Module 10: The Nervous System

Nervous System
- The nervous system functions for electrochemical control.
- It is specialized for rapidly conducting electrochemical messages and mediating short term
responses.
- The signals that transverse the nervous system move along well-defined cable and activate
limited number of cells at pathways receiving and transmitting information to and from various
organs.
The nervous system is involved in some way in nearly every body function. Some major functions of the
nervous system are:
1. Sensory input - sensory receptors monitor numerous external and internal stimuli that may be
interpreted as touch, temperature, taste, smell, sound, blood pressure, and body position
2. Integration
- the brain and spinal cord are the major organs for processing sensory input and initiating
responses
- the input may produce an immediate response, may be stored as memory, or may be ignored
3. Homeostasis
- the nervous system plays an important role in the maintenance of homeostasis, such function
depends on the ability of the nervous system to detect, interpret, and respond to changes in
the internal and external conditions
- the NS can stimulate or inhibit the activities of other systems to help maintain a constant
internal environment
4. Mental activity - the brain is the center of mental activity, including consciousness, memory, and
thinking
5. Control of muscles and glands - skeletal muscles normally contract only when stimulated by
the nervous system, thus, the NS controls the major movement of the body and participates in
controlling cardiac muscle, smooth muscle, and many glands
Neuron
- the functional unit of the nervous system
- its function is to receive, transmit and interpret, integrate or evaluate nerve impulses
Parts:
1. Cell body
Composed of:
a. neurolemma – cell membrane
b. neuroplasm – cytoplasm of the cell
c. neurofibrils – thread like structures that help in the transmission of impulses
d. Nissl’s bodies – granular bodies similar to the ribosomes, also for protein synthesis
2. Cell processes
a. Axon
- single, longer process, carries impulses away from the cell body
- maybe unmyelinated or myelinated axons
- have node of Ranvier for saltatory transmission or current flow easily between extra
cellular fluid and the axon, & action potentials can develop
- myelin sheath is an excellent insulator w/c prevents almost all electrical current flow
through cell membrane
i. Myelinated axons - have a specialized sheath called myelin sheath
ii. Unmyelinated axons - rest in indentations of the oligodendrocyte in the CNS and
Schwann cells in the PNS
b. Dendrites - numerous, shorter processes; brings impulses towards the cell body
3. Nucleus
- source of information for protein synthesis
- it is surrounded by extensive RER, Golgi apparatus, and mitochondria
Synapse
- space or gap between the axon of one neuron and dendrites of the following neuron
- regulate the amount of impulses being conducted
Impulse - electrochemical message transmitted by the neuron
Types of Impulse Transmission
1. Axonal transmission - electrical in nature; due to changes in ion concentration along the axon
2. Synaptic transmission - chemical in nature
a. Acetylcholine (Ach) – secreted by the tip of the axon
b. Acetylcholinesterase – secreted by the dendrite
Types of Neurons based on the Number of Processes
1. Unipolar – single process usually an axon
2. Bipolar – two processes, one axon and one dendrite
3. Multipolar – one axon and several dendrites
Functional Classes of Neuron:
1. Sensory neuron - receives stimuli from the environment and transmit impulses to the central
nervous system
Types of Sensory Nervous according to stimuli received
a. Mechanoreceptors – detect mechanical deformation found in the skin and ears
b. Thermoreceptors – detect changes in temperature; found in the skin
c. Photoreceptors – detect light; found in the eye
d. Chemoreceptors – detect chemical factors in the food, air, blood; found in the skin, nose
e. Nociceptors – detect pain; found in the skin
2. Motor neuron - conduct messages from the brain and spinal cord to the glands and muscles
3. Interneuron - act in an integrative capacity and shuttle signals back and forth between the
neurons of various parts of the brain and spinal cord
Neuroglia
- made up of nervous tissue but do not perform nervous functions; they perform auxiliary or support
functions in the nervous tissue
- the have the ability to divide, whereas most neurons do not
- far more numerous than neuron
Types of Neuroglia
1. Astroglia - the cell is called astrocyte; the function of the tissue is to derive nutrients from the
nearby blood vessels for the nutrition of the other cells in the tissue
2. Oligodendroglia
- the cell is called oligodendrocyte
- the tissue is believed to be involved in the synthesis of the myelin sheath
3. Ependyma
- the cell is called ependymal cell
- the tissue lines the ventricles of the brain and the central canal of the spinal cord
4. Microglia
- the cell is called microglial cell
- the cell is phagocytic therefore it is responsible for the elimination of foreign substances and
bodies in the nervous tissues
Physiology - neurons have two major functional properties:
