Nerve Tissue & the

Nervous System
Part I

Dr. Ghassan Balousha

Al-Quds University
Faculty of Medicine
Pathology Department
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 Nervous system
Ø Is formed by a network of more than 100 million
nerve cells (neurons)
Ø Neurons are assisted by many more glial cells
Ø each neuron has ~1000 interconnections with
other neurons è forming a very complex system
for communication
Ø Neurons are groupped as circuits that may be:
ü Single, or in most cases
ü Combination of two or more circuits that
interact to generate a function
v A neural function is a set of coordinated
processes intended to produce a definite result

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 The human nervous system
Ø Nerve tissue is distributed throughout the
body as an integrated communications
network
Ø The nervous system is divided into:
1. Central nervous system (CNS)
consisting of the brain and the spinal cord
2. Peripheral nervous system (PNS)
composed of nerve fibers and small aggregates
of nerve cells called nerve ganglia
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 The human nervous system
Ø Nervous system generates two great classes of
functions:
ü Stabilization of the intrinsic conditions within
normal ranges, eg:
- Blood pressure
- O2 and CO2 content and pH level.
- Blood glucose, and hormone levels
ü Regulation of behavioral patterns, eg:
- Feeding
- Reproduction
- Defense
- interaction with other living creatures
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The human nervous system

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 The Nerve Tissue
Structurally, consists of two cell types:
I- Nerve cells, or neurons
• Show numerous long processes
II- Glial cells, (several types)
• Have short processes
• Support and protect neurons
• Participate in neural activity and nutrition, and
the defense processes of the CNS.

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 The Nerve Tissue
Ø Neurons respond to environmental changes
(stimuli) by altering electrical potentials that
exist between the inner and outer surfaces of
their membranes
Ø cells with this property are called excitable,
or irritable
Ø spreading of the stimulus throughout the
neuron (propagation) called action potential,
or nerve impulse is capable of traveling long
distances; and transmits information to other
neurons, muscles, and glands
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 Development of Nerve Tissue
Ø nerve tissues develop from embryonic ectoderm
Ø cells lateral to the neural groove form the neural
crest è
1. Chromaffin cells of the adrenal medulla
2. Melanocytes of skin and subcutaneous tissues
3. Odontoblasts.
4. cells of the pia mater and the arachnoid
5. sensory neurons of cranial and spinal sensory
ganglia
6. Postganglionic neurons of sympathetic and
parasympathetic ganglia
7. Schwann cells of peripheral axons
8. Satellite cells of peripheral ganglia
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 Neurons
Ø also called nerve cells
Ø are responsible for:
ü Reception, transmission, and processing of
stimuli
ü Triggering of certain cell activities
ü Release of neurotransmitters and other
informational molecules

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 Types of Neurons
Ø Based on the size and shape of their processes, neurons can be
classified as:
Multipolar neurons
• have more than two cell processes, one process being the axon and
the others dendrites
• most neurons of the body are of this type
Bipolar neurons
• with one dendrite and one axon
• found in the cochlear and vestibular ganglia as well as in the retina
and the olfactory mucosa
Pseudounipolar neurons
• have a single process that is close to the perikaryon and divides into
two branches
• stimuli travel directly to the axon terminal without passing through
the perikaryon
• found in the spinal and in most cranial ganglia

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 Types of Neurons
Ø according to their functional roles, neurons can
be classified as:
Motor (efferent) neurons
• control effector organs such as muscle fibers and
exocrine and endocrine glands
Sensory (afferent) neurons
• involved in the reception of sensory stimuli from
the environment and from the body
Interneurons
• establish relationships among other neurons,
forming complex functional networks or circuits

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 Neuron structure.
I- Cell body, or perikaryon
ü which is the trophic center for the whole nerve cell
ü is also receptive to stimuli
II- Dendrites:
ü are multiple elongated processes
ü specialized in receiving stimuli from the environment,
sensory epithelial cells, or other neurons
III- Axon
ü a single process specialized in generating or
conducting nerve impulses to other cells
ü may also receive information from other neurons
ü has distal branches = terminal arborization
• each branch terminates on the next cell in dilatations
called end bulbs (boutons) that interact with other
neurons or nonnerve cells, forming synapses
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Neurons

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 Neuron : I- Cell Body
Ø also called perikaryon
Ø is the part that contains the nucleus and
surrounding cytoplasm
Ø is primarily a trophic center, and also has
receptive capabilities
Ø contains a highly developed RER
Ø contains numerous polyribosomes that appear as
basophilic granular areas called Nissl bodies
Ø most nerve cells have a spherical, large, pale-
staining nucleus with a prominent nucleolus
Ø neurofilaments are abundant in perikaryons and
cell processes
** has Golgi complex
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Neuron

