Neuron

Neuron Definition
“Neurons are the fundamental unit of the nervous system specialized to transmit information
to different parts of the body.”

What is a Neuron?
Neurons are the building blocks of the nervous system. They receive and transmit signals to
different parts of the body. This is carried out in both physical and electrical forms. There are
several different types of neurons that facilitate the transmission of information.
The sensory neurons carry information from the sensory receptor cells present throughout the
body to the brain. The motor neurons transmit information from the brain to the muscles. The
inter-neurons transmit information between different neurons in the body.

Neuron Structure
A neuron varies in shape and size depending on its function and location. All neurons have
three different parts – dendrites, cell body and axon.

Parts of Neuron
Following are the different parts of a neuron:
Dendrites
These are branch-like structures that receive messages from other neurons and allow the
transmission of messages to the cell body.
Cell Body
Each neuron has a cell body with a nucleus, Golgi body, endoplasmic
reticulum, mitochondria and other components.
Axon
Axon is a tube-like structure that carries electrical impulse from the cell body to the axon
terminals that pass the impulse to another neuron.
Synapse
It is the chemical junction between the terminal of one neuron and the dendrites of another
neuron.

Neuron Types
There are three different types of neurons:

Sensory Neurons:
The sensory neurons convert signals from the external environment into corresponding internal
stimuli. The sensory inputs activate the sensory neurons and carry sensory information to the
brain and spinal cord.

Motor Neurons:
These are multi-polar and are located in the central nervous system extending their axons
outside the central nervous system. This is the most common type of neuron and transmits
information from the brain to the muscles of the body.

Inter-neurons:
They are multi-polar in structure. Their axons connect only to the nearby sensory and motor
neurons. They help in passing signals between two neurons.

Neuron Functions
The important functions of a neuron are:

Chemical Synapse
In chemical synapses, the action potential affects other neurons through a gap present between
two neurons known as the synapse. The action potential is carried along the axon to a
postsynaptic ending that initiates the release of chemical messengers known as
neurotransmitters. These neurotransmitters excite the postsynaptic neurons that generate an
action potential of their own.
Electrical Synapse
When two neurons are connected by a gap junction, it results in an electrical synapse. These
gaps include ion channels that help in the direct transmission of a positive electrical signal.
These are much faster than chemical synapses.

OR

Neurons, also known as nerve cells, send and receive signals from your brain. While neurons
have a lot in common with other types of cells, they're structurally and functionally unique.
Specialized projections called axons allow neurons to transmit electrical and chemical signals to
other cells.

Nervous system
The nervous system transmits signals between the brain and the rest of the body, including
internal organs. In this way, the nervous system's activity controls the ability to move, breathe,
see, think, and more.
The nervous system includes the central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nervous system
(PNS). The CNS is made up of the brain and spinal cord, whereas the PNS is made up of the
somatic and autonomic nervous systems.
Functions of Nervous system
The four main functions of the nervous system are:
 Control of body's internal environment to maintain 'homeostasis' an example of this is the
regulation of body temperature. ...
 Programming of spinal cord reflexes. An example of this is the stretch reflex. ...
 Memory and learning. ...
 Voluntary control of movement.
Peripheral Nervous System
Peripheral nerves reside outside your brain and spinal cord. They relay information between
your brain and the rest of your body. The peripheral nervous system is divided into two main
parts:
1. Somatic nervous system
2. Autonomic nervous system
The somatic nervous system is associated with activities traditionally thought of as conscious or
voluntary. It is involved in the relay of sensory and motor information to and from the CNS;
therefore, it consists of motor neurons and sensory neurons. Motor neurons, carrying
instructions from the CNS to the muscles, are efferent fibers (efferent means “moving away
from”). Sensory neurons, carrying sensory information to the CNS, are afferent fibers (afferent
means “moving toward”). A helpful way to remember this is that efferent = exit and afferent
= arrive. Each nerve is basically a bundle of neurons forming a two-way superhighway,
containing thousands of axons, both efferent and afferent.
The autonomic nervous system controls our internal organs and glands and is generally
considered to be outside the realm of voluntary control. It can be further subdivided into the
sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions. The sympathetic nervous system is involved in
preparing the body for stress-related activities; the parasympathetic nervous system is
associated with returning the body to routine, day-to-day operations. The two systems have
complementary functions, operating in tandem to maintain the body’s
homeostasis. Homeostasis is a state of equilibrium, or balance, in which biological conditions
(such as body temperature) are maintained at optimal levels.
The sympathetic nervous system is activated when we are faced with stressful or high-arousal
situations. The activity of this system was adaptive for our ancestors, increasing their chances of
survival. Imagine, for example, that one of our early ancestors, out hunting small game,
suddenly disturbs a large bear with her cubs. At that moment, the hunter's body undergoes a
series of changes—a direct function of sympathetic activation—preparing them to face the
threat. The pupils dilate, the heart rate and blood pressure increase, the bladder relaxes, and
the liver releases glucose; adrenaline surges into the bloodstream. This constellation of
physiological changes, known as the fight or flight response, allows the body access to energy
reserves and heightened sensory capacity so that it might fight off a threat or run away to
safety.
Central Nervous system:
The central nervous system (CNS) is made up of the brain and spinal cord. It is one of 2 parts of
the nervous system. The other part is the peripheral nervous system, which consists of nerves
that connect the brain and spinal cord to the rest of the body.

