ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

TOPIC: THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

REFERENCE: ESSENTIAL OF HUMAN ANATOMY (EIGHT EDITION) BY ELAINE MARIEB
PROFESSOR: MA. ROSARIO MEÑEZ-QUEJADO, RMT, Ed.D.

Functions of the Nervous System

1. Sensory input – gathering information and monitor changes occurring inside and outside the body
Changes = stimuli
2. Integration- process and interpret sensory input and decide if action is needed
3. Motor output- response to integrated stimuli and activates muscles or glands
Structural Classification of the Nervous System
1. Central nervous system (CNS) - Brain and Spinal cord
2. Peripheral nervous system (PNS)- Nerve outside the brain and spinal cord
Functional Classification of the Peripheral Nervous System
1. Sensory (afferent) division- Nerve fibers that carry information to the central nervous system
2. Motor (efferent) division- Nerve fibers that carry impulses away from the central nervous system
Motor (efferent) division Two subdivisions
1. Somatic nervous system = voluntary
2. Autonomic nervous system = involuntary
Organization of the Nervous System
Types of nervous cell:
Support Cells (Neuroglia)
1. Astrocytes- Abundant, star-shaped cells,
Brace neurons and Form barrier between capillaries and neurons
Control the chemical environment of the brain
2. Microglia- Spider-like phagocytesDispose of debris
3. Ependymal cells- Line cavities of the brain and spinal cord
Circulate cerebrospinal fluid
4. Oligodendrocytes- Produce myelin sheath around nerve fibers in the CNS
5. Satellite cells- Protect neuron cell bodies
6. Schwann cells- form myelin sheath in the peripheral nervous system
Neurons - Cells specialized to transmit messages
Major regions of neurons
Cell body – nucleus and metabolic center of the cell
Nissl substance – specialized rough endoplasmic reticulum
Neurofibrils – intermediate cytoskeleton that maintains cell shape
Nucleus with Large nucleolus
Processes – fibers that extend from the cell body
1. Dendrites – conduct impulses toward the cell body
2. Axons – conduct impulses away from the cell body. End in axonal terminals
Axonal terminals contain vesicles with neurotransmitters
Axonal terminals are separated from the next neuron by a gap
Synaptic cleft – gap between adjacent neurons
Synapse – junction between nerves
Nerve Fiber Coverings
Schwann cells – produce myelin sheaths in jelly-roll like fashion
Nodes of Ranvier – gaps in myelin sheath along the axon
Neuron Cell Body Location
Most are found in the central nervous system
Gray matter – cell bodies and unmylenated fibers
Nuclei – clusters of cell bodies within the white matter of the central nervous system
 Ganglia – collections of cell bodies outside the central nervous system
Functional Classification of Neurons
1. Sensory (afferent) neurons- Carry impulses from the sensory receptors
Cutaneous sense organs Proprioceptors – detect stretch or tension
2. Motor (efferent) neurons- Carry impulses from the central nervous system
3. Interneurons (association neurons)- Found in neural pathways in the central nervous system
Connect sensory and motor neurons
Structural Classification of Neurons
1. Multipolar neurons – many extensions from the cell body
2. Bipolar neurons – one axon and one dendrite
3. Unipolar neurons – have a short single process leaving the cell body
Functional Properties of Neurons
Irritability – ability to respond to stimuli Conductivity – ability to transmit an impulse
1. The plasma membrane at rest is polarized. Fewer positive ions are inside the cell than outside the cell
2. Starting a Nerve Impulse
3. Depolarization – a stimulus depolarizes the neuron’s membrane
A deploarized membrane allows sodium (Na+) to flow inside the membrane
The exchange of ions initiates an action potential in the neuron
4. The Action Potential- If the action potential (nerve impulse) starts, it is propagated over the entire axon
5. Repolarization- Potassium ions rush out of the neuron after sodium ions rush in,
which repolarizes the membrane
6. The sodium-potassium pump restores the original configuration- This action requires ATP
Nerve Impulse Propagation
a. The impulse continues to move toward the cell body
b. Impulses travel faster when fibers have a myelin sheath
c. Continuation of the Nerve Impulse between Neurons
d. Impulses are able to cross the synapse to another nerve
e. Neurotransmitter is released from a nerve’s axon terminal
f. The dendrite of the next neuron has receptors that are stimulated by the neurotransmitter
g. An action potential is started in the dendrite
How Neurons Communicate at Synapses
Reflex - rapid, predictable, and involuntary responses to stimuli
Reflex arc- direct route from a sensory neuron, to an interneuron, to an effector
Types of Reflexes and Regulation
1. Autonomic reflexes
Smooth muscle regulation Heart and blood pressure regulation
Regulation of glands Digestive system regulation
2. Somatic reflexes
Activation of skeletal muscles
Central Nervous System (CNS)
CNS develops from the embryonic neural tube
The neural tube becomes the brain and spinal cord
The opening of the neural tube becomes the ventricles
Four chambers within the brain is filled with cerebrospinal fluid
Regions of the Brain
1. Cerebral hemispheres
2. Diencephalon
3. Brain stem
4. Cerebellum
5. Cerebral Hemispheres (Cerebrum)
Paired (left and right) superior parts of the brain
Include more than half of the brain mass
The surface is made of ridges (gyri) and grooves (sulci)
Lobes of the Cerebrum has fissures (deep grooves) divide the cerebrum into lobes
Surface lobes of the cerebrum
Frontal lobe Parietal lobe
Occipital lobe Temporal lobe
Specialized Areas of the Cerebrum
Somatic sensory area – receives impulses from the body’s sensory receptors
Primary motor area – sends impulses to skeletal muscles
Broca’s area – involved in our ability to speak
Sensory and Motor Areas of the Cerebral Cortex
Cerebral areas involved in special senses
Gustatory area (taste) Visual area
Auditory area Olfactory area
Interpretation areas of the cerebrum
Speech/language region
Language comprehension region
General interpretation area
Layers of the Cerebrum
1. Gray matter- Outer layer and Composed mostly of neuron cell bodies
2. White matter- Fiber tracts inside the gray matter
Example: corpus callosum connects hemispheres
3. Basal nuclei – internal islands of gray matter
Diencephalon
Sits on top of the brain stem and Enclosed by the cerebral hemispheres
Made of three parts
1. Thalamus- Surrounds the third ventricle and relay station for sensory impulses
Transfers impulses to the correct part of the cortex for localization and interpretation
2. Hypothalamus
Under the thalamus
Important autonomic nervous system center
Helps regulate body temperature
Controls water balance
An important part of the limbic system (emotions)
The pituitary gland is attached to the hypothalamus
3. Epithalamus
Forms the roof of the third ventricle
Houses the pineal body (an endocrine gland)
Includes the choroid plexus – forms cerebrospinal fluid
Brain Stem
Attaches to the spinal cord
Parts of the brain stem:
1. Midbrain - Mostly composed of tracts of nerve fibers
- Has two bulging fiber tracts called cerebral peduncles
- Has four rounded protrusions called corpora quadrigemina
- Reflex centers for vision and hearing
2. Pons - The bulging center part of the brain stem
- Mostly composed of fiber tracts
- Includes nuclei involved in the control of breathing
3. Medulla oblongata - The lowest part of the brain stem
- Merges into the spinal cord
- Includes important fiber tracts
- Contains important control centers
- Heart rate control and Blood pressure regulation
- Breathing , Swallowing, Vomiting
Reticular Formation - Diffuse mass of gray matter along the brain stem
- Involved in motor control of visceral organs
- Reticular activating system plays a role in awake/sleep cycles and consciousness

