General Concept of Deception Detection

What is Polygraphy?

It is the scientific method of detecting deception using a polygraph

instrument. This is the new name of Lie Detection.

What is a Polygraph?

The term “polygraph” simply means “many writings.” The name refers to
the manner in which selected physiological responses are simultaneously
recorded. It is a recorder of the psycho-physiological changes occurring within
the examinee’s body as the polygraph examiner asks series of questions.

Basically, the polygraph instrument is a combination of medical devices used

by physicians in monitoring and checking the physical conditions of their
patients. As an examinee is questioned about a certain event or incident, the
instrument records and monitors the relative changes in the examinee’s heart
rate, blood pressure, respiratory rate, and electrodermal activities.

Is polygraph a Lie Detector?

Lie detector is the popular but misleading name of the Polygraph. The
instrument was so named because it is commonly used in lie detection. During
the test, polygraph makes various recordings of a person’s physiological
responses which will be interpreted by the polygraphist to determine whether
the subject has been lying or not.

Consequently, the polygraph instrument does not detect lie itself but the
examiner. It only assists in detecting persons lying and or truthfulness
through its recorded physiological responses.

What is the other name of the Polygraph?

Polygraph in some instances is also called “Truth Verifier” for in vast

majority of the instances the instrument verifies a person’s truthfulness.

The purpose and Importance of polygraph Examination

The get all the facts of the case regarding the offense under investigation and
the purpose of the polygraph test is determine whether the subject is telling
the truth or not based on the presence of emotional disturbance of the subject
as appearing on the recorded physiological responses to question relative to
the case under investigation.

What are the objectives of a Polygraph Examination?

Polygraph examination is conducted in order to:

1. Obtain additional investigative leads to the facts of the case/offenses.

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2. Ascertain if a person is telling the truth.

3. Locate the fruits or tools of the crime and whereabouts of wanted persons.

4. Identify other persons involved (accomplices of crime).

5. Obtain valuable information from reluctant witnesses.

6. Identify the loyalty of individuals holding sensitive positions in a company;

and

7. Eliminate the innocent suspects.

What is the Ultimate Objective of Conducting Polygraph Examination?

The ultimate objective of polygraph examination is to obtain the subject’s

admission or confession to the offense committed.

Admission is a statement of fact by the accused, which do not directly involve

acknowledgement of guilt in committing or having participated in the
commission of an offense while Confession is a declaration made by a person
voluntarily, stating or acknowledging that has committed or participated in
the commission of a crime.

VALIDITY OF POLYGRAPH EXAMINATIONS

The issue of whether or not polygraph testing can be considered valid and
admissible in court has long been a controversial issue not just among
technical experts but also among legal experts.

Since its invention and development almost 80 years ago, it has sparked
debates, especially among those who believe that it has no scientific basis and
those who believe that it can be a source of admissible court evidence. For the
latter group, polygraph testing is widely considered a reliable method by
which to qualitatively determine the guilt of a suspect, defend the rights of an
innocent suspect, protect national security, and in the employment setting,
maintain employee honesty.

On the other end of the spectrum, there are those who believe that polygraph
testing is inaccurate and can only produce misleading information. In fact,
those who do not believe in its merits believe that polygraph testing can
interfere with the rights of private citizens and even reduce employee morale.

In the U.S., there have been many proposals to expand the use of polygraph
examination with the goal of protecting national security. Such efforts have
rekindled debates concerning the validity and appropriateness of polygraph
techniques and whether they can, indeed, detect deception.

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In the Philippines

In the Philippines, the first case of using polygraph evidence in court occurred
in 1978 in People of the Philippines v Daniel (G.R. No. L-40330 Nov. 20,
1978). Here, the defendant submitted polygraph test results proving his
innocence of the crime of rape. In 1999, the Supreme Court once again
discussed the issue of using polygraph evidence in People v Adoviso [309
SCRA 1 (1999)]

In that case, the defendant, Pablo Adoviso, was convicted of two counts of
murder by the Regional Trial Court of Camarines Sur on the bases of two
eyewitness accounts identifying him as the culprit. Although the NBI
polygraph examiner’s report proved that there were no particular physical
reactions that indicated deception in answers to questions relevant to the
investigation, this testimony was rejected and Adoviso was Still found guilty of
the crime.

