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What is Polygraphy?
What is a Polygraph?
The term “polygraph” simply means “many writings.” The name refers to
the manner in which selected physiological responses are simultaneously
recorded. It is a recorder of the psycho-physiological changes occurring within
the examinee’s body as the polygraph examiner asks series of questions.
Lie detector is the popular but misleading name of the Polygraph. The
instrument was so named because it is commonly used in lie detection. During
the test, polygraph makes various recordings of a person’s physiological
responses which will be interpreted by the polygraphist to determine whether
the subject has been lying or not.
Consequently, the polygraph instrument does not detect lie itself but the
examiner. It only assists in detecting persons lying and or truthfulness through
its recorded physiological responses.
The get all the facts of the case regarding the offense under investigation and
the purpose of the polygraph test is determine whether the subject is telling the
truth or not based on the presence of emotional disturbance of the subject as
appearing on the recorded physiological responses to question relative to the
case under investigation.
3. Locate the fruits or tools of the crime and whereabouts of wanted persons.
The issue of whether or not polygraph testing can be considered valid and
admissible in court has long been a controversial issue not just among technical
experts but also among legal experts.
Since its invention and development almost 80 years ago, it has sparked
debates, especially among those who believe that it has no scientific basis and
those who believe that it can be a source of admissible court evidence. For the
latter group, polygraph testing is widely considered a reliable method by which
to qualitatively determine the guilt of a suspect, defend the rights of an innocent
suspect, protect national security, and in the employment setting, maintain
employee honesty.
On the other end of the spectrum, there are those who believe that polygraph
testing is inaccurate and can only produce misleading information. In fact,
those who do not believe in its merits believe that polygraph testing can
interfere with the rights of private citizens and even reduce employee morale.
In the U.S., there have been many proposals to expand the use of polygraph
examination with the goal of protecting national security. Such efforts have
rekindled debates concerning the validity and appropriateness of polygraph
techniques and whether they can, indeed, detect deception.
In the Philippines
In the Philippines, the first case of using polygraph evidence in court occurred
in 1978 in People of the Philippines v Daniel (G.R. No. L-40330 Nov. 20, 1978).
Here, the defendant submitted polygraph test results proving his innocence of
the crime of rape. In 1999, the Supreme Court once again discussed the issue of
using polygraph evidence in People v Adoviso [309 SCRA 1 (1999)]
In that case, the defendant, Pablo Adoviso, was convicted of two counts of
murder by the Regional Trial Court of Camarines Sur on the bases of two
eyewitness accounts identifying him as the culprit. Although the NBI polygraph
examiner’s report proved that there were no particular physical reactions that
indicated deception in answers to questions relevant to the investigation, this
testimony was rejected and Adoviso was Still found guilty of the crime.
Moral Requirements
At least for those who support polygraph testing in the workplace the following
moral requirements are believed to be important enough to overrule the so-
called invasion of privacy:
(1) There is no other more accurate method through which the objective can be
achieved. In this case, polygraph testing is deemed moral if there is no other
option the employer can take in verifying a potential employee’s honesty. This
kind of procedure is actually very important, especially in companies dealing
with high-risk and high-security products and services.
(2) The information obtained through the polygraph test is strictly confidential.
Here, only the relevant authorities should be allowed to view the results so as
not to heighten the likelihood of abuse and exploitation. Moreover, if there are
damaging or embarrassing information not related to the employment, then
such information should never be released in any other channel.
(3) Finally, the polygraph test is a moral option if the information. obtained is
“sufficiently relevant” to the job.
In a nutshell, polygraph tests are used in the employment setting for two
reasons, which include the following: (1) to check the honesty of a job applicant
(thus helping the company avoid hiring employees who may steal from the
company), and (2) to verify whether the information provided by a job applicant
is accurate and truthful. However, there are some restrictions that should be
observed as well
Those who support the use of polygraph testing in this context argue that it is
justified as long as the following criteria are met:
-Very few people can control all three physiological functions at the same time,
hence, deception can be detected based on the physical reactions of the
subjects; and
As with any available option, it is also bound to have disadvantages. In this case,
polygraph testing in the employment setting also has its disadvantages, which
are discussed below.
Inaccurate Results
Invasion of Privacy
The polygraph is the most accurate tool available today for determining truth or
deception. The accuracy of the multi-issue exam drops in accuracy due to a number
The technique itself and the result of the polygraph examination has been a source
of unending question. However, practitioners Nave agreed that the accuracy of the
polygraph results is high depending upon the factors that affect it.
