NERVOUS SYTEM

Allen Claire C. Aguilar, PTRP

 OBJECTIVES
• Describe the organization of the nervous system.

• Describe the three basic functions of the nervous system.

• Contrast the histological characteristics and the functions of neurons and neuroglia.

• Explain the events of signal transmission at electrical and chemical synapses

• Give examples of excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitters, and describe how they act.
 FUNCTIONS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
1. SENSORY FUNCTION- detect internal stimuli, such as an increase in
blood pressure, or external stimuli.

2. INTEGRATIVE FUNCTION- processes sensory information by

analyzing it and making decisions for appropriate responses

3. MOTOR FUNCTION- may elicit an appropriate motor response by

activating effectors (muscles and glands) through cranial and spinal
nerves causing muscle contractions
 ORGANIZATION OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
NERVOUS SYSTEM
STRUCTURAL FUNCTIONAL
NERVOUS SYSTEM NERVOUS SYSTEM

CENTRAL PERIPHERAL AUTONOMIC SOMATIC

NERVOUS SYSTEM NERVOUS SYSTEM NERVOUS SYSTEM NERVOUS SYSTEM

SPINAL CRANIAL SPINAL

BRAIN SYMPATHETIC PARASYMPATHETIC
CORD NERVES NERVES
 NEURONS
-possess electrical excitability
-ACTION POTENTIAL: electrical signal that travels along the surface of the membrane of a neuron.

Main Parts of a Neuron:

1. Cell body- aka perikaryon or soma
-contains nucleus surrounded by cytoplasm
2. Dendrites - receiving or input portions of a neuron.
-short, tapering, and highly branched
3. Axon- propagates nerve impulses toward another
neuron, a muscle fiber, or a gland cell
-long, thin, cylindrical projection
NEURONS
Other Parts:
1. Nissl bodies- free ribosomes and prominent
clusters of rough endoplasmic reticulum
Function: proteins are used to replace cellular
components, growth and damage repair.
2. Neurofibril – bundles of intermediate filaments.
Function: provide the cell shape and support
3. Microtubules- asisst in moving materials between
the cell body and axon.
NEURONS
Other Parts:
1. Axon hillock- cone-shaped elevation that connects
the axon and the cell body.

2. Initial segment – closes to axon hillock where

nerve pulses arises
3. Axoplasm- cytoplasm of a neuron

4. Axolemma- plasma membrane of a neuron

NEURONS
Other Parts:
1. Axon terminal- end of a neuron

2. Synapse– site of communication between two

neurons or between a neuron and an effector cell

3. Synaptic end bulbs- tips of some axon terminals

NEURONS
Other Parts:
1. Myelin Sheath- a sleeve (sheath) that is wrapped
around each nerve cell
Function: provides protective insulation

2. Node of Ranvier– rich in positive sodium ions. As

the electrical signal or impulse travels along the
axon, it jumps from one node to the next.
Function: help electrical impulses travel faster
 NEUROGLIA
-support, nourish, and protect neurons, and maintain the interstitial fluid that bathes them
-smaller than neurons but are 5 to 25 times more numerous

CNS
1. Astrocytes PNS
2. Oligodendrocytes 1. Satellite Cells
3. Microglia 2. Schwann Cells
4. Ependymal Cells
 NEUROGLIA: CNS
1. ASTROCYTES- star-shaped cells; the largest and most numerous of the neuroglia
Functions:
-Maintain the appropriate chemical environment for the generation of nerve impulse
-Regulate the growth, migration, and interconnection among neurons in the brain in the embryo
-Support neurons
-Isolate neurons of the CNS from various potentially harmful substances in blood

2. OLIGODENDROCYTES- resemble astrocytes but are smaller and contain fewer processes.
Function:
responsible for forming and maintaining the myelin sheath around CNS axons.

