1. Illustrate the structure of a neuron. How are they classified?

(zati)

Function:
- Cell body: contains cellular machinery that keeps the neuron alive
- Myelin sheath: increase the transmission speed of action potential along the axon
- Axon terminals: located at the end of an axon that release neurotransmitter
- Axon: transmit signal generated by the neuron (action potential) through the nervous
system
- Nucleus: critical for neuron’s vitality, contains genetic material for cell
division/development and protein synthesis
- Dendrites: receive information from other neurons
- Dendrons: conduct nerve impulses from a synapse to the body of the cell
- Schwann cell: form the myelin sheath around axons in the PNS
- Node of Ranvier: A space along a myelinated axon between the individual
Schwann cells that form the myelin sheath and the neurolemma. Also called a
neurofibril node.

Classification
1. Number of neurites (axon & dendrites)
- Unipolar: have dendrites and one axon that are fused together to form a
continuous process that emerges from the cell body. Most unipolar
neurons function as sensory receptors that detect a sensory stimulus such
as touch, pressure, pain, or thermal stimuli. The cell bodies of most
unipolar neurons are located in the ganglia of spinal and cranial nerves.
- Bipolar: have one main dendrite and one axon. Found in the retina of the
eye, in the inner ear and in the olfactory area of the brain.
- Multipolar: usually have several dendrites and one axon. Most found in the
brain and spinal cord
- Pseudounipolar: has one extension from its cell body. The neuron contain
an axon that splits into two branches ( peripheral nervous system and
central nervous system)

2. Dendrites
 - Stellate cells: Most common stellate cells are the inhibitory interneurons
found within the upper half of the molecular layer in the cerebellum.
- Pyramidal cells: most common neuron in the cerebral cortex. They are the
major source of intrinsic excitatory cortical synapses, and their dendritic
spines are the main postsynaptic target of excitatory synapses
-
3. Connection
- Primary sensory neurons: In the cerebral cortex, primary sensory areas
receive sensory information from peripheral sensory receptors through
lower regions of the brain. Primary afferents are sensory neurons that
transduce information about mechanical, thermal, and chemical states of
the body and transmit it to sites in the central nervous system.
- Motor neurons: axon conducts impulses from integrating center to effector
- Interneurons: Interneurons within the CNS relay signals from sensory
neurons to motor neurons
4. Axon length
- Golgi type I neurons (projection neuron)- they include the neurons forming
peripheral nerves and long tracts of brain and spinal cord.
- Golgi type II neurons (local/circuit neuron)- having short axons or no axon
at all. It has a star-like appearance, and is found in cerebral and
cerebellar cortices and retina.
5. Neurotransmitter

2. Which term describes the cell membrane potential of a neuron at rest? (aisyah rusli)

A. Repolarized:The membrane returns to its resting membrane potential

B.Polarized:The electrical charge on the outside of the membrane is positive while the electrical
charge on the inside of the membrane is negative.From graph, resting membrane potential.
C. Depolarised:The inside of the membrane becomes less -ve (Na+ in)
D. Hyperpolarized:The inside of the membrane becomes more -ve than the resting potential
RESTING MEMBRANE POTENTIAL
● The inside of neuron is about 70mV less than the outside of neuron
● Generated by different concentrations of Na+,K+,Cl- and protein anions
● Na+ and K+ channels are closed
● Leakage accounts for small movements of Na+ and K+

DEPOLARIZATION PHASE
● Na+ permeability increases; membrane potential reverses(action potential)
Action potential is a brief reversal of membrane potential where the membrane potential
changes from -70mV to +30mV. When the membrane potential of the axon hillock of a
neuron reaches threshold, a rapid change in membrane potential occurs in the form of
an action potential.
● Na+ gates are opened,Na+ ions enter cell make membrane potential less -ve
● K+ gates are closed
● Eventually,the voltage gradient goes to 0 and beyond 0 up to +30mV known as
overshoot
● Threshold – a critical level of depolarization (- 55 to -50 mV)
● At threshold, depolarization becomes self-generating

REPOLARIZATION
● Sodium inactivation gates close thus stops the flow of Na+ ions into cell
● Membrane permeability to Na+ declines to resting levels
● As sodium gates close, voltage-sensitive K+ gates open
● K+ exits the cell and internal negativity of the resting neuron is restored