The admissibility of polygraph test results is based on certain criteria, which are
as follows:
a. Judicial discretion- this means that the evidence is still subjects to the trial
court’s discretion.
b. Limited use by jury- this means that, at the time of polygraph testing, the
accused may or may not have been telling the truth.
c. Written stipulations- this means that all parties must sign a written
stipulation which shows agreement to the admission of the test results (the
parties must, however, take note of violating the privilege against self-
incrimination).
d. Right of cross-examination- if the opinion of the examiner is offered as
evidence, then the opposing party is accorded the right to cross-examine the
expert regarding his training and qualifications in providing such expert
testimony.
Effectiveness of The Polygraph
Recording the symptoms of deception is based on the well-established fact that
an individual’s conscious effort deceives or to lie causes involuntary
physiological changes, which are the body’s reaction to a perceived imminent
danger. Such changes are brought about by the stimulating effect of well-
prepared questions that, when answered truthfully, may lead to a punishment.
Thus, it is not the act of lying or the guilt involved, which alters a person’s
psychological response; rather, it is his fear of subsequent punishment when
the subject’s lie is exposed, that is, the greater the consequences of being
detected, the greater the fear of detection.
most direct evidence about polygraph test validity, they have been criticized
because they do not adequately meet the standards of “ground truth” to
establish criterion validity.
Despite the fact that the polygraph can help examiners obtain crucial
information that can help solve a crime being investigated, it is also realistic to
know that the polygraph has several limitations. These are detailed below.
In the proceeding infographic, although it states that polygraph results may not
be accepted in some US courts, we can still see how the Theory of Lie Detection
and its principles are applied. With a visual representation such as this one, we
can better appreciate how a polygraph examination is conducted.
3. It does not determine facts, it record responses to that which the subject
knows to be true.
5. The test will not be given until enough facts have been established to permit
the examiner to prepare a complete set of suitable questions.
6. The test will not be given without the voluntary consent of the subject.
7. No indication will be given to any person or placed in any report that a person
will be considered guilty because he refused to take the test.
8. A test will not be given until the accusations have been explained with the
subject.
To illustrate how nervous system operates in the body, here is a simple lay-out
of the chain – reaction process, thus;
A stimulus is given by way of pricking a needle into the finger. The brain, serving
as the highest headquarter for the system, is now activated and thus awakened.
As pricking start the finger, such stimulus is immediately received by the
‘receptor’. These receptors are the SENSES, which convert energy to receive
the transmit from
1. Sight (EYES)
2. Hearing (EARS)
3. Smell (Olfactory organs, including nose)
4. Taste (Gustatory organs, involving tounge)
5. Touch (through skin and muscles)
6. E.S.P. or Extra-Sensory perception, or the 6th sense (through mind and
memory)
7. Kinesthesis (A very important sense which gives information about the
movements of the parts of the body with respect to one another)
8. Equilibrium Sense (which informs other parts of the body movements of the
body head is space)
With our above, the pricking is then passed from the receptors to the so- called
‘’Effectors’’, which are composed of muscles and glands directly producing
observable behaviors. MUSCLES are bundles of fibrous cells, which contract of
relax upon neutral stimulations, while glands are the interdependent organic
body tissues which ay pump out chemicals directly unto the internal and
external organs to perform various regulatory functions. By then the pricking,
after it has been passed to the effectors, shall be transmitted thru ‘Connectors’
called nerves and nerve Fibers. A NEURON is just a single nerve cell which has
all the characteristics of all living cells in general and in addition is specialized
fir excitability and conductivity. It has Dendrites (that enters the peripherical
nerves and transmit impulse to many fivers in the muscles) and the END –
brushes or End plates (which are responsible for affecting actions in the
muscle).
A. Long – Conducting Neurons-- that makes up the peripheral nerves and the
long pathways of the Central Nervous System and which have long single axon
or with dendrites that are usually the sensory and motor fibers;
B. Interior Neurons—which have a number of short dendrites and axons, with
the later often giving al branches called ‘COLLATERAL’ in order to provide
many connectors and alternative pathways to other neurons.
As pricking is now passed as an impulse to the neurons an Interneurons, the
inter-neurons can do four (4) things likewise to relay these impulses to many
parts of the blood:
NOTES:
SYNAPSES mean the association with or without direct contact between the
end- brushes of one neuron and the dendrites of another. All the synapses of
the somatic component are located outside the Central Nervous System.
Giving life to the system is the HEART. It is a hollow muscle located inside the
chest cavity that pumps blood into those arteries by contracting -and relaxing
process. It has four (4) major chambers of hollow bags. The upper two chamber
of which the ‘Auricles’ and the lower are the ‘Ventricles’. The Auricles receive
blood being returned to the heart by the veins, while the Ventricles received
blood from the Auricles and pump it out into the arteries. The back flow of the
blood in the heart is prevented by four (4) valves, corresponding to the four (4)
chambers.