3. MICROGLIAL CELLS- smallest glial cells

Function:
remove cellular debris formed during normal development of the nervous system and phagocytize
microbes and damaged nervous tissue

4. EPENDYMAL CELLS- are cuboidal to columnar cells arranged in a single layer that possess microvilli
Function:
produce, possibly monitor, and assist in the circulation of cerebrospinal fluid.
 NEUROGLIA: PNS
1. SCHWANN CELLS- form the myelin sheath around axons.

2. SATELLITE CELLS- surround the cell bodies of neurons of PNS ganglia

-surround the cell bodies of neurons of PNS ganglia
ION CHANNELS IN NEURONS
SIGNAL TRANSMISSION AT CHEMICALSYNAPSES

1. A nerve impulse arrives at a synaptic end bulb of a

presynaptic axon

2. The depolarizing phase of the nerve impulse opens

voltage-gated Ca2+ channels, which are present in the
membrane of synaptic end bulbs. Because calcium ions are
more concentrated in the extracellular fluid, Ca2+ flows
inward through the opened channels.

3. An increase in the concentration of Ca2+ inside the

presynaptic neuron serves as a signal that triggers exocytosis
of the synaptic vesicles. As vesicle membranes merge with
the plasma membrane, neurotransmitter molecules within the
vesicles are released into the synaptic cleft. Each synaptic
vesicle contains several thousand molecules of
neurotransmitter.
SIGNAL TRANSMISSION AT CHEMICALSYNAPSES

4. The neurotransmitter molecules diffuse across the synaptic

cleft and bind to neurotransmitter receptors in the
postsynaptic neuron’s plasma membrane

5. Binding of neurotransmitter molecules to their receptors on

ligand-gated channels opens the channels and allows
particular ions to flow across the membrane.

6. As ions flow through the opened channels, the voltage

across the membrane changes. This change in membrane
voltage is a postsynaptic potential. Depending on which ions
the channels admit, the postsynaptic potential may be a
depolarization (excitation) or a hyperpolarization (inhibition)

7. When a depolarizing postsynaptic potential reaches

threshold, it triggers an action potential in the axon of the
postsynaptic neuron.
CENTRAL NERVOUS
SYSTEM

Allen Claire C. Aguilar, PTRP

 OBJECTIVES
• Describe the structures and functions of the brain stem and reticular formation.

• Describe the structure and functions of the cerebellum.

• Describe the components and functions of the diencephalon (thalamus, hypothalamus, and epithalamus)

• Describe the cortex, gyri, fissures, and sulci of the cerebrum.

• Locate each of the lobes of the cerebrum

• Differentiate the functions of the left and right hemisphere

• Identify the major parts of the brain.

• Describe how the brain is protected.

THE BRAIN
PROTECTIVE COVERINGS OF THE BRAIN
Cranial Meninges- protects the brain together with the cranium
 CEREBROSPINAL FLUID
-clear, colorless liquid composed primarily of water
Location: cavities of the brain
subarachnoid space

Total Volume: 80mL to 150mL

FUNCTIONS:
1. Mechanical Protection- serves as a shock-absorbing medium that protects the delicate
tissues of the brain
2. Homeostatic Function- the pH of the CSF affects pulmonary ventilation and cerebral
blood flow
3. Circulation- medium for minor exchange of nutrients and waste products between the
blood and adjacent nervous tissue.
 CSF FLOW
1. Choroid Plexus
2. 2 Lateral Ventricles
3. Foramen of Monroe
4. 3rd Ventricle
5. Aqueduct of Sylvius
6. 4th Ventricle
7. Openings:
Medial: Foramen of Magendie
Lateral: Foramen of Luschka
8. Spinal Canal
9. Subarachnoid Space
10. Arachnoid Villi
 Structures:
1. Medulla Oblongata
The Brain Stem 2. Pons
3. Midbrain
MEDULLA OBLONGATA
-continuous with the superior part of the spinal cord
-inferior part of the brain stem
Functions:
Cardiovascular center: regulates the rate and force of the heartbeat and the diameter of
blood vessels
Medullary respiratory center: adjusts the basic rhythm of breathing
Vomiting center
Deglutition center: swallowing of a mass of food that has moved from the oral cavity of
the mouth into the pharynx
Sneezing, coughing, hiccupping
Cuneate nucleus and gracile fasciculus: associated with sensations of touch, pressure,
vibration, and conscious proprioception
Gustatory nuclei: receives gustatory input from the taste buds of the tongue
Cochlear nuclei: receive auditory input from the cochlea of the inner ear