ETHICAL ISSUES IN THE EMPLOYMENT SETTING

In recent years, polygraph examinations have also expanded to the field of

corporate employment. At present, some employers Choose to use lie detector
tests in assessing their current and potential Employees. However, there are
many critics who say that this is a form of invasion of privacy

Moral Requirements

At least for those who support polygraph testing in the workplace the
following moral requirements are believed to be important enough to overrule
the so-called invasion of privacy:

(1) There is no other more accurate method through which the objective can
be achieved. In this case, polygraph testing is deemed moral if there is no
other option the employer can take in verifying a potential employee’s
honesty. This kind of procedure is actually very important, especially in
companies dealing with high-risk and high-security products and services.

(2) The information obtained through the polygraph test is strictly

confidential. Here, only the relevant authorities should be allowed to view the
results so as not to heighten the likelihood of abuse and exploitation.
Moreover, if there are damaging or embarrassing information not related to
the employment, then such information should never be released in any other
channel.

(3) Finally, the polygraph test is a moral option if the information. obtained is
“sufficiently relevant” to the job.

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Advantages of Using Polygraph Testing

In a nutshell, polygraph tests are used in the employment setting for two
reasons, which include the following: (1) to check the honesty of a job
applicant (thus helping the company avoid hiring employees who may steal
from the company), and (2) to verify whether the information provided by a
job applicant is accurate and truthful. However, there are some restrictions
that should be observed as well

Those who support the use of polygraph testing in this context argue that it is
justified as long as the following criteria are met:

-The test is reliable and accurate;

-The test only detects lying and nothing else;

-Very few people can control all three physiological functions at the same
time, hence, deception can be detected based on the physical reactions of the
subjects; and

-Polygraph examiners must run pre examination tests to measure a subject's

reactions when he is committing a deception (i.e., telling a lie). In terms of
detecting dishonesty among employees, an employer cannot resort to a
polygraph test unless there is an ongoing investigation into an actual loss with
corresponding value, for example, missing properties or equipment.

In terms of setting expectations, an employer can only conduct a polygraph

test as long as the employer or applicant is informed beforehand, and
especially if this is a legitimate company policy.

Disadvantages of Using Polygraph Testing

As with any available option, it is also bound to have disadvantages. In this

case, polygraph testing in the employment setting also has its disadvantages,
which are discussed below.

Inaccurate Results

It is a known fact that polygraph testing may indeed produce mixed or

inaccurate results. We have learned in Chapter Four that polygraph tests can
produce false positives and false negatives. We have also learned that several
factors affect the results of polygraph tests. Thus, although they can be
considered reliable, the results are still not 100%. Hence, employers who
make decisions based on the results (e.g., firing an errant employee or not

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hiring an otherwise excellent prospect) may prove to be detrimental to the

employer and the company.

Lack of Trust Between Employer and Employee

Perhaps one of the most damaging aspects of employing polygraph testing is

that it can generate lack of trust and even resentment on the Part of the
employees. For example, if an honest employee is suddenly Called on to
undergo a lie detector test, he or she may feel threatened and disappointed at
the thought of being considered a “suspect” by virtue of the fact that the lie
detector test is, for the layman, something that is done criminal investigations.

In turn, if there is a general atmosphere of resentment and distrust in the

company, then employee morale is reduced, output is minimized, and
employee turnover can also increase.

Invasion of Privacy

An important moral issue in the use of polygraph testing in the employment

setting is the issue of privacy of invasion. This is especially critical in areas of
pre-employment screening and periodic monitoring of employees. In pre-
employment screening, it is considered questionable to extract from
applicant’s information that have nothing to do with their application. Such
questions include those related to union activity, sexual] preference, history of
family problems, and so on. Meanwhile, in periodic monitoring of employees,
subjects who undergo lie detection tests should not be asked questions not
related to the case being considered. Such information may be used by the
employer to discriminate against the employee in the future. Such questions
include their opinions of the company, their job satisfaction level, intention to
resign or remain with the employer, and their knowledge of activities done by
other employees. In the U.S., the use of employee polygraph testing is allowed
but limited by pertinent laws. Many of these laws aim to protect employees
from exploitation and unnecessary polygraph examinations by their
employers. As we have learned earlier, there should be valid grounds upon
which to base the decision on whether or not polygraph testing can be
considered a viable and moral option.

Is the Polygraph Technique Accurate?

Current polygraph research indicates that when a specific single-issue

polygraph exam, conducted by a qualified and competent polygraph examiner
and is properly administered the accuracy rate 1s between 95% and 98%. This
percentage is still higher than other forms of evidence, including Psychiatric

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opinions, suspect identification as provided by victims and witnesses, and

fingerprint identification.

The polygraph is the most accurate tool available today for determining truth or
deception. The accuracy of the multi-issue exam drops in accuracy due to a
number of psychological factors. These statistics do not include “inconclusive”
test results in which no opinion of truth or deception can be made from the
physiological data collected on the polygraph charts.

