1.

ANATOMICAL DIVISIONS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM1

I. Read the text paying attention to the italicised words:

T
he human brain is a network of more
than 100 billion individual nerve cells
interconnected in systems that
construct our perceptions of the external world, fix our attention and control the
machinery of our action. A first step in understanding the mind is to learn how
neurons are organized into signaling pathways and how neurons communicate by
means of synaptic transmission.
The nervous system can be subdivided into the central nervous system, or
CNS, and the peripheral nervous system, or PNS having their own structures and
functions.
The CNS consists of the brain and the spinal cord, complex organs that
include:
* neural tissue,
* blood vessels and
* connective tissue.
The connective tissue is the framework or scaffold to support and protect the CNS.
The CNS is responsible for integration, processing and coordination of
incoming sensory information called the afferent direction. When you are touched
out in the periphery, the information comes into the body afferently. The outgoing
motor commands, or effects are sent from the brain by efferent direction throughout
the body.

1
Adapted from Neuroanatomy in Physical Therapy by Annie Burke-Doe, PT, MPT, PhD
Associate Professor, University of St. Augustine for Health Sciences at San Diego
https://accessphysiotherapy.mhmedical.com/data/multimedia/grandrounds/neuropt/media/
neuropt_print.html
 2

The CNS is also responsible for higher level functions such as learning and
memory.
The PNS includes all neural tissue outside of the CNS, which consists of :
*the cranial nerves, which control sensory and motor functions to our head and
neck;
*the spinal nerves, which control motor and sensory function in our trunk and
extremities;
*the sympathetic and parasympathetic, which control autonomic functions of the
body;

2
https://www.news-medical.net/health/What-is-the-Nervous-System.aspx
*the enteric nervous system, which controls the functions of the gastrointestinal
system.
The PNS delivers that sensory information afferently to the CNS and carries
out motor commands efferently to the peripheral tissues and systems.

T
he nervous system is composed of nerve cells
called neurons and support cells called glial
cells, or simply glia.
Neurons are considered the basic functional units of the nervous system and are
mainly responsible for signaling and communication in the nervous system,
although glial cells may contribute as well.
Glial cells are there to separate and protect neurons, provide a
supporting framework, have the ability to act as phagocytes, help regulate interstitial
fluid composition, and are in greater number than neurons.
The neuron is composed of a cell body, varying numbers of dendrites, an axon,
and specialized site for communication called synapse.
 The cell body or soma contains the nucleus and organelles that provide
energy and synthesis organic materials, especially neurotransmitters
that are important for cell communication.
 Extending out from the cell body are dendrites that are highly
branched, and each branch has a dendritic spine that receives
information from other neurons.
 The axon is a long cytoplasmic process that is capable of propagation
of an electrical impulse, known as the action potential. The axon may
branch along its length producing side branches that enable a single
neuron to communicate with several other cells. The main axon trunk
and any collaterals end in a series of fine extensions, known as
telodendria. Telodendria of an axon end at a synaptic terminal.
 The structure of the neuron3

An action potential travelling along an axon is considered a nerve impulse. At

synapses between two neurons, information can then pass from the presynaptic
neuron to the postsynaptic neuron.
A synapse is either electrical, having direct physical contact, or chemical,
involving a neurotransmitter.
Chemical synapses are more common than electrical. The action potential
triggers the release of neurotransmitter molecules from synaptic vesicles, allowing
chemical communication with the postsynaptic cell. Excitatory neurotransmitters
will cause depolarization and promote the generation of an action potential due to
the influx of sodium, whereas inhibitory neurotransmitters cause hyperpolarization
and suppress the generation of an action potential.
Electrical synapses occur in both the CNS and the PNS, but are rarer in the
PNS.
When looking at chemical neurotransmitters, it is important to note that they
have two general types of functions. One is to mediate rapid communication
3
https://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/cells.html
between neurons through fast excitatory or inhibitory electrical events known as
excitatory postsynaptic potentials (EPSP) or inhibitory postsynaptic potentials
(IPSP). The second function of a chemical neurotransmitter is neuromodulation,
generally occurring over a slower time scale.