Associated Nuclei: Vestibulocochlear, Glossopharygeal, Vagus, Accessory and Hypoglossal

 Structures:
1. Medulla Oblongata
The Brain Stem 2. Pons
3. Midbrain
PONS
-directly superior to the medulla and anterior to the cerebellum and is about 2.5 cm long
-bridge that connects parts of the brain with one another
Functions:
Pontine nuclei: helps in coordinating and maximizing the efficiency of voluntary motor
output throughout the body
Pontine respiratory group: together with the medullary respiratory center, the pontine
respiratory group helps control breathing

Associated Nuclei: Trigeminal, Abducens, Facial, Vestibulocochlear

 Structures:
1. Medulla Oblongata
The Brain Stem 2. Pons
3. Midbrain

MIDBRAIN- aka mesencephalon

-extends from the pons to the diencephalon and is about 2.5 cm long
Functions:
Cerebral Peduncles: conduct nerve impulses from motor areas in the cerebral cortex to
the spinal cord, medulla, and pons
Tectum:
Superior Colliculi-serve as reflex centers for certain visual activities
Inferior Colliculi- relaying impulses for hearing in the inner ear to the brain
Substancia Nigra: large and dark pigmentation which releases dopamine

Associated Nuclei: Oculomotor, Trochlear

 Reticular Formation
-broad region where white matter and gray matter that exhibit a netlike arrangement
-from the superior part of the spinal cord, throughout the brain stem, and into the inferior part of the diencephalon.

Reticular Activating System- consists of sensory axons that project to the cerebral cortex, both directly and
through the thalamus
Functions:
visual and auditory stimuli
stimuli from pain, touch, proprioception and pressure receptors
Inactivation=sleep consciousness (state of wakefulness)
Damage= coma attention (concentrating on a single object or though)
prevents sensory overload
regulate muscle tone
assists in the regulation of heart rate, blood pressure, and respiratory rate
 The Cerebellum
-aka “the little brain”
-occupies the inferior and posterior aspects of the cranial cavity
Function: coordinates skilled movements and regulates posture and balance.

Tentorium Cerebelli- separates the cerebellum from the cerebrum

Parts:
Vermis- central constricted area
Anterior Lobe- responsible for muscle tone
Posterior Lobe- responsible for balance
Flocculonodular Lobe- responsible for coordination
 The Diencephalon
-extends from the brain stem to the cerebrum and surrounds the third ventricle
-components: thalamus, hypothalamus, and epithalamus
Thalamus
-3 cm (1.2 in.) in length and makes up 80% of the
diencephalon

Functions:
-Major relay station for most sensory impulses that
reach the primary sensory areas of the cerebral
cortex from the spinal cord and brain stem

-Contributes to motor functions by transmitting

information from the cerebellum to the primary
motor area of the cerebral cortex.

-Relays nerve impulses between different areas of

the cerebrum and plays a role in the maintenance
of consciousness
Hypothalamus
-small part of the diencephalon located inferior to the
thalamus

Functions:
-Major regulators of homeostasis
-Control of the autonomic nervous system
-Regulation of hunger
-Satiety center
-Control of body temperature
-Regulation of circadian rhythms and states of
consciousness
Epithalamus
-a small region superior and posterior to the thalamus
-consists of pineal gland and habenular nuclei