The technique itself and the result of the polygraph examination has been a
source of unending question. However, practitioners Nave agreed that the
accuracy of the polygraph results is high depending upon the factors that affect it.

Admissibility of the Polygraph Test Results

The admissibility of polygraph test results is based on certain criteria, which

are as follows:

a. Judicial discretion- this means that the evidence is still subjects to the trial
court’s discretion.
b. Limited use by jury- this means that, at the time of polygraph testing, the
accused may or may not have been telling the truth.
c. Written stipulations- this means that all parties must sign a written
stipulation which shows agreement to the admission of the test results (the
parties must, however, take note of violating the privilege against self-
incrimination).
d. Right of cross-examination- if the opinion of the examiner is offered as
evidence, then the opposing party is accorded the right to cross-examine the
expert regarding his training and qualifications in providing such expert
testimony.
Effectiveness of The Polygraph
Recording the symptoms of deception is based on the well-established fact
that an individual’s conscious effort deceives or to lie causes involuntary
physiological changes, which are the body’s reaction to a perceived imminent
danger. Such changes are brought about by the stimulating effect of well-
prepared questions that, when answered truthfully, may lead to a punishment.
Thus, it is not the act of lying or the guilt involved, which alters a person’s
psychological response; rather, it is his fear of subsequent punishment when
the subject’s lie is exposed, that is, the greater the consequences of being
detected, the greater the fear of detection.

LIMITATIONS OF THE POLYGRAPH

Attempts to use confessions, panel judgments, judicial outcomes, and other

criteria as indicators of truth have their own problems. Individuals may
confess to crimes which they did not commit. In addition, individuals are
sometimes falsely convicted. Panel decisions may be generalizable only to

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cases in which sufficient investigative information is available to make a

decision without the addition of polygraph testing. One can never be certain
that the panel decision is indeed correct, and the panel and the polygraph
examiner may have been exposed to the Same prior information. Thus, while
field studies provide the most direct evidence about polygraph test validity,
they have been criticized because they do not adequately meet the standards
of “ground truth” to establish criterion validity.

Despite the fact that the polygraph can help examiners obtain crucial
information that can help solve a crime being investigated, it is also realistic to
know that the polygraph has several limitations. These are detailed below.

1. It is an invaluable investigative aid, but it can never be used as a substitute

for a thorough investigation.

2. It is not a lie detector; it is a scientific diagnostic instrument.

3. It does not determine facts. Rather, it records responses to questions with

answers that the subject knows to be true, and answers that can be verified or
discredited. It is a test where the accuracy depends on the examiner, and the
results are dependent on the thoroughness of the prior investigation.

4. It is only as accurate as the examiner who conducts the test.

In the proceeding infographic, although it states that polygraph results may

not be accepted in some US courts, we can still see how the Theory of Lie
Detection and its principles are applied. With a visual representation such as
this one, we can better appreciate how a polygraph examination is conducted.

What are the limitations of the Polygraph Technique?

1. It is an invaluable investigative aid, but never a substitute for investigation.

2. It is not a lie detector but only a scientific diagnostic instrument.

3. It does not determine facts, it record responses to that which the subject
knows to be true.

4. It is only as accurate as the examiner is competent.

5. The test will not be given until enough facts have been established to permit
the examiner to prepare a complete set of suitable questions.

6. The test will not be given without the voluntary consent of the subject.

7. No indication will be given to any person or placed in any report that a

person will be considered guilty because he refused to take the test.

8. A test will not be given until the accusations have been explained with the
subject.

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9. No attempt to use Polygraph for mental or physical evaluation of any

person.

10. No examination will be conducted on unfit subject.

THE HUMAN BODY SYSTEM

A. THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

Serving as the activator of the body system, the nervous system, thru the brain
and all the nerve tissues, receives, evaluates, integrates and stores any
stimulus brought to the body from the environment, and at the same rate, the
system sends out messages to the various part and organs for specific
response.