WORDS TO REMEMBER

Provide meanings to the following lexical units considering their morphological

category:
network____________________________________________________________
construct ___________________________________________________________
pathways___________________________________________________________
scaffold_____________________________________________________________
incoming____________________________________________________________
outgoing ___________________________________________________________
carry______________________________________________________________
framework__________________________________________________________
occur______________________________________________________________
branch_____________________________________________________________

II. Scan the text and answer the following questions:

1. What are the subdivisions of the nervous system?
2. What are the elements and functions of CNS?
3. What are the elements and functions of PNS?
4. What is a neuron?
5. What is the function of the glial cells?
 6. What is a synapse?
7. What how many types of synapses are there?

TEAM WORK
Define the following elements that occur in the structure of the nervous system:
support cells ............................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................
astrocytes.................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................
oligodendrocytes.......................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................
microglia.................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................
monocytes................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................
ependymal cells........................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................
phagocytes ................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................

FOCUS ON
Substitute the underlined words for their synonyms/ antonyms (words or phrases):
1.The interconnection of the neurons ensure a good performance of the daily tasks.
..............................................................
2. The glial cells are a supporting construct for the
neurons. .......................................
3. The neurons communicate by means of synaptic
transmission. ..............................................
4. The branches of an axon enable a single neuron to communicate with several
other cells. ........................................................
5. The PNS delivers that sensory information afferently to the
CNS. ..................................................
6. The main axon trunk and any collaterals end in a series of fine extensions.
........................................................................................................
7. Excitatory neurotransmitters cause depolarization and promote the generation of
an action potential. ............................................................
8. Neuromodulation, generally occurr over a slower time scale. ................................
9. The action potential triggers the release of neurotransmitter molecules from
synaptic vesicles. ......................................................................

GRAMMAR ACTION
ACTIVITY 1. The constructions below include names of materials and substances
and can be related attributively to the nouns. Provide the equivalent structure
according to the example:
a watch made of gold a gold watch

a raincoat made of plastic ___________________________

a shirt made of silk ___________________________
a blouse made of cotton ___________________________
a nailbrush made of nylon __________________________
a wall made of stone __________________________
a tile made of ceramic __________________________
a blade made of stainless steel __________________________
a wallet made of leather __________________________
a teapot made of silver __________________________
a coat made of linen __________________________

ACTIVITY 2. Use will, should/ ought to or must in the following sentences.

1. The reservation was made two weeks ago. It _______________still available

2. They ________________ (row) while spending the vacation in a mountain
resort because they have already bought oars.
3. The outdoor adventure retreat is better organised than last year. We
____________________ (go) there again, this year.
4. Let’s put up at a bungalow. It _________________ (be) nice to live in a
water-front house.
5. The client _____________________ (disregard) the do’s and don’ts of this
boarding house.
6. Look. The personnel is gathered in the lobby. It ____________ (be) a meeting
with the senior manager. That’s more than sure.
7. The elevator-boy saw the tourists out. He _______________ (feel) relief.
8. The guest bill _________________ (display) all extra-charges for laundry and
ironing services.
9. The residential club includes only distinguished clientele. This
______________________ (count) or a good image.
10. Would you like a walking holiday? It _______________ (be) wonderful to
saunter in the valleys.
11. The bellboy was carrying luggage all day long. He _______________ (be)
beat tired.
12. My wife told me she had already booked a holiday flat but there is nobody
here. She _______________________ (misunderstand).

KEY LANGUAGE
Fill in the blanks with the suitable words given below:

dendrites (a) motor (b) branch (c) root (d) trees (e)
ventral (f) synapses (g) ganglion (h)
spines (i) input (j) spinal (k) located (l)

Sensory neurons are (1) .........................in dorsal (2) .....................ganglia situated

immediately adjacent to the (3).............................cord and have peripheral
(4).................................. (projecting to muscle) and the central branch to the spinal cord,
where it forms (5)................................on the cell bodies and (6)....................... of motor
neurons. (7).............................neurons are located in the (8)............................. horn of the
spinal cord . Unlike dorsal root (9)........................ cells, which have no dendrites, motor
neurons have several dendritic (10)................... and its characteristic of central neurons,
whose firing is regulated by (11)......................... from many neurons. Short specialized
dendritic extensions called (12) ..................... serve to increase the area of the neuron
available for synaptic .....................................4.

Solutions: 1-l; 2-d;3-k;4-c; 5-g;6-a; 7-b; 8-f; 9-h; 10-e;11-j;12-i

Identify the elements of a neuron and insert them on the image below:

4
https://ms2016asab.files.wordpress.com/2016/09/6n7-cytology_neuron.pdf

5
https://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/revcell.html