Pineal Gland- part of the endocrine system because it secretes the hormone melatonin
Melatonin: promote sleepiness
Habenular Nuclei- are involved in olfaction, especially emotional responses to odors
 The Cerebrum
-“seat of intelligence”
Functions:
-provides us with the ability to read, write, and speak
-to make calculations and compose music
-to remember the past, plan for the future
CEREBRAL CORTEX
-imagine things that have never existed before
-forms the outer rim of the cerebrum
Gyri- aka convolutions are the folds
Fissure- deepest grooves between folds
Sulci- shallower grooves between folds

Longitudinal Fissure
-most prominent fissure
-separates the cerebrum into right and left
Corpus Callosum
-connects the hemispheres internally
 LOBES OF THE CEREBRUM
-frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital lobes

FRONTAL LOBE
cognition, intelligence, judgement, memory, motor skills
PARIETAL LOBE
sensation and perception
TEMPORAL LOBE
hearing, memory, smell
OCCIPITAL LOBE
vision
Limbic System
-a ring of structures on the inner border of the cerebrum and floor of the diencephalon

Components:
Parahippocampal Gyrus- memory and learning
Uncal/Uncus- anterior part of the parahippocampal gyrus
Cingulate Gyrus- associated with cranial nerve 1
Hippocampus- memory and learning (through repetition)
Amygdala- aka “ammon’s horn” pain and emotion; libido and sex drive
 RIGHT LEFT
HEMISPHERE HEMISPHERE
-Receives signal from left side of the body -Receives signal from right side of the body
-Arts and music -Reasoning
-Recognition of faces -Numerical and scientific skill
-Generating mental images -Ability to use and understand sign language
-Identify and compare odors -Spoken and written language
 Assignment
Identify the following: CRANIAL NERVES
Origin
Foramina through which it exits the skull
Components and function
Dysfunction
 CENTRAL
NERVOUS SYSTEM
(SPINAL CORD)

Allen Claire C. Aguilar, PTRP

 OBJECTIVES

• Describe the protective structures and the gross anatomical features of the spinal cord.

• Explain how spinal nerves are connected to the spinal cord

• Describe the components, connective tissue coverings, and branching of a spinal nerve.
 PROTECTIVE STRUCTURES
1. VERTEBRAL COLUMN- has vertebral canal where the spinal cord passes
through

2. MENINGES- three protective, connective tissue coverings that encircle the

spinal cord and brain.
 PROTECTIVE STRUCTURES
a. Dura Mater- most superficial layer
- thick strong layer
Subdural Space- contains interstitial fluid
b. Arachnoid Mater- the middle of the meningeal membranes
-spider’s web arrangement of delicate collagen fibers
Subarachnoid space- contains shock-absorbing cerebrospinal fluid
c. Pia Mater- innermost layer
-contains many blood vessels that supply oxygen and nutrients to
the spinal cord
EXTERNAL ANATOMY OF THE
SPINAL CORD
Spinal Cord- oval shaped structure inside the vertebral canal
Diameter: 1.5cm
Length: 42 to 45 cm
adult: from medulla oblongata to 2nd lumbar vertebra
newborn: medulla oblongata to 3rd and 4th lumbar vertebra
-has enlargements @ Cervical and Lumbar area
Conus Medullaris- conical end of the spinal cord
Filum Terminale- extension of the pia mater from the conus medullaris to the coccyx
-anchors the spinal cord to the coccyx
Cauda Equina- “horse tail”; roots of the lower spinal nerves angle inferiorly
Spinal Nerves- paths of communication between the spinal cord and specific regions of the
body.
31 pairs:
8 cervical
12 thoracic
5 lumbar
5 sacral
INTERNAL ANATOMY OF THE
SPINAL CORD

Transverse view: white matter that surround an inner core of gray matter

White Matter- consists primarily of bundles of myelinated axons of neurons

-has motor nuclei provide output to effector tissues via motor neurons

Gray Matter- shaped like the letter H or a butterfly

-consists of dendrites and cell bodies
-has sensory nuclei that receive input from receptors via sensory neurons