To illustrate how nervous system operates in the body, here is a simple lay-out
of the chain – reaction process, thus;

A stimulus is given by way of pricking a needle into the finger. The brain,
serving as the highest headquarter for the system, is now activated and thus
awakened. As pricking start the finger, such stimulus is immediately received
by the ‘receptor’. These receptors are the SENSES, which convert energy to
receive the transmit from

1. Sight (EYES)
2. Hearing (EARS)
3. Smell (Olfactory organs, including nose)
4. Taste (Gustatory organs, involving tounge)
5. Touch (through skin and muscles)
6. E.S.P. or Extra-Sensory perception, or the 6th sense (through mind and
memory)
7. Kinesthesis (A very important sense which gives information about the
movements of the parts of the body with respect to one another)
8. Equilibrium Sense (which informs other parts of the body movements of
the body head is space)
With our above, the pricking is then passed from the receptors to the so-
called ‘’Effectors’’, which are composed of muscles and glands directly
producing observable behaviors. MUSCLES are bundles of fibrous cells, which
contract of relax upon neutral stimulations, while glands are the
interdependent organic body tissues which ay pump out chemicals directly
unto the internal and external organs to perform various regulatory functions.
By then the pricking, after it has been passed to the effectors, shall be
transmitted thru ‘Connectors’ called nerves and nerve Fibers. A NEURON is
just a single nerve cell which has all the characteristics of all living cells in
general and in addition is specialized fir excitability and conductivity. It has
Dendrites (that enters the peripherical nerves and transmit impulse to many

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fivers in the muscles) and the END – brushes or End plates (which are
responsible for affecting actions in the muscle).

Two divisions of Neurons:

A. Long – Conducting Neurons-- that makes up the peripheral nerves and

the long pathways of the Central Nervous System and which have long single
axon or with dendrites that are usually the sensory and motor fibers;
B. Interior Neurons—which have a number of short dendrites and axons, with
the later often giving al branches called ‘COLLATERAL’ in order to provide
many connectors and alternative pathways to other neurons.
As pricking is now passed as an impulse to the neurons an Interneurons, the
inter-neurons can do four (4) things likewise to relay these impulses to many
parts of the blood:

1) They enable impulse from a single receptor to reach many muscles

2) They permit same muscles to use in different reflexes;
3) They permit stimulus of short duration to produce a long- lasting
responses;
4) They cause impulses to be long- circuited to the brain.
And as the pricking impulse has just reached the brain this time, from there
are analyzed, diagnosed, assessed and stored, and finally the brain urgently
sends out messages that said impulses are painful, via the connectors once
again. This times the muscles and skin tissues where actually pricking took
place given out of the tissues. ‘’Synapses’’ also occurred. At least the whole
body feels the pricking pain and another emotion will transpire or flight (to
withdraw the finger from needle).

NOTES:

SYNAPSES mean the association with or without direct contact between the
end- brushes of one neuron and the dendrites of another. All the synapses of
the somatic component are located outside the Central Nervous System.

B.THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

As the name itself implies the circulatory system is responsible for the
movement of the blood in the veins and arteries throughout the body.

Giving life to the system is the HEART. It is a hollow muscle located inside the
chest cavity that pumps blood into those arteries by contracting -and relaxing
process. It has four (4) major chambers of hollow bags. The upper two
chamber of which the ‘Auricles’ and the lower are the ‘Ventricles’. The Auricles
receive blood being returned to the heart by the veins, while the Ventricles

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received blood from the Auricles and pump it out into the arteries. The back
flow of the blood in the heart is prevented by four (4) valves, corresponding to
the four (4) chambers.

The heart actions or the cardiac cycle consists of SYSTOLE and DIASTOLE.
The whole begins with the contradiction left Auricles. After a short pause, both
Ventricles and /or chambers contact. The contraction of each chamber is
followed by relaxation (Diastole) and then by a brief period of inactivity.

Acting as distributor of blood, the main purpose of the Circulatory system is

transport oxygen to the body tissue and remove carbon dioxide from them.
Because if this complexity, the whole system is divided into (2) circuits: (a.)
the greater circuit where blood is driven by the left side of the heart, is
responsible for bringing the oxygen to the cells of the body; while (b.) the
lesser circuit, where blood is driven by the right side of the heart, is
responsible for bringing the blood into contract with the atmosphere. Both
circuits have Arteries, Arterioles, Venules, and Veins, and Capillaries,
ARTERIES refer to some of the system’s branching tubes carrying blood from
the heart to all parts of the body; whereas, CAPILLARIES tiny blood vessels
connecting the arteries with the VEINS, on the hand, are those small branches
of veins distributed in the vascular and muscular parts of our body. The
exchange of water, oxygen, and food substance between the Circulatory
System and other body tissue that occurs in the capillaries.

As the process keeps going on and on, blood pressure is exerted on the walls of
the arteries. This pressure is dependent upon the energy of the heart actions,
the elasticity of the walls of the arteries, the resistance of the arterioles and the
blood volume.

