nerve impulses. The neuron
consists of the following parts
(i) Cyton or cell body: The cell body or cyton is somewhat star-shaped, with many hair

like structures protruding out of the margin. These hair-like structures are called
dendrites. Dendrites receive the nerve impulses.
(ii) Axon: This is the tail of the neuron. It ends in several hair-like structures, called axon
terminals. The axon terminals relay nerve impulses.
(iii) Myelin sheath: There is an insulator cover around the axon. This is called myelin
sheath. The myelin sheath insulates the axon against nerve impulse from the
surroundings.

Types of neuron
a) Sensory neuron: These neurons receive signals from a sense organ.
b) Motor neuron: These neurons send signals to a muscle or a gland.
c) Association or relay neuron: These neurons relay the signals between sensory
neuron and motor neuron.
Synapse: The point contact between the terminal branches of axon of one neuron with
the dendrite of another neuron is called synapse. In simple words, A synapse is the site
of transmission of nerve impulses between two nerve cells (neurons) or between a
neuron and a gland or muscle cell (effector). It is also known as a neuronal junction

Neuromuscular Junction (NMJ): NMJ is the point where a muscle fibre comes in
contact with a motor neuron carrying nerve impulse from the control nervous system.

Human Nervous System: The nervous system in humans can be divided into three main
parts

1. Central Nervous System: The central nervous system is composed of the brain
and the spinal cord. The brain controls all the functions in the human body. The
spinal cord works as the relay channel for signals between the brain and the
peripheral nervous system.
 2. Peripheral Nervous System: The peripheral nervous system is composed of the
cranial nerves and spinal nerves. There are 12 pairs of cranial nerves. The cranial
nerves come our of the brain and go to the organs in the head region. There are
31 pairs of spinal nerves. The spinal nerves come out of the spinal cord and go to
the organs which are below the head region.

3. Autonomous Nervous System: The autonomous nervous system is composed of

a chain of nerve ganglion which runs along the spinal cord. It controls all the
involuntary actions in the human body. The autonomous nervous system can be
divided into two parts :
i. Sympathetic nervous system.
ii. Parasympathetic nervous system.

o Sympathetic Nervous System: This part of the autonomous nervous system

heightens the activity of an organ as per the need. For example, during running,
there is an increased demand for oxygen by the body. This is fulfilled by an
increased breathing rate and increased heart rate. The sympathetic nervous
system works to increase the breathing rate the heart rate, in this case.
o Parasympathetic Nervous System: This part of the autonomous nervous system
slows the down the activity of an organ and thus has a calming effect. During
sleep, the breathing rate slows down and so does the heart rate. This is
facilitated by the parasympathetic nervous system. It can be said that the
parasympathetic nervous system helps in the conservation of energy.

Human Brain

The human brain Is the command centre for the entire nervous system.
 Brain works like a computer to process various information that it receives as signals from the other
sensory organs in the body and sends messages back to the body. The human brain controls nearly
every aspect of the human body ranging from physiological functions to cognitive abilities. It functions
by receiving and sending signals via neurons to different parts of the body.

On average, an adult brain weighs between 1.0 kg – 1.5 kg. It is mainly composed of neurons – the
fundamental unit of the brain and nervous system. Recent estimates have suggested that the brain
contains anywhere between 86 billion to 100 billion neurons.

The brain, along with the spinal cord, constitutes the central nervous system. It is responsible for
thoughts, interpretation and origin of control for body movements.

Where is the Brain located?

The brain is enclosed within the skull, which provides frontal, lateral and dorsal protection. The skull
consists of 22 bones, 14 of which form the facial bones and the remaining 8 form the cranial bones.

Protection of CNS(central nerve system):

The brain is protected by 3 main layers –

a. The bony skull (cranium)

b. The cerebrospinal fluid
c. The meninges (Dura mater, Arachnoid and Pia mater).

Anatomically, the brain is contained within the cranium and is surrounded by the cerebrospinal fluid.

The Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF) is a fluid that circulates within the skull and spinal cord, filling up hollow
spaces on the surface of the brain. Every day, the specialised ependymal cells produce around 500mL of
cerebrospinal fluid. The primary function of the CSF is to act as a buffer for the brain, cushioning
mechanical shocks and dampening minor jolts. It also provides basic immunological protection to the
brain.

The human brain consists of two types of tissues, gray and white matter. While gray matter makes up
the bulk of the brain with various types of cells, white matter is made of axons that are responsible for
connecting the various gray matter areas of the brain with each other.

Parts of the Human Brain

The human brain consists of various parts that include:

 The Forebrain
 The Midbrain
 The Hindbrain

Each of these parts can be subdivided into various other parts as described below.