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 Neuron: II- Dendrites
Ø short & divide like tree’s thin branches
Ø principal signal reception & processing site;
has
200,000 axonal terminations establish
functional contact with dendrites of a Purkinje
cell of cerebellum
Ø cytoplasm is similar to perikaryon but is
devoid of Golgi complexes
Ø most synapses impinging on neuron are
located in dendrite spine: expanded head
connected to dendrite participate in
adaptation, learning, and memory
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 Neuron: III- Axons
Ø most neurons have only one axon
Ø cylindrical process that varies in length& diameter
Ø originate from short pyramid region, axon
hillock, that arises from perikaryon
Ø plasma membrane axolemma & contents
axoplasm
Ø Initial segment: axon area between axon hillock
& point at which myelination begins: contains ion
channels→ assume stimuli + decide to propagate
Ø axons have constant diameter & do not branch
profusely: branches called collateral branches
Ø axoplasm possesses mitochondria, microtubules,
neurofilaments, and some cisternae of SER with
absence of polyribosomes & RER so it depends
on perikaryon for its maintenance 18
 Molecular movements in Axons
Ø there is bidirectional transport of molecules along
axon:
Anterograde flow
• from the cell body along the axon to its terminals
• occurs at three speeds:
§ slow stream (few mm/day): transports protein &
actin filament
§ intermediate speed: transports mitochondria
§ fast stream (X100 more rapid): transports
neurotransmitters in vesicles
Retrograde flow
• in opposite direction transports molecules taken
up by endocytosis (virus & toxin)
toxin

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 Membrane Potentials
Ø the axolemma contains Na/K pump that maintain
intracellular Na+ only 1/10 of that in ECF &
intracellular K+ at level greater than in ECF →
potential difference of – 65 mV with inside negative
to outside (resting membrane potential)
Ø when neuron is stimulated, ion channels open &
sudden influx of Na+→ –65 mV to +30 mV interiorly
beginning of Action Potential/impulse → close Na
channel → diffusion of K outside → return
membrane potential to – 65 mV
Ø duration of these events is very short (5 ms)
Ø however, action potential propagates along membrane;
electrical disturbance opens neighboring Na & K
channel
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 Synaptic Communication
Ø synapse is responsible for unidirectional nerve
impulse from presynaptic to postsynaptic

Ø site of functional contact btw neurons / effector cell

Ø function: convert electrical impulse from
presynaptic terminal into chemical signal on
postsynaptic terminal by releasing
neurotransmitter → bind to receptor → initiate
2nd-messenger cascade (Neuromodulator;
neuropeptide or steroids)
Ø presynaptic terminal contains synaptic vesicles with
neurotransmitters & numerous mitochondria
Ø most synapses are chemical synapses, few transmit
ionic signals through gap junctions = electrical
synapses
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 Synaptic Communication
Ø neurotransmitters are synthesized in cell body → stored
in vesicles → released by exocytosis → recycled by
endocytosis or removed by (enzyme / diffusion)
Ø most neurotransmitters are amines, amino acids, or small
peptides (neuropeptides): important in regulating feelings
Ø inorganic substances, such nitric oxide, have also been
shown to act as neurotransmitters

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Sequence of Events during Chemical Synapse Transmission

to synaptic cleft

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Excitatory and Inhibitory Synapses

depolarization

hyperpolarization
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 Glial Cells & Neuronal Activity
Ø Glial cells are X10 more abundant in brain than neurons
Ø Surround cell bodies & their axonal & dendritic processes
that occupy interneuronal spaces
Ø Nerve tissue has only very small amount of ECM
important Glial Cell Type Origin Location Main Functions
Oligodendrocyte Neural tube Central nervous Myelin production, electric insulation
system
Schwann cell Neural tube Peripheral nerves Myelin production, electric insulation

Astrocyte Neural tube Central nervous Structural support, repair processes

system
Blood–brain barrier, metabolic
exchanges
Ependymal cell Neural tube Central nervous Lining cavities of central nervous
(neuroepithelial cell) system system

Microglia Bone marrow Central nervous Macrophagic activity

system
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 I- Oligodendrocytes
Ø haveprocesses that wrap around axons, producing a
myelin sheath
Ø myelin sheath provides electrical insulation of neurons in
the CNS
Ø one oligodendrocyte forms myelin sheaths for several (3
- 50) nerve fibers

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 II- Schwann Cells
Ø same function as oligodendrocytes but are located
around axons in peripheral nervous system
Ø one Schwann cell forms myelin around a segment of
one axon

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 III- Astrocytes
Ø star-shaped cells with multiple radiating processes
Ø most numerous glial cells
Ø have bundles of intermediate filaments made of glial
fibrillary acid protein that reinforce their structure
Ø bind neurons to capillaries & to pia mater
A- Fibrous astrocytes: have few long processes and
located in white matter
B- Protoplasmic astrocytes: have short-branched
processes and located in gray matter
Ø participate in controlling ionic & chemical environment
Ø transfer molecules/ions from blood to neurons through
end feet
Ø proliferate to form scar tissue when CNS is damaged

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IV- Astrocytes

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 Astrocytes
Ø Regulate the numerous functions of CNS:
ü Exhibit adrenergic, amino acid receptors (γ
aminobutyric acid; GABA), peptide receptors
(natriuretic peptide, angiotensin II, endothelins,
vasoactive intestinal peptide & thyrotropin-releasing
hormone)
§ The presence of these and other receptors on astrocytes
enables them to respond to several stimuli
Ø Influence neuronal survival/activity through their
ability to regulate constituents of ECM
Ø Absorb excess of NT and release neuroactive
molecules : angiotensinogen, vasoactive endothelin, opioid
precursors enkephalins, and somatostatin
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 V- Ependymal Cells
Ø Columnar epithelial cells lining ventricles of
brain & central canal of spinal cord
Ø In some locations, they are ciliated to facilitate
movement of cerebrospinal fluid

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 VI- Microglia
Ø Small elongated cell with short irregular
processes
Ø Phagocytic cells, derived from precursor cells
in bone marrow
Ø Involved in inflammation and repair; release
neutral proteases, cytokines & oxidative
radicals

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