We know very well that what activities increased heartbeats are the impulse
coming from the hypothalamus and other brain tissue which incite the adrenal
glands (on the upper part of the kidneys) to secret ADRENALINE to the blood
vessels. Adrenaline or Epinephrine is a type of hormone used to raised blood
pressure be affected by those impulse but also the SPLEEN and LIVER. The
spleen pours out more oxygen via the blood cells further causing the blood
volume to increase, the heart to rapid beating and blood pressure to rise. As
this goes on physiological changes such as the increase respiration and
profuse sweating simultaneously occur.

The pulse rate remains relatively constant from 25 to 60 years old, and then
increase as we grow in age, of course with the expectation of those who are
suffering from the heart defects, circulatory and cardiac diseases. Normally, in
females, the beat may be approximately 8- beats per minute faster that in
males of the same age. Medical science attest that this difference is due to the
body height, the pulse rate in inverse proportion that is, the shorter the
individual the faster the beating per minute will be. Take notes that exercise

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the rate at an average of 32- beats per minute. So, do with all those heavy-
exerting muscular efforts and manual works. And relax leading to normal
body conditions.

To have comprehensive understanding of pulse rates per minute, it is

necessary to include herein the table for further reference, chart reading and
interpretations, thus;

(Average) Pulse rates per Minute

144-133 beat per minute--- at the end of fetal life;

140-123 beat per minute--- at birth and up to 1- year old;

96-76 beat per minute ---from 10-15 years old;

73-69 beat per minute ---from 20-25 years old;

Any increase in pulse rates/ min. -after age of 25, defends on the person’s
physical and cardiac conditions.

In the case of polygraph test, tracing in the Cardio-Sphymograph disclose an

upsweep of tracing pen movement following the contraction of the heart, this is
the Systolic. The down sweep tracing discloses the relaxation of the heart. This
is considered as Diastolic. The Diacrotic Notch tracing procedures by the blood
rebounding in the part which suddenly checked its flow back by the Semi- Lunar
Valves. The Semi- Lunar Valves are defining as those present- shape valves, one
at the junction of the right ventricle and pulmonary artery (called pulmonary
valve) which functions is to prevent blood flowing back into ventricle.

C. RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
The respiratory system responsible for the taking of air into the lings and also
expelling carbon dioxide here from the rest of our body. This system, like the
Nervous and Circulatory, is equally important to lie detection. We know very
well that we can die within minutes without oxygen. Its function is automatic.
It consists of the following major parts:

a. The respiratory tract, which comprises the nose and mouth, pharynx,
larynx, bronchi and lungs;
b. The bony cage, which includes the thoracic vertebrate, the ribs, and the
breast bone or the sterum.

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As for inspiration breathing patterns, the chest capacity is increase form front and
back, from side to died, and in the vertical plane (that is, the forward direction,
the lateral direction and the downward direction).

Expiration is just the reverse of the inspiration. The diaphragm and intercoastal
muscle relax and the ribs fall back in place. The air then is forced out of the lung
once chest capacity deceases.

The Breathing Capacity

An adult as rest with normal inspiration many inhales about 500 cc of air. A
less similar amount is called exhales. The ebb and the flow of air is called
‘’TIDAL’’ air respiration. In addition to the tidal air, we can inhale another 1,500
cc of air called ‘’COMPLEMENTARY’’ air. After normal expiration, a similar
amount is exhaled called the ‘’SUPPLEMENTARY’’ air. The combination of tidal,
a complemental and supplemental airs is called the ‘’VITAL CAPACITY’’ of
human life. In short, an average person can then breath in about 2,000 cc of air
and can expel about 3, 500 cc.

In the scientific analysis, the composition of air inspired within is about: 79%
Nitrogen, 21% Oxygen, .04% Carbon Dioxide, and traces of other gases. If
expired, air is composed of about: 79% Nitrogen, 16% Oxygen, and 4% Carbon
Dioxide and other traces of gases. This indicates that about 4% of oxygen is
removed from air by breathing.

The breathing patterns or cycles is not constant, even if in good health,

because it is modified by all types of influences, both voluntary and involuntarily.
Typical examples of the influences affecting breathing pattern are coughing,
clearing of throat, sigh, sniffing, burping, laughing and yawning. As it has been
pointed out, temperature, humidity, altitude and posture also affect the
respiration rates. In polygraph recording, stooping may show less pronounced
recorded breathing pattern than erect posture. The respiration rates in female
generally higher those males of the same age.

For the purpose of reference and chart reading or interpretation, the following
table serves as the average breathing patterns for;

The newborns = 50 to 70 cycles per minute

Children (1 to 5 years old) = 20 to 30 cycle per minutes

Adult (without age consideration) = 15 to 20 cycle per minute

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As result, it should be noted that men are considered DEEP breather (they
breath up to their stomachs) while woman are shallow breather (for they breath
up to their chests).