The heart actions or the cardiac cycle consists of SYSTOLE and DIASTOLE. The
whole begins with the contradiction left Auricles. After a short pause, both
As the process keeps going on and on, blood pressure is exerted on the walls of
the arteries. This pressure is dependent upon the energy of the heart actions,
the elasticity of the walls of the arteries, the resistance of the arterioles and the
blood volume.
We know very well that what activities increased heartbeats are the impulse
coming from the hypothalamus and other brain tissue which incite the adrenal
glands (on the upper part of the kidneys) to secret ADRENALINE to the blood
vessels. Adrenaline or Epinephrine is a type of hormone used to raised blood
pressure be affected by those impulse but also the SPLEEN and LIVER. The
spleen pours out more oxygen via the blood cells further causing the blood
volume to increase, the heart to rapid beating and blood pressure to rise. As this
goes on physiological changes such as the increase respiration and profuse
sweating simultaneously occur.
The pulse rate remains relatively constant from 25 to 60 years old, and then
increase as we grow in age, of course with the expectation of those who are
suffering from the heart defects, circulatory and cardiac diseases. Normally, in
females, the beat may be approximately 8- beats per minute faster that in males
of the same age. Medical science attest that this difference is due to the body
height, the pulse rate in inverse proportion that is, the shorter the individual
the faster the beating per minute will be. Take notes that exercise the rate at an
average of 32- beats per minute. So, do with all those heavy- exerting muscular
efforts and manual works. And relax leading to normal body conditions.
Any increase in pulse rates/ min. -after age of 25, defends on the person’s
physical and cardiac conditions.
C. RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
The respiratory system responsible for the taking of air into the lings and also
expelling carbon dioxide here from the rest of our body. This system, like the
Nervous and Circulatory, is equally important to lie detection. We know very
well that we can die within minutes without oxygen. Its function is automatic.
It consists of the following major parts:
a. The respiratory tract, which comprises the nose and mouth, pharynx, larynx,
bronchi and lungs;
b. The bony cage, which includes the thoracic vertebrate, the ribs, and the breast
bone or the sterum.
As for inspiration breathing patterns, the chest capacity is increase form front and
back, from side to died, and in the vertical plane (that is, the forward direction, the
lateral direction and the downward direction).
Expiration is just the reverse of the inspiration. The diaphragm and intercoastal
muscle relax and the ribs fall back in place. The air then is forced out of the lung
once chest capacity deceases.
An adult as rest with normal inspiration many inhales about 500 cc of air. A
less similar amount is called exhales. The ebb and the flow of air is called ‘’TIDAL’’
air respiration. In addition to the tidal air, we can inhale another 1,500 cc of air
called ‘’COMPLEMENTARY’’ air. After normal expiration, a similar amount is
exhaled called the ‘’SUPPLEMENTARY’’ air. The combination of tidal, a
complemental and supplemental airs is called the ‘’VITAL CAPACITY’’ of human
life. In short, an average person can then breath in about 2,000 cc of air and can
expel about 3, 500 cc.
In the scientific analysis, the composition of air inspired within is about: 79%
Nitrogen, 21% Oxygen, .04% Carbon Dioxide, and traces of other gases. If expired,
air is composed of about: 79% Nitrogen, 16% Oxygen, and 4% Carbon Dioxide and
other traces of gases. This indicates that about 4% of oxygen is removed from air
by breathing.
The breathing patterns or cycles is not constant, even if in good health, because
it is modified by all types of influences, both voluntary and involuntarily. Typical
examples of the influences affecting breathing pattern are coughing, clearing of
throat, sigh, sniffing, burping, laughing and yawning. As it has been pointed out,
temperature, humidity, altitude and posture also affect the respiration rates. In
polygraph recording, stooping may show less pronounced recorded breathing
pattern than erect posture. The respiration rates in female generally higher those
males of the same age.
For the purpose of reference and chart reading or interpretation, the following
table serves as the average breathing patterns for;
As result, it should be noted that men are considered DEEP breather (they
breath up to their stomachs) while woman are shallow breather (for they breath up
to their chests).
A. EMOTIONS
In as much as the study of Lie- Detection involves PSYCHOLOGY, the
science of behavior, it is but imperative that we include the study of Emotions,
as such is a wide range process, almost affecting every organ or part of the body,
nearly all the Respiratory, Circulatory, Nervous and Excretory or the electrical
properties of the skin. Directly relating to Lie- Detection, consciousness of guilt
engenders a fear reaction (which is an emotional itself).