HYPERPOLARIZATION
● Due to potassium channels are little slow to close, it cause further excessive efflux of K+
● This efflux causes hyperpolarization of the membrane (undershoot)
● The neuron is insensitive to stimulus and depolarization during this time
● Hyperpolarization prevents neuron from receiving another stimulus or at least raises the
threshold for any new stimulus
● Assure signal is proceeding in 1 direction
https://youtu.be/XnksofQN8_s

https://youtu.be/oa6rvUJlg7o

3. What are the events leading to the generation of an action potential? (iqah)

● Depolarization- the inside of the membrane becomes less negative

● Repolarization- the membrane returns to its resting membrane potential
● Hyperpolarization- the inside of the membrane becomes more negative than the resting
potential
Action potential
- Caused by either threshold or suprathreshold stimuli upon a neuron
- Generated by muscle cells and neurons
- Do not decrease in strength over distance
- AP in the axon of a neuron is a nerve impulse

An action potential occurs when a neuron sends information down an axon, away from the cell
body. Neuroscientists use other words, such as a "spike" or an "impulse" for the action potential.
The action potential is an explosion of electrical activity that is created by a depolarizing
current. This means that some event (a stimulus) causes the resting potential to move toward 0
mV. When the depolarization reaches about -55 mV a neuron will fire an action potential. This is
the threshold. If the neuron does not reach this critical threshold level, then no action potential
will fire. Also, when the threshold level is reached, an action potential of a fixed size will always
fire...for any given neuron, the size of the action potential is always the same. There are no big
or small action potentials in one nerve cell - all action potentials are the same size. Therefore,
the neuron either does not reach the threshold or a full action potential is fired - this is the "ALL
OR NONE" principle.

Action potentials are caused when different ions cross the neuron membrane. A stimulus first
causes sodium channels to open. Because there are many more sodium ions on the outside,
and the inside of the neuron is negative relative to the outside, sodium ions rush into the
neuron. Remember, sodium has a positive charge, so the neuron becomes more positive and
becomes depolarized. It takes longer for potassium channels to open. When they do open,
potassium rushes out of the cell, reversing the depolarization. Also at about this time, sodium
channels start to close. This causes the action potential to go back toward -70 mV (a
repolarization). The action potential actually goes past -70 mV (a hyperpolarization) because the
potassium channels stay open a bit too long. Gradually, the ion concentrations go back to
resting levels and the cell returns to -70 mV.

4. Which of the following neuronal processes transmits an action potential? (su)

A. Dendrite
B. Axon
C. Glia
D. Soma

A neurite or neuronal process refers to any projection from the cell body of a neuron.

Axon: Responsible for carrying/transmitting nerve impulses from a neuron to another neuron.
After stimulation, action potential will travel down the axon to cause release of neurotransmitters
by axon terminals.

Dendrite: The receiving part of the neuron. Dendrites will receive synaptic inputs from another
neuron.

Glia: Glia are non-neuronal cells of the brain and nervous system. There are a variety of
subtypes of glial cells, including astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, and microglia. Each of these is
specialised for a particular function.

Function of glial cells:

a) Protect neuron from foreign invaders
b) Stabilise the position of neurons
c) Regnerate damaged neurins
d) Provide structural support and metabolism for neurons

Soma: Also called as cell body whichis the core section of the neuron. The cell body contains
genetic information, maintains the neuron’s structure, and provides energy for neuron activities.

5. Saltatory conduction refers to which of the following? (qatrin)

A. The conduction of an action potential along a demyelinated axon
B. The conduction of a graded potential along a myelinated axon
C. The conduction of an action potential along a myelinated axon
D. The conduction of a graded potential along a demyelinated axon
6. Describe how the nervous system is organized. What are their functions & how do they
relate to each other? (nina)

Organization of nervous system

- CNS

: consists of the brain and spinal cord (the main control center)

- PNS

: composed of all the nerves that branch off from the brain and spine that allow the CNS to
communicate with the rest of our body. It works in both directions:

: The sensory/afferent division is what picks up sensory stimuli

: The motor/efferent division is the part that sends directions from our brain to the muscles and
glands. Motor division includes:

- the somatic or voluntary nervous system, that rules our skeletal muscle movement

- the autonomic or involuntary nervous system that keeps our heart beating and our
lungs breathing. Autonomic system is divided into 2:

· Sympathetic division: mobilizes the body into action (fight or flight)

 · Parasympathetic division: relaxes the body (rest or digest)

Three principle functions

-sensory input

-integration

-motor output

Sensory input is when the body gathers information or data, by way of neurons, glia and
synapses. The nervous system is composed of excitable nerve cells (neurons) and synapses
that form between the neurons and connect them to centers throughout the body or to other
neurons. These neurons operate on excitation or inhibition, and although nerve cells can vary in
size and location, their communication with one another determines their function. These nerves
conduct impulses from sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord.