D. THE SKIN (OR THE EXCRETORY SYSTEM)

The skin defined as the external covering of the body consisting essentials of the
body epidermis, dermis and the corium. The anatomical compositions of the
epidermis have four layers of stratified epithelium, while the corium is composed
of connective tissue containing lymphatic nerves and nerve ending, blood vessels,
sebaceous and sweat glands and elastic fibers.

The skin has the following basic functions:

a. Protection against injuries and parasitic invasion;

b. Regulation of body temperature; and
c. An aid in the elimination of bodily waste products.
Galvanic-skin-response/reflex (GSR) test record charges in the subjects increase
or decrease resistance to a constant electrical current generated through the
Amplifier, recording Galvanometer and Rectifier of the polygraph. Since
recording of these response comes from the stimuli causing a change in sweat
glands activity, the theory behind it is that applied the fingers, hands and palms,
forehead, armpits, anus area and the bottom of the feet as target areas. Sweat
varies according to different circumstances- such as muscular exercises, nausea,
pain mental excitement, nervousness, dyspnea (a sort of difficult of painful
breathing), asthma. Other disease, including certain drug which humidity affect
the sweating activity. Temperature and humidity affect the sweat glands. Cold
environment decreases sweating, enhances urination and dehydration.

A. EMOTIONS
In as much as the study of Lie- Detection involves PSYCHOLOGY, the
science of behavior, it is but imperative that we include the study of Emotions,
as such is a wide range process, almost affecting every organ or part of the
body, nearly all the Respiratory, Circulatory, Nervous and Excretory or the
electrical properties of the skin. Directly relating to Lie- Detection,
consciousness of guilt engenders a fear reaction (which is an emotional itself).
Therefore, if an individual is guilt, he will respond emotionally to
questions related to his crime. It is true and impossible that such an
individual, being aware of his emotion (his fear reaction, that is) can suppress
the same by inhabiting voluntary external responses indicative of guilt, such
as paleness, dryness of the mouth, nervousness, etc.) yet, he cannot control his
fear reaction, especially his blood pressure and heart reactions, his respiration
rates and his galvanic-skin-reflex (or the G.S.R) producing sweats and sweat
skin resistance)

THREE ASPECTS OF EMOTIONS

1. Emotion as conscious experience: This concerns human feelings
in response to a wide variety of inner and outer stimuli, which are of

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paramount importance to our personal and social adjustment. This

involves every emotional experience of man such as: Anger, Elation,
Delight, Affection, Fear, Annoyance, Worry, Rejection, Jealousy,
Envy, Frustration and Shame.
2. Emotion as motives: This involves human behavior with
motivating factors, or a power directing one’s behavior towards (or
facilitating) or a way (or interfering) from objects and person in his
environment.
a. Emotional Motive as Facilitating Behavior: Ex.: Destruction,
Attack, and Fight, Assault or Offend.
b. Emotional Motive as Interfering Behavior: Ex.: retreat, Flight,
Surrender, hide or Defend.
B. Emotions as responses: this concerns bodily reaction, usually muscular or
glandular process, which may either, be external or internal ones. It is in third
aspects that the polygraph examiner has to keep his eyes wide open to all the
information regarding emotional responses. The theory of Polygraphy is based
in primarily upon this aspect.
a) External Responses: these responses are very much observable even
without the aid of any emotions stress recording instruments.
b) Internal responses: scientifically known as ‘’visceral’’ responses, these are
the responses of the internal organs of the following systems and
properties of the human body:
b.1) the Nervous System -which controls the neural transmissions,
including glands, muscular tissues and the nerves connecting the brain
and other parts of the body;
b.2) the Respiratory System- which take cares of the breathing
b.3) the Circulatory System -which regulates the heart actions, blood-
pressure blood volumes, and pulse-rate.
b.4) the Excretory System- or the electrodermal properties of the skin
which facilitates the electrical phenomena of the Galvanic-Skin-Reflex (or
the GSR) including their resistance and brain potentials.