1. Irritability - property of all nerve tissues which enables an organism to respond to changes in the
environment
2. Conductivity - the ability to transmit the impulse to the other neurons, muscles, or glands
a. Resting membrane
b. Stimulus initiates local depolarization
c. Depolarization and generation of the action potential
d. Propagation of the action potential
e. Repolarization
f. Restoration of ionic concentrations via sodium-potassium pump
How Neurons Communicate at the Chemical Synapses
1. Action potential arrives
2. Vesicle fuses with plasma membrane
3. Neurotransmitter is released into the synaptic cleft
4. Neurotransmitter binds to receptor on receiving neuron’s membrane
5. Ion channel opens
 6. Ion channel closes
Structural Organization of The Nervous System
I. Central Nervous System
- made up of the brain and the spinal cord
- for controlling, directing and integrating all messages within the body
- they interpret incoming sensory information and issue instructions based on past experience and
current conditions
Protection of the CNS
a. skeletal – cranium and vertebrae
b. meninges - three connective tissue membranes that surrounds and protect the brain and spinal
cord
i. dura
- the most superficial and thickest of the meninges
- the folds extend into the longitudinal fissure b/n the two cerebral hemisphere and b/n the
cerebrum and cerebellum
- the dura mater of the brain is tightly attached to the periosteum of the skull to form a
single functional layer
- the dura mater of the spinal cord is surrounded by an epidural space b/n the dura mater
and the periosteum of the vertebrae
ii. arachnoid
- second meningeal membrane
- is very thin, wispy, spiderlike
- the space b/n the dura mater and arachnoid is the subdural space, w/c is normally only a
potential space containing a very small amount of serous fluid
iii. pia mater
- the third meningeal membrane
- very tightly bound to the surface of the brain and spinal cord
- b/n the pia mater and the arachnoid mater is the subarachnoid space w/c is filled with
cerospinal fluid and contains blood vessels
c. cerobrospinal fluid
- bathes the brain and spinal cord, providing a protective cushion around the CNS
- it is produced by the choroid plexus, specialized structures made of ependymal cells, w/c
are located in the ventricles
A. Brain
1. Cerebrum
- paired cerebral hemisphere
- largest part consisting of more than half the 10 billion neurons of the entire NS
- the entire surface exhibits elevated ridges of tissue called gyri, separated by shallow grooves
called sulci and less numerous are the deeper grooves called fissures w/c separate large
regions of the brain
- other fissures or sulci divide each cerebral hemisphere into a number of lobes:
a. Parietal lobe
- contains the somatic sensory area
- impulses travelling from the body’s sensory receptors (except for special senses –
interpreted in the cortical areas) are localized and interpreted in this area
b. Occipital lobe – visual area
c. Temporal lobe – auditory area
d. Frontal lobe – primary motor area (allows us to consciously move our skeletal muscles)
- composed of two halves:
a. Cortex (outer surface) – center of the mind, seat of conscious thought, memory,
speech, intelligence, personality and judgment, center of sensory motor coordination
b. White matter (inner cerebrum) – center of sensation, including sight, hearing, etc
- divided into two hemispheres:
a. Right cerebral hemisphere
- receives sensory inputs from and control muscular activities in the left half of the body
 - thought to be more involved in functions such as three dimensional or spatial perception
or musical ability
b. Left cerebral hemisphere
- receives input from and control muscles in the right half of the body
- thought to be more analytical emphasizing such skills as mathematics and speech
2. Diencephalon
a. Thalamus
- by far the largest part of the diencephalon
- consists of cluster of nuclei and is shaped somewhat like a yo-yo, with two large, lateral
parts connected in the center by a small interthalamic adhesion
- relay station of forebrain; relay sensory information to the cortex; regulate sleep and
wakefulness together with the hypothalamus
Epithalamus
- is a small area superior and posterior to the thalamus
- consists of a few small nuclei that are involved in the emotional and visceral response to
odors and the pineal body
Pineal body
- an endocrine gland that may influence the onset of puberty
- it also may play a role in controlling some long-term cycles that are influenced by the
light-dark cycle
- known to influence annual behaviors such as migration in birds, as well as changes in fur
color and density in some mammals
b. Hypothalamus
- the most inferior part of the diencephalon and contains several small nuclei w/c are very
important in maintaining homeostasis
- controls basic drives (eating, drinking, sleeping and sex)
- controls emotion
- regulates metabolic activities (blood pressure, temperature, water balance)
- regulates the pituitary gland
Infundibulum - a funnel- shaped stalk that extends from the floor of the hypothalamus to the
pituitary gland
Mammilary bodies - form externally visible swellings on the posterior portion of the
hypothalamus and are involved
3. Brainstem