The data is then processed by way of integration of data, which occurs only in the brain. After
the brain has processed the information, impulses are then conducted from the brain and spinal
cord to muscles and glands, which is called motor output.
7. Describe anatomical differences between Sympathetic & Parasympathetic Divisions of the
ANS. (munirah & atiyah)
SYMPATHETIC ANS PARASYMPATHETIC ANS

SITE OF ORIGIN
THORACLUMBAR (AT CRANIOSACRAL (BRAIN AT
THORACIC AND LUMBAR CRANIUM AND SACRAL OF
REGION OF SPINAL CORD) SPINAL CORD)

RELATIVE LENGTH OF SHORT PREGANGLIONIC AND LONG PREGANGLIONIC AND

FIBERS LONG POSTGANGLIONIC SHORT POSTGANGLIONIC
FIBERS FIBERS

LOCATION OF GANGLIA
LIE CLOSE/NEAR TO THE LOCATED IN OR NEAR OF
SPINAL CORD VISCERAL EFFECTOR
ORGANS

NEUROTRANSMITTERS
PREGANGLIONIC RELEASE PREGANGLIONIC AND
ACETYLCHOLINE. POSTGANGLIONIC RELEASE
ACETYLCHOLINE
POSTGANGLIONIC RELEASE (CHOLINERGIC FIBERS)
NOREPINEPHRINE
(ADRENERGIC FIBERS)

Cholinergic fibers: All preganglionic neurons release acetylcholine (ACh)

Adrenergic fibers: Postganglionic release norepinephrine

What is ganglia and how does it differ from synapse?

Ganglion vs Synapse

A ganglion is a cluster of neuron Synapse is the junction of two neurons where

bodies that compose of millions of these two neurons come closer.
synapses.
 Function

Ganglion houses millions of Synapse facilitates the nerve impulse

synapses. transmission between the gaps of the
neurons.

Composition

Ganglion is composed of cell Synapse is composed of a presynaptic

bodies of nerve cells, connective membrane, neurotransmitters, receptors and
tissue and glial cells postsynaptic membrane.

Structure

Ganglion contains millions of Synapse is a junction where two neurons

synapses. meet.
8. The heart receives input from the sympathetic and parasympathetic systems. What is the
actual difference between the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions at the level of
those connections (i.e., at the synapse)? (aina & zue) (SLIDE 4, KALAU NK SLIDE LAIN OK
JE)

Sympathetic input cause the heart to increase in a heartbeat as it is associated with fight or
flight response while parasympathetic systems will slow the heart rate due to rest and digest
response. For sympathetic, the nerves will be connected to thoracolumbar spinal nerves while
parasympathetic connected to the cranial. The preganglionic axons is shorter than
postganglionic axons for sympathetic and the synapse with ganglionic cells close to the spinal
cord. Meanwhile preganglionic axons will be longer than postganglionic axons for
parasympathetic and synapse with ganglionic cells close to the effector structure. It is to balance
the homeostasis of the heart.
When in fight or flight response, sympathetic division of nervous system will be activated and
trigger the release of neurotransmitter acetylcholine. Acetylcholine will be saltatory conducted
across the myelinated axon. When it reaches at the synapse, norepinephrine will be transmitted
to the postganglionic axons. It will be conducted until it reached noradregenic receptor. Binding
action of NE to the receptor will increase the heart rate and rate of conduction. The response is
fast.
Another response in sympathetic division is when acetylcholine will be conducted to the adrenal
medulla. It then trigger the response for the release of of epinephrine and norepinephrine from
the adrenal medulla. After that, those neurotransmitters will bind to the noradrenegic receptor
located on the surface of the blood vessel. It will cause the constriction of blood vessel. Thus,
increasing the heart rate.
When in the rest and digest state, parasympathetic division will take place. Preganglionic axons
is longer than postganglionic axons hence the conduction is slower than sympathetic division.
Acethylcholine will be released and conducted across myelinated axons until it reached the
synapse. The transmission of Ach to the postganglionic axons occur. Ach will be conducted until
it reached the muscranic receptor on the heart. It then slow the heart rate.

9. Discuss the differences between ionotropic & metabotropic receptors. (tyra & ecah)

IONOTROPIC RECEPTORS METABOTROPIC

RECEPTORS

DEFINITION Bind to ionic ligands and Binds with chemical ligands and
open ion gated channels initiate cascade reactions that
facilitate signal transduction

TYPE OF LIGAND BINDING ligand-gated ion channels require G proteins and

THE RECEPTOR second messengers

EFFECT Response is fast Response is relatively slower

WORK AS A CHANNEL Yes No

 LINKING TO A G PROTEIN No Yes

DURATION OF THE Short Long-lasting

EFFECT OF THE
RECEPTOR

EXTENT OF THE EFFECT Short-spread Widespread

Neurotransmitter receptors are essential for mediating the effects of neurotransmitters in the
brain and peripheral nervous system. There are generally considered to be two types of
neurotransmitter receptors: ionotropic and metabotropic. While ionotropic receptors are typically
ligand-gated ion channels, through which ions pass in response to a neurotransmitter,
metabotropic receptors require G proteins and second messengers to indirectly modulate ionic
activity in neurons.
Ionotropic and Metabotropic receptors | Ionotropic receptors | Metabotropic receptors
What is ionotropic and metabotropic receptors? => These receptors are two type of receptors
which are found in the membranes and involved in transport and signal transduction

What is ionotropic receptors? => Ionotropic receptors,also called as ion channels, are channel
proteins that facilitate the transport of ions. Channel protein opens when ion binds to the
receptors. In other words, the binding of ions to the receptors leads to the opening of the ion
channels.