Early Development Modern Scientific Method of Detecting Deception

Early Publication of Polygraph

 Daniel Defoe (1730)- he wrote an essay entitled ‘’ An Effectual Scheme for

the Immediate Preventing of Street Robberies and Suppressing All other
Disorders of the Night’’ which recommends taking the pulse as a method of
identifying a criminal.
 Sir James Mackenzie (1906)- a famous heart specialist. It was said that
‘’polygraph’’ exist as early as 1906 but it is not being used to detect deception.
He first describes the instrument in an article entitled ‘’ The Ink Polygraph’’
which appeared in the British Medical Journal in 1908.
 Vittorio Benussi (1953)- he presented a paper before the second meeting of
the Italian Society of Psychology in Rome, on the subjects of his experiments
regarding respiratory symptoms of lying.

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 Richard O. Archer (1953)- he is the first polygraphist to record

simultaneously on regular basis the chest and abdominal breathing patterns.
He was also the first one to record simultaneously two galvanic skin reflexes.
- In 1966, he founded the Journal of Polygraph Science, the oldest of the
polygraph publications.
 Richard I. Golden (1969)- he presented a paper at the Annual Seminar of
Polygraph association at Houston, Texas regarding his experiments using
existing control questions techniques but requiring the subjects to answer
each question twice. The first time truthfully and the second time with lie, for
the purpose of requiring additional psycho physiological data from the
examinee by comparing his subjective truthful answer with a known lie to the
same question.

Development of Galvanograph

 Luigi Galvani (1791)- an Italian Physiologist who was accorded the

distinction for developing the galvanic skin reflex (GSR) or the galvanometer,
which records electrical bodily resistance in terms of ohms (the lowest ever
recorded). The GSR reflected emotional changes in person skin resistance
through electricity.
 Sticker (1897)- he made the first suggestion for using Galvanograph for
detecting deception based on the works of several predecessors. He theorized
the galvanic skin reflex is influenced by existing mental impression and that it
will have no effect upon it.
 Veraguth (1907)- he was the first one to use the term ‘’psychogalvanic
reflex’’. He believed that the electrical phenomenon is due to the activity of
sweat glands.

Development of Pneumograph Component

 Vitorrio Benussi (1914)- he detected deception with Pneumograph, an

instrument that graphically measures inhalation. He demonstrated the
changes in breathing patterns by noting the changes in respiration-expiration
ratio during deception.
 Harold Burrtt (1918)- he determined that respiratory changes were
indication of deception. He found out that the changes in systolic blood
pressure were of greater value in determining deception that in changes in
respiration.

Development of Cardio- Spymograph

 Angelo Mosso (1895)- he studied fear and its influence on the heart. His
observation subsequently formed the basis for detecting lies. He also
developed the sphygmomanometer and ‘’scientific cradle’’, which was
designed to measure the flow of blood while a person lay on his back in a
prone position.

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 Cesare Lombroso (1836-1909)- he developed the first scientific instrument

to detect deception, which is known as Hydrospymograph. This instrument
measures changes in pulse and blood pressure when suspects were asked
about their involvement or knowledge of specific crime.

-He was accorded the distinction of being the first person to utilize an
instrument for the purpose of detecting lies.

 William Moulton Marston (1915)- he was considered as the Father of

Modern Polygraph. He dealt with the sphygmomanometer and made
researches on the usefulness of sphygmomanometer in detecting lies, which
was used to obtain periodic discontinuous blood pressure reading during the
course of a test.

-He recorded the respiration and noted the time of subject’s verbal responses.
-He also experimented with galvanometer to record skin resistance change
and gripping devise to record tension.

 In 1915, Dr. William Marston, an American attorney and psychologist, is

credited with inventing an early form of the lie detector when he developed
the discontinuous systolic blood pressure test. This would later become one
component of the modern polygraph. Dr. Marston technique used a
standard blood pressure reading of a suspect during questioning for the
purpose of detecting deception.

 John Larson (1921)- he developed an instrument that continually and

simultaneously measures blood pressure pulse and perspiration. He designed
the ‘’first two recording channel polygraph’’ in the history. The first
mechanical form of detecting deception does not only have recording pen for
cardiosphymograph, pneumography and galvanograph but it also has the
mascular movement pen for the arms and thighs.

 In 1921, John A. Larson, a Canadian psychologist employed by the Berkeley

Police Department, in California, developed what many consider to be the
original modern polygraph instrument when he added the item of
respiration rate to that of blood pressure.

-He named his instrument the polygraph -a word derived form the Greek
language meaning many writings- since it could read several psychological
responses at the same time and document these responses on a revolving
drum of smoked paper.

-Using his polygraph, John A. Larson was the first person to continually and
simultaneously measure changes in a subject’s pulse rate, blood pressure and
respiratory rate during an interrogation. His polygraph was used extensively,
and with much success, in criminal investigations.