- connects the spinal cord to the remainder of the brain
- consists of the midbrain, medulla oblongata, pons
a. Midbrain
- just superior to the pons, is the smallest region of the brainstem
- the dorsal part consists of four mounds called the colliculi:
a. the two inferior colliculi are major rely centers for the auditory nerve pathways in the
CNS
b. the two superior colliculi are involved in visual reflexes
- also contains a black nuclear mass, called the substantia nigra, which is a part of the
basal nuclei and is involved in the regulation of general body movements
b. medulla oblongata
- the most inferior portion of the brainstem and is continuous with the spinal cord
- composed of ascending& descending tracts and discrete nuclei with specific functions
such as regulation of heart rate, blood vessel diameter, breathing, swallowing, vomiting,
coughing, sneezing, balance and coordination
c. Pons
- immediately superior to the medulla oblongata
- it contains ascending and descending nerve tracts, as well as several nuclei
- bridge linking the various parts of the brain
relay information between the cerebrum and cerebellum
4. Cerebellum
- means little brain, the second largest part of the brain
 - attached to the brainstem by several large connections called cerebellar peduncles that
provide communication between the cerebellum and other parts of the CNS
- balance, coordination, equilibrium
- exerts control over unconscious activities of the body
- coordinates sensory and motor activities to produce smooth, steady movement
B. Spinal Cord
- center of reflexes
- extends from the foramen magnum at the base of the skull to the second lumbar vertebra
- the spinal nerves communicate between the spinal cord and the body
- the inferior end of the spinal cord and the spinal nerves exiting there resemble a horse’s tail and
are called the cauda equina
- spinal nerves arise from numerous rootlets along the dorsal and ventral surfaces of the spinal
cord
- a cross section reveals that the cord consists of a peripheral white matter (consists of myelinated
axons) portion and a central gray matter (mainly a collection of neuron cell bodies) portion
a. White matter
- consists of myelinated axons
- the white matter in each half of the spinal cord is organized into three columns called the
dorsal, ventral, and the lateral columns
- each column of the spinal cord contains ascending tracts (consist of axons that conduct
action potential) and descending tracts (consist of axons that conduct action potential away
from the brain)
b. Gray matter
- is mainly a collection of neuron cell bodies
- shaped like the letter H, with posterior and anterior horns
Reflexes
- automatic, involuntary reaction in response to a stimulus applied to the periphery and transmitted
to the CNS
- allow a person to react to stimuli more quickly than is possible if conscious thought is involved
- involves the simplest pathway to the spinal cord
- uses 3 neurons; sensory, association and motor
- occur over neural pathways called reflex arcs, and involve both CNS and PNS structures
Reflex arc
- is the neural pathway by which a reflex occurs
- is the basic functional unit of the nervous system because it is the smallest, simplest pathway
capable of receiving a stimulus and yielding a response
- has five basic components:
a. sensory receptor
b. sensory neuron
c. interneuron
d. motor neuron
e. effector organ
Types of Reflexes
1. Somatic reflexes
- include all reflexes that stimulate the skeletal muscles
- ex. When you quickly pull your hand away from a hot object, a somatic reflex is working
2. Autonomic reflexes
- regulate the action of the smooth muscles, the heart, and glands
- secretion of saliva and changes in the size of the eye pupils
- regulate such body functions as digestion, elimination, blood pressure, and sweating
Peripheral Nervous System
- consists of all the nerves and ganglia located outside the brain and spinal cord
- collects information from numerous sources both inside and on the surface of the body and relays
it by way of sensory fibers to the CNS, where information is ignored, triggers a reflex, or is
evaluated more extensively
- connects the CNS within the outlying parts of the body
 - made up of 12 pairs of cranial nerves and 31 pairs of spinal nerves w/c serves as a
communication line by linking all parts of the body by carrying impulses from the sensory
receptors to the CNS and from the CNS to the appropriate glands or muscles
Nerve
- is a bundle of neuron fibers found outside the CNS
- w/in a nerve, neuron fibers, or processes, are wrapped in protective connective coverings
- consists of:
a. endoneurium – delicate connective tissue covering each fiber
b. perineurium – coarser connective tissue wrapping groups of fibers to form fiber bundles
c. epineurium - tough fibrous sheath that bind together all the fascicles to form the cordlike
nerve
Cranial Nerves
- there are two general categories of cranial nerve function: sensory and motor
- the motor functions are further subdivided into somatic and parasympathetic
- the sensory functions can be divided into the special senses such as vision and the more general
senses such as touch and pain in the face
Cranial Nerves and their Functions