What is metabotropic receptors? => Metabotropic receptor is a type of receptor involved in the
signal transduction mechanisms via a secondary messenger binding the receptor.

How ionotropic receptor works? => As soon as the ligand binds to the receptor, the receptor
changes conformation (the protein that makes up the channel changes shape), and as they do
so they create a small opening that is big enough for ions to travel through. Therefore,
ionotropic receptors are “ligand-gated transmembrane ion channels”. The ions that can travel
through ionotropic receptors are generally limited to K+, Na+, Cl-, and Ca2+.
How metabotropic receptor works? => As soon as a ligand binds the metabotropic receptor, the
receptor “activates” the G-Protein (it basically changes the G-Protein). Once activated, the
G-protein itself goes on and activates another molecule. This new molecule is called a
“secondary messenger.” Upon binding of the G protein-coupled receptor to a ligand, a cascade
of reactions is initiated by activating many secondary molecules. The most inherent type of
receptor for the metabotropic receptor is G protein-coupled receptors. Thus, metabotropic
receptors consist of receptors like glutamate receptors, muscarinic acetylcholine receptors and
the serotonin receptors.

https://www.interactive-biology.com/1636/two-types-of-receptors-episode-17/
https://www.differencebetween.com/difference-between-ionotropic-and-metabotropic-receptors/

EXAMPLE OF IONOTROPIC AND METABOTROPIC RECEPTORS

What Is the Distinction Between Ionotropic and Metabolic Receptors?
The type of ligand that binds to each receptor is the primary distinction between ionotropic and
metabotropic receptors. Non-ionic ligands bind to metabotropic receptors, whereas ionic ligands
bind to ionotropic receptors. Metabotropic receptors initiate a cascading reaction or a signal
transduction mechanism upon binding. Ionotropic receptors, on the other hand, will open an ion
gated channel. This is yet another distinction between ionotropic and metabotropic receptors,
but due to these effects, the sustainability and the coverage of the effect also vary between
the ionotropic and metabotropic receptors.
 https://www.interactive-biology.com/3974/ionotropic-vs-metabotropic-receptors/

10. In the sympathetic & parasympathetic nervous systems, what are the different types of

receptors involved and where are they located? What happens when these neurotransmitters

bind to their receptor? What are the effects induced? (sufi & auni)

Sympathetic Parasympathetic
i- type of receptors involve
muscarinic
nicotinic cholinergic

ii- where are the receptors located

Muscarinic - both the peripheral and
central nervous systems
Nicotinic- within the central nervous
system
- at the neuromuscular junction.

iii- What happens when these

neurotransmitters bind to their receptor?
Acetylcholine-the neurotransmitter.
Muscarinic receptors recognize
the neurotransmitter
acetylcholine, translating this
recognition into electrical
transients and altered cell
behavior by activating and
suppressing an assortment of
signaling pathways.
Its activation results in a decrease
in heart rate and a reduction in
heart contraction force
When acetylcholine binds to
nicotinic cholinergic , a
conformational change occurs in
the receptor, resulting in the
formation of an ion pore.
This can start the action potential

iv- What are the effects induced?

When acetylcholine binds to the
receptor, sodium ions flow into the
muscle cells and induce muscle
contraction.
 Sympathetic nervous system ;

Receptors involved Location of What happens when the Effects induced

receptors Neurotransmitter neurotransmitters bind
to their receptor

Alpha 1 receptors vascular smooth Gq activation followed by Excitatory effect:

muscle inositol
1,4,5-trisphosphate (ip3) Contraction of
and diacylglycerol (dag) vascular smooth
muscle

autoreceptors at
Alpha 2 receptors presynaptic Gi activation followed by Inhibitory effect :
terminals of cyclic adenosine
sympathetic monophosphate (camp) Block the release of
neurons norepinephrine from
Epinephrine than presynaptic
norepinephrine terminals

Beta 1 receptors sinotrial node,

atrioventricular Excitatory effect :
node, cardiac
ventricular muscle heart rate, force,
and velocity of
contraction

Beta 2 receptors bronchial smooth Inhibitory effect :

muscle Gs activation followed by
camp Relaxation(dilation)
of bronchial smooth
muscle

Beta 3 receptors adipose tissue