Cerebellum
Two hemispheres with convoluted surfaces
Provides involuntary coordination of body movements
Protection of the Central Nervous System
1. Scalp and skin
2. Skull and vertebral column
3. Meninges
4. Cerebrospinal fluid
5. Blood brain barrier
Meninges
1. Dura mater
Double-layered external covering
Periosteum – attached to surface of the skull
Meningeal layer – outer covering of the brain
Folds inward in several areas
2. Arachnoid layer
Middle layer
Web-like
3. Pia mater
Internal layer
Clings to the surface of the brain
Cerebrospinal Fluid
Similar to blood plasma composition
Formed by the choroid plexus
Forms a watery cushion to protect the brain
Circulated in arachnoid space, ventricles, and central canal of the spinal cord
Blood Brain Barrier
Includes the least permeable capillaries of the body
Excludes many potentially harmful substances
Useless against some substances
 Fats and fat soluble molecules
 Respiratory gases
 Alcohol
 Nicotine
 Anesthesia
Traumatic Brain Injuries
1. Concussion
a. Slight brain injury
b. No permanent brain damage
2. Contusion
a. Nervous tissue destruction occurs
b. Nervous tissue does not regenerate
3. Cerebral edema
a. Swelling from the inflammatory response
b. May compress and kill brain tissue
4. Cerebrovascular Accident (CVA)
Commonly called a stroke
The result of a ruptured blood vessel supplying a region of the brain
Brain tissue supplied with oxygen from that blood source dies
 Loss of some functions or death may result
5. Alzheimer’s Disease
Progressive degenerative brain disease
Mostly seen in the elderly, but may begin in middle age
Structural changes in the brain include abnormal protein deposits and
twisted fibers within neurons
Victims experience memory loss, irritability, confusion and ultimately
hallucinations and death
Spinal Cord
Extends from the medulla oblongata to the region of T12
Below T12 is the cauda equina (a collection of spinal nerves)
Enlargements occur in the cervical and lumbar regions
Spinal Cord Anatomy
Exterior white mater – conduction tracts
Spinal Cord Anatomy
Internal gray matter - mostly cell bodies
a. Dorsal (posterior) horns
b. Anterior (ventral) horns
Spinal Cord Anatomy
Central canal filled with cerebrospinal fluid
Meninges cover the spinal cord
Nerves leave at the level of each vertebrae
1. Dorsal root
i. Associated with the dorsal root ganglia – collections of cell bodies outside the
central nervous system
2. Ventral root
Peripheral Nervous System
Nerves and ganglia outside the central nervous system
Nerve = bundle of neuron fibers
Neuron fibers are bundled by connective tissue
Endoneurium surrounds each fiber
Groups of fibers are bound into fascicles by perineurium
Fascicles are bound together by epineurium
Classification of Nerves
Mixed nerves – both sensory and motor fibers
1. Afferent (sensory) nerves – carry impulses toward the CNS
2. Efferent (motor) nerves – carry impulses away from the CNS
Cranial Nerves
- 12 pairs of nerves that mostly serve the head and neck
- Numbered in order, front to back
- Most are mixed nerves, but three are sensory only
Cranial Nerves
1. I Olfactory nerve – sensory for smell
2. II Optic nerve – sensory for vision
3. III Oculomotor nerve – motor fibers to eye muscles
4. IV Trochlear – motor fiber to eye muscles
5. V Trigeminal nerve – sensory for the face; motor fibers to chewing muscles
6. VI Abducens nerve –motor fibers to eye muscles
7. VII Facial nerve – sensory for taste; motor fibers to the face
8. VIII Vestibulocochlear nerve – sensory for balance and hearing
9. IX Glossopharyngeal nerve – sensory for taste; motor fibers to the pharynx
10. X Vagus nerves – sensory and motor fibers for pharynx, larynx, and viscera
11. XI Accessory nerve – motor fibers to neck and upper back
 12. XII Hypoglossal nerve – motor fibers to tongue