The central nervous system is the body’s processing centre. The brain controls most of the
functions of the body, including awareness, movement, thinking, speech, and the 5 senses of
seeing, hearing, feeling, tasting and smelling.

The spinal cord is an extension of the brain. It carries messages to and from the brain via the
network of peripheral nerves connected to it.

Nerves also connect the spinal cord to a part of the brain called the brainstem.

Parts of central nervous system:

The nervous system is made up of basic units called neurons. The neurons are arranged in
networks that carry electrical or chemical messages to and from the brain.

The tissue of the central nervous system is made up of grey matter and white matter. Grey
matter is made up of neurons, cells and blood vessels. White matter is made up of axons, which
are long cords that extend from the neurons. They are coated in myelin, which is a fatty
insulation.

The brain and spinal cord are protected from damage by a clear liquid called cerebrospinal
fluid, 3 layers of membranes called the meninges, and the hard bones of the skull and
backbone.

The Brain:

The brain is made up of different parts. These include the cerebrum, the cerebellum, the
thalamus, the hypothalamus and the brainstem.
The cerebrum is the largest part of the brain. It controls intelligence, memory, personality,
emotion, speech, and ability to feel and move. It is divided into left and right hemispheres,
linked by a band of nerve fibres in the centre of the brain called the corpus callosum.

Each hemisphere is divided into 4 lobes, or sections, which are all connected.

 The frontal lobes control movement, speech and some of the functions of the mind like
behaviour, mood, memory and organisation.
 The temporal lobes play an important part in memory, hearing, speech and language.
 The parietal lobes play an important part in taste, touch, temperature and pain, and also
in the understanding of numbers, awareness of the body and feeling of space.
 The occipital lobes are vital for being able to see clearly.
Deep inside the brain are the thalamus and the hypothalamus. The thalamus moves
information to and from the lobes, and controls movements and memory. The hypothalamus
controls appetite, thirst and body temperature, and produces hormones that control the
release of other hormones in the pituitary gland.

At the base of the brain is the brainstem. It is important for breathing, blood pressure and how
the body reacts to danger.

Glands:

Endocrine Glands Exocrine glands

Secrets Hormones Secrets enzymes

Secretes hormones directly into the blood Secrets enzymes at the surface of organ
stream

Ductless glands With ducts

Target of the gland is located away from Target is close to the gland
glands

delayed response Quick response

Example: Thyroid gland etc Example: Salivary etc

ENDOCRINE GLANDS

GLAND HORMONE RELEASE FUNCTION

Pituitary Gland  Adrenocorticotropic Regulates adrenal cortex,

 Oxytocin water regulation, growth
regulation, controls smooth
(Present just below the  Antidiuretic muscles
hypothalamus)

Thyroid gland  Triiodothyronine, also controlling the speed of your

known as T3. body's metabolism
 Tetraiodothyronine, also
called thyroxin or T4.
 Calcitonin.

Adrenal Glands  Epinephrine, also Works in emotions, stress

known as adrenaline reactions
(present above the kidneys)  Glucocorticods

Pancreas  Insulin Sugar metabolism

(Present behind the stomach)

Gonads  Androgen (Man) necessary for normal sexual

 Estrogen (female) development of the female
Ovaries(female) and for regulation of the
menstrual cycle during the
Testis (Male)
childbearing years

Parathyroid Gland  Parathyroid plays a key role in the

regulation of calcium levels in
the blood