Therefore, if an individual is guilt, he will respond emotionally to
questions related to his crime. It is true and impossible that such an individual,
being aware of his emotion (his fear reaction, that is) can suppress the same by
inhabiting voluntary external responses indicative of guilt, such as paleness,
dryness of the mouth, nervousness, etc.) yet, he cannot control his fear reaction,
especially his blood pressure and heart reactions, his respiration rates and his
galvanic-skin-reflex (or the G.S.R) producing sweats and sweat skin resistance)
➢ Daniel Defoe (1730)- he wrote an essay entitled ‘’ An Effectual Scheme for the
Immediate Preventing of Street Robberies and Suppressing All other Disorders
of the Night’’ which recommends taking the pulse as a method of identifying a
criminal.
➢ Sir James Mackenzie (1906)- a famous heart specialist. It was said that
‘’polygraph’’ exist as early as 1906 but it is not being used to detect deception.
He first describes the instrument in an article entitled ‘’ The Ink Polygraph’’
which appeared in the British Medical Journal in 1908.
➢ Vittorio Benussi (1953)- he presented a paper before the second meeting of
the Italian Society of Psychology in Rome, on the subjects of his experiments
regarding respiratory symptoms of lying.
➢ Richard O. Archer (1953)- he is the first polygraphist to record
simultaneously on regular basis the chest and abdominal breathing patterns.
He was also the first one to record simultaneously two galvanic skin reflexes.
- In 1966, he founded the Journal of Polygraph Science, the oldest of the
polygraph publications.
➢ Richard I. Golden (1969)- he presented a paper at the Annual Seminar of
Polygraph association at Houston, Texas regarding his experiments using
existing control questions techniques but requiring the subjects to answer each
question twice. The first time truthfully and the second time with lie, for the
purpose of requiring additional psycho physiological data from the examinee
by comparing his subjective truthful answer with a known lie to the same
question.
Development of Galvanograph
➢ Luigi Galvani (1791)- an Italian Physiologist who was accorded the distinction
for developing the galvanic skin reflex (GSR) or the galvanometer, which
records electrical bodily resistance in terms of ohms (the lowest ever recorded).
The GSR reflected emotional changes in person skin resistance through
electricity.
➢ Sticker (1897)- he made the first suggestion for using Galvanograph for
detecting deception based on the works of several predecessors. He theorized
the galvanic skin reflex is influenced by existing mental impression and that it
will have no effect upon it.
➢ Veraguth (1907)- he was the first one to use the term ‘’psychogalvanic reflex’’.
He believed that the electrical phenomenon is due to the activity of sweat
glands.
➢ Angelo Mosso (1895)- he studied fear and its influence on the heart. His
observation subsequently formed the basis for detecting lies. He also developed
the sphygmomanometer and ‘’scientific cradle’’, which was designed to measure
the flow of blood while a person lay on his back in a prone position.
➢ Cesare Lombroso (1836-1909)- he developed the first scientific instrument
to detect deception, which is known as Hydrospymograph. This instrument
measures changes in pulse and blood pressure when suspects were asked about
their involvement or knowledge of specific crime.
-He was accorded the distinction of being the first person to utilize an
instrument for the purpose of detecting lies.
-He recorded the respiration and noted the time of subject’s verbal responses.
-He also experimented with galvanometer to record skin resistance change and
gripping devise to record tension.
-He named his instrument the polygraph -a word derived form the Greek
language meaning many writings- since it could read several psychological
responses at the same time and document these responses on a revolving drum
of smoked paper.
-Using his polygraph, John A. Larson was the first person to continually and
simultaneously measure changes in a subject’s pulse rate, blood pressure and
respiratory rate during an interrogation. His polygraph was used extensively,
and with much success, in criminal investigations.
➢ Leonarde Keeler (1925)- who has gained first hand experience in polygraph
interrogations as a result of working with John Larson at the Berkeley Police
Department to device a polygraph that used ink pens for recording the relative
changes in subjects blood pressure, pulse rate and respiratory patterns, thus
eliminating the need for smoking the paper and then preserving it with shellac.
He also device a metal bellow with a Rolled Chart Paper.
- In 1949 the Keeler Polygraph added a galvanometer for recording a psycho
galvanic skin reflex for electro dermal response. He also works as the
assistant of John Larson and Keeler was credited as a ‘’Father of Modern-
Modern Polygraph
Modern Polygraph is computer outfit with sensors. Sensors are used to measure and
record number of physical changes that are elated to the vegetative nervous system.
The reliability of the polygraph is directly related to number measured and recorded
inputs; the more there are inputs, the more accurate is the result of decision making
based on all measurement taken and individual characteristics are also taken into
account.