Spinal Nerves
- There is a pair of spinal nerves at the level of each vertebrae for a total of 31 pairs
- Spinal nerves are formed by the combination of the ventral and dorsal roots of the spinal cord
- Spinal nerves are named for the region from which they arise

Anatomy of Spinal Nerves

Spinal nerves divide soon after leaving the spinal cord
a. Dorsal rami – serve the skin and muscles of the posterior trunk
b. Ventral rami – forms a complex of networks (plexus) for the anterior
Autonomic Nervous System
- The involuntary branch of the nervous system
- Consists of only motor nerves
- Divided into two divisions
a. Sympathetic division
b. Parasympathetic divisio
Differences Between Somatic and Autonomic Nervous Systems
1. Nerves
Somatic – one motor neuron
Autonomic – preganglionic and postganglionic nerves
2. Effector organs
Somatic – skeletal muscle
Autonomic – smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, and glands
3. Nerurotransmitters
Somatic – always use acetylcholine
Autonomic – use acetylcholine, epinephrine, or norepinephrine
Anatomy of the Sympathetic Division
- Originates from T1 through L2
- Ganglia are at the sympathetic trunk (near the spinal cord)
Short pre-ganglionic neuron and long postganglionic neuron transmit
impulse from CNS to the effector
- Norepinephrine and epinephrine are neurotransmitters to the effector organs
Anatomy of the Parasympathetic Division
- Originates from the brain stem and S1 through S4
- Terminal ganglia are at the effector organs
- Always uses acetylcholine as a neurotransmitter
Autonomic Functioning
Sympathetic – “fight-or-flight”
Response to unusual stimulus
Takes over to increase activities
Remember as the “E” division = exercise, excitement, emergency, and embarrassment
Parasympathetic – housekeeping activites
Conserves energy
Maintains daily necessary body functions
Remember as the “D” division - digestion, defecation, and diuresis
Development Aspects of the Nervous System
- The nervous system is formed during the first month of embryonic development
- Any maternal infection can have extremely harmful effects
- The hypothalamus is one of the last areas of the brain to develop
- No more neurons are formed after birth, but growth and maturation continues for several years
- The brain reaches maximum weight as a young adult