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 Leonarde Keeler- in 1949, he invented the ‘’keeler polygraph’’ which is

an instrument of Larson’s apparatus. With components for recording blood
pressur, pulse rate and respiration changes. A galvanometer, also known as
galvanic skin reflex referred to GSR.
-he also devised a metal bellows and designed a kymograph that pulled a
constant speed, a chart paper under the recording from a role of chart paper
located inside the instrument.
- In 1925, Leonarde Keeler, who had gained firsthand experience in polygraph
interrogations while working with John A. Larson at the Berkeley Police
Department, worked to create a less cumbersome polygraph instrument that
used inked pens to record the relative changes in a subject’s blood pressure,
pulse rate and respiratory patterns.
- In 1938, Leonarde Keeler further refined the instrument when he added a
third physiological measuring component for the detection of deception- the
psycho galvanometer a component that measured, during questioning,
changes in subject’s skin electrical resistance. In doing so, it signaled the birth
of the polygraph as we know it today.

Development of Questioning Technique

 Keeler (1942)- He developed the ‘’relevant-irrelevant’’ test. The theory of this

test is the guilty subjects reacts only to relevant questions and innocent
subject shows no reaction.
-He also added the ‘’personally embarrassing question’’ (EPQ) to his relevant-
irrelevant technique, which was designed to elicit a reaction only from the
innocent subject.
 John E. Reid (1950)- he developed the ‘’review control question’’ consisting
of a known lie incorporated into relevant/irrelevant test.
- He also discovered the ‘’guilt-complex test’’ administered to the overly
responsive subject.
 Cleve Backster (1960)- he conceived the psychological set theory that forms
the basis of his zone of comparison technique that provides constant
monitoring of the subjects reactively and designed to disclose outside issue.
This is known as the ‘’Backster Zone Comparison Test’’ technique.

Other Pioneers in the Field of Deception Detection

 Francis Galton (1879)- he developed the machine acclaimed psychological

test known as the Word Association Test, whereby the patient is presented
with group of words sufficiently separated in time to allow the patient utter his
first thought generated by each word. Dr. Carl Gustav Jung later developed
the work and experiment of Galton.
 Allen Bell (1972)- he is an American inventor who developed the device
called psychological Stress Evaluator (PSE). This instrument detects slight
trembling in the voice; this may be interpreted to determine if the person is
telling the truth.

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 Anton Mesmer (1778)- he was the first one to introduce hypnotism as a

method of detecting lies or deception.

Modern Polygraph Component

 Leonarde Keeler (1925)- who has gained first hand experience in polygraph
interrogations as a result of working with John Larson at the Berkeley Police
Department to device a polygraph that used ink pens for recording the relative
changes in subjects blood pressure, pulse rate and respiratory patterns, thus
eliminating the need for smoking the paper and then preserving it with
shellac. He also device a metal bellow with a Rolled Chart Paper.
- In 1949 the Keeler Polygraph added a galvanometer for recording a psycho
galvanic skin reflex for electro dermal response. He also works as the
assistant of John Larson and Keeler was credited as a ‘’Father of Modern-
Day Polygraph’’ due to his great contribution in use of polygraph
instrument (Abrahams 1989)
 John E. Reid (1947)- a lawyer from Chicago, Illinois who developed the
Control Question Technique (CQT) a polygraph technique that incorporated
control questions. The Reid Control Question Technique was a major
breakthrough in polygraph methodology.

Other Important Dates and Place to Remember

 1937- Japan’s first reported use of psychophysiological detection. They

measured the skin conductance at Akamatsu Uchida and Togawa
 1948- the International Society for the Deception Detection began
issuing membership
 1950’s- Korea begin its use of Polygraph. Its first examiner was trained
by U.S Army polygraphers stationed there.
 1959- Ivan Babic, head of forensic laboratory in Zagreb, Croatia,
conducted the first experimental polygraph test in the Republic of
Croatia and Yugoslavia
 1945- the polygraph was first introduced in the Philippines at the
Crime Laboratory of the Military Police. They sent Mr. Jose Navarro
and Mr. Conrado Dumlao to the U.S for polygraph training
 1950- the National Bureau of Investigation sent Mr. Agustin Patricio to
train at the Keeler Polygraph Institute.

Modern Polygraph

Modern Polygraph is computer outfit with sensors. Sensors are used to measure and
record number of physical changes that are elated to the vegetative nervous system.
The reliability of the polygraph is directly related to number measured and recorded

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inputs; the more there are inputs, the more accurate is the result of decision making
based on all measurement taken and individual characteristics are also taken into
account.

The study of the used of computerized polygraph in the physiological detection of

deception has progressed through several phases.

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