Number Name General function Specific Function

1 Olfactory S Smell
2 Optic S Vision
3 Ocolomotor Motor to four of six
M, P extrinsic muscles &
upper eyelid, constricts
pupil; thickens lens
4 Trochlear M Motor to one extrinsic
eye muscle
5 Trigeminal Sensory to face and
S, M teeth; motor to muscles
of mastication

6 Abducen M Motor to one extrinsic

eye muscle
7 Facial Sensory: taste; motor to
S, M, P muscles of facial
expression;
parasympathetic to
salivary & tear glands
8 Vestibulocochlear S Hearing and balance
9 Sensory: taste & touch
Glossopharyngeal S,M, P to back of tongue;
motor to pharyngeal
muscles
10 Vagus S, M, P Sensory to pharynx,
larynx, and viscera
Motor to palate,
pharynx, & larynx
11 Accessory M Motor to two neck and
upper back muscles
12 Hypoglossal M Motor to tongue muscle

Spinal Nerves
- arise along the spinal cord from the union of the dorsal roots and ventral roots
- all the spinal nerves are mixed nerves because they contain axons of both sensory and somatic
motor neurons
 - some spinal nerves also contain parasympathetic or sympathetic axons
- most of the spinal nerves exit the vertebral column between adjacent vertebrae
- they are categorized by the region of the vertebral column from which they emerged:
a. cervical
b. thoracic
c. lumbar
d. sacral, and
e. coccygeal
- also numbered according to their order within the region
- organized into three plexuses where nerves come together and then separate
Plexus of the Spinal Nerves
Plexus Origin Major Nerves Muscles Skin Innervated
innervated
Cervical C1 – C4 Several neck Neck & posterior
muscle head
Phrenic Diaphragm
Brachial C5 –C8 andT1 Axillary Two shoulder Part of shoulder
muscles
Radial Posterior arm & Posterior arm,
forearm muscle forearm, and hand
Musculocutaneous Anterior arm Radial surface of
muscles forearm
Ulnar Two anterior Ulnar side of
forearm muscles hand
Most intrinsic hand
muscle
Median Most anterior Radial side of
forearm muscles hand
Some intrinsic
hand muscles
Lumbosacral L1 – S4 Obturator Medial thigh Medial thigh
muscle( adductors
)
Femoral Anterior thigh Anterior thigh,
muscle(extensor) medial leg & foot
Ischiadic (sciatic) Posterior thigh Posterior leg &
Tibial musces ( flexor), sole of foot
anterior& posterior
leg muscles, most
foot muscle
Common fibular Lateral thigh & leg, Anterior and
some foot muscles lateral leg, &
dorsal part of foot

Subdivisions of the PNS

A. Sensory or Afferent Division
- conducts action potentials from sensory receptors to the CNS
- the neurons that transmit action potentials from the periphery to the CNS are the sensory neuron
B. Motor or Efferent Division
- conducts action potentials from the CNS to effector organs such as muscles and gland
- the neurons that transmit action potentials from the CNS toward the periphery are the motor
neuron
- further subdivided into:
a. somatic motor nervous system - transmits action potentials from the CNS to skeletal
muscles
b. autonomic nervous system
- transmit action potentials from the CNS to cardiac muscles, smooth muscles, and gland
- in turn subdivided into:
a. sympathetic – prepares body for physical activity
b. parasympathetic – stimulates vegetative activities; slows heart and respiration rates;
constrict pupil; thickens lens
c. enteric nervous system - associated with the digestive tract