 Forebrain – Largest part of the brain

It is the anterior part of the brain. The forebrain parts include:

 Cerebrum
 Hypothalamus
 Thalamus
Forebrain Function: Controls the reproductive functions, body temperature, emotions,
hunger and sleep.
Fact: The largest among the forebrain parts is the cerebrum. It is also the largest part of
all vertebrate brains.
 Hypothalamus:- The hypothalamus is located below the thalamus and is a small
yet essential part of the human brain. It is considered as the primary area of the
brain performing the following functions:
o The body temperature is regulated by the hypothalamus.
o It receives impulses from various parts of the body.
o Controls the emotional quotient and mood.
o Controls the sense of smell and taste.
o Controls blood pressure, appetite, heart rate, and peristalsis.

 Thalamus:- This is a part of the forebrain that is located above the brainstem. It
is a small structure responsible for conveying sensory information from the
various sense organs. It also helps in overall coordination and movement by
 transmitting motor information. The thalamus is contained within the cerebrum,
in the limbic system, which helps in memory retention.
 Cerebrum :- This is the largest part of the brain which consists of the cerebral
cortex of the brain and other subcortical structures. The cerebrum has two
cerebral hemispheres. Dense, heavy bands of fiber, commonly known as the
corpus callosum join the two cerebral hemispheres together.
Functions of the cerebrum include memory retention, consciousness, intelligence,
thinking, hearing, vision and interpreting touch.
 The cerebrum can be further subdivided into four sections, which are:

I. Frontal Lobe- This section is associated with movements, problem-solving

abilities, reasoning, planning and various parts of speech.
II. Parietal Lobe- This section helps in perceiving stimuli, orientation, and
movements.
III. Occipital Lobe- This is involved in visual processing.
IV. Temporal Lobe- Relates to the recognition of memory, perception of
auditory stimuli and speech.
The cerebrum also possesses an exterior part called the cerebral mantle, commonly
known as the cortex. The cerebrum possesses an exterior part called the cerebral
mantle, known as the cortex. The cortex has a large surface area since it is convoluted.
 Other areas that are a part of the cerebrum:
i. Sensory areas- Help in receiving messages
ii. Motor areas- Help the voluntary muscles act
iii. Association areas- Help in connecting the sensory areas with the motor
areas.

 Midbrain: Smallest and central part of the brain

The midbrain  consists of:

  Tectum
 Tegmentum
➢ Tectum:- The tectum is the dorsal area of the midbrain and makes up for a small
portion of the brain. It controls the reflex movements of the neck muscles, eye, and
head. All sensory information from the ears to the cerebrum is relayed here. The tectum
also acts as a passage for various neurons that move in and out of the cerebrum.
 Tegmentum:- The tegmentum is an area within the brainstem and forms the
platform for the midbrain. It connects with the spinal cord, thalamus, and
cerebral cortex. It has a complex structure that controls various reflex actions,
body movements, sleep, attention and more.

 Hindbrain: The lower part of the brain

The hindbrain  is composed of:

 Cerebellum
 Medulla
 Pons
Hindbrain functions:  The three regions of the hindbrain coordinates all processes
necessary for survival. These induce breathing, heartbeat, sleep, wakefulness and motor
learning.
 Pons

Present between the medulla oblongata and the midbrain, the pons is the most
important structure of the brain stem. It relays signals between various parts of the
brain including the spinal cord, lower cerebellum, midbrain, and cerebrum.
Some other functions of the pons include:
 Regulating respiration frequency and magnitude
 Controlling the sleep cycle
 Transferring information between the motor cortex and the cerebellum
 Helps in regulating sensations like taste and hearing

 Cerebellum
It is the second-largest part of the brain located in the posterior area of the pons and the
medulla. The transverse fissure and the tentorium cerebelli separate the cerebrum and the
cerebellum. The outer surface of the cerebellum is the cortex; two hemispheres- the gray
cortex on the outer portion and the white medulla inside make up the cerebellum.
The cerebellum also consists of cerebellar nuclei, cerebellar peduncles, and the anterior and
posterior lobes. The cerebellum performs important functions like:

 Transfer of information
 Coordination of eye movement
 Sense of equilibrium
 Controlling the voluntary movements of the body
 Coordination of skeletal movements that are directly related to the anterior and
posterior lobes

 Medulla
The medulla oblongata is in the lowest area of the brain. It is a small structure that controls the
body’s autonomic functions like digestion, heartbeat. It also connects the cerebral cortex and
the spinal cord and helps control the human body reflexes.
Conclusion
The human brain is the root of human intelligence. It controls the cognitive abilities of humans,
their physiological and psychological functions, and communicates with the various other parts
of the human body by sending signals via neurons.

Spinal cord: Spinal cord controls the reflex actions and conducts massages between different
parts of the body and brain.
Reflex action
Reflex action is a sudden, involuntary reaction of the body in response to stimuli. A reflex action
is a spontaneous, autonomic and mechanical response to a stimulus controlled by the spinal
cord without the involvement of brain.
Example: We withdraw our hand immediately if we prick our finger or touch a hot object.