Module 1: Introduction and Overview of Anatomy and Physiology

- Most of us are naturally curious about our bodies. We want to know what makes us tick. This
curiosity is even seen in infants, who can keep themselves happy for a long time staring at
their own hands or pulling their mother’s nose. Older children wonder where food goes when
they swallow it and some believe that they will grow a water melon in their belly if they
swallow the seeds.
- Knowing the structure and function of the human body allows us to understand how the body
responds to stimulus. Knowing the human anatomy and physiology also provides the basis for
understanding disease.
- The study of human anatomy and physiology is important for those who plan a career in the
health sciences because a sound knowledge of structure and function is necessary for health
professionals to perform their duties.
- Understanding anatomy and physiology also prepares anyone to evaluate recommended
treatments, critically review advertisements and reports in the popular literature, and rationally
discuss the human body with health professionals and nonprofessionals
Anatomy
- came from the latin words “ana” which means up and “tomy” which means process of cutting
- the science of body structures and the relationships among structures
- structures can be studied through dissection and imaging techniques like radiography,
computed tomography, magnetic resonance imaging and sonography
- Anatomy; to dissect, or cut apart, or separate Anatomy; to dissect, or cut apart, or separate
Relationship between Anatomy and Physiology
- Anatomy and physiology are always related.
- The parts of your body form a well-organized unit, and each those parts have job to do make
the body operate as a whole.
- Structure determines what functions can take place. For example, the lungs are not muscular
chambers like the heart and cannot pump blood through the body, but because the walls of
their air sacs are very thin, they can exchange gases and provide oxygen of the body.
Levels of Structural Organization
1. Atoms
- tiny building blocks of matter, combine to form molecules such as water, sugar, and
proteins.
- Molecules, in turn, associate in specific ways to form microspic cells.
2. Cells - the smallest units of all living thing; basic structural and functional unit of organisms
3. Tissues - consist of group of similar cells that have a common function
4. Organs - a structure that is composed of two or more tissue types and performs a specific
function for the body.
5. Systems - a group of organs that cooperate to accomplish a common purpose
6. Organisms - represents the highest level of structural organization, the organizational level;
any living thing considered as a whole
Organism System Overview
1. Integumentary System
- the external covering of the body, or the skin.
- It waterproofs the body and cushions and protects the deeper tissues from injury
2. Skeletal
- consists of bones, cartilages,ligaments, and joints.
- It supports the body and provides a framework that the skeletal muscles use to cause
movement.
3. Muscular - the muscles of the body have only one function-to contract or shorten which
create movement.
4. Nervous - the body’s fast-acting control system
5. Endocrine
- controls body activities, but it acts much more slowly.
- It produces chemical molecules called hormone
6. Cardiovascular/Circulatory - Using the blood as the transporting fluid, the cardiovascular
system carries oxygen, nutrients, hormones, and other substances to and from the tissue
cells where exchanges are made
7. Lymphatic
- It is complementary to that of the cardiovascular system.
 - The lymph nodes and other lymphoid organs help to cleanse the blood and house the
cells involved in immunity.
8. Respiratory - It keeps the body constantly supplied with oxygen and to remove carbon
dioxide.
9. Digestive - It is basically a tube running through the body from mouth to anus
10. Urinary/Excretory - the body produces waste as byproducts of its normal functions, and
these wastes must be disposed of by this system
11. Reproductive - exists primarily to produce offspring
Maintaining Life/Characteristics of Life
1. Organization - the condition in which the parts of an organism have specific relationships to
each other and the parts interact to perform specific functions
2. Metabolism
- The ability to use energy to perform vital functions, such as growth, movement, and
reproduction.
- Plants can capture sunlight, and human obtain energy from food
3. Responsiveness - it is the ability of an organism to sense changes in the movement and
make the adjustments that help maintain its life
4. Growth
- It results in an increase in size of all parts of the organism.
- It can result from an increase in cell number, cell size, or the amount of substances
surrounding cells
5. Development
- includes the changes an organism undergoes through times
- it begins with fertilization and ends at death.
6. Reproduction
- It is the formation of new cells or new organism.
- Without reproduction of cells, growth and tissue repair are impossible.
7. Excretion - the process of removing excreta or waste, from the body
8. Digestion - the process of breaking down ingested into simple molecules that can then be
absorbed into the blood for delivery to all body cells by the cardiovascular system
9. Movement - includes all the activities promoted by the muscular system
Homeostasis
- refers to the existence and maintenance of a relative constant environment within the body
- describes the body’s ability to maintain relatively stable internal conditions even though the
outside world is continuously changing
- Although the literal translation of homeostasis is “unchanging” (homeo = the same; stasis =
standing still) the term does not really mean an unchanging state.
- it indicates a dynamic state of equilibrium, or a balance in which internal conditions change
and vary but always within relatively narrow limits.
Homeostatic Control Mechanism
- Communication within the body is essential for homeostasis and is accomplished chiefly by
the nervous and endocrine system which use electrical signals delivered by nerves or
bloodborne hormones, respectively, as information carriers
- normally maintain body temp near an ideal normal value; sweating, shivering
Variables - conditions that can change
Set point – ideal value
Normal Range - acceptable range of values on which HM can still be met
Components of Homeostatic Control Mechanism
1. Receptor
- essentially, it is some type of sensor that monitors and responds to changes in the
environment
- it responds to changes called stimuli, by sending information (input) to the second
element, the control center
- Information flows from the receptor to the control center along the afferent pathway
2. Control Center - it determines the level (set point) at which a variable is to be maintained,
analyzes the information it receives and then determines the appropriate response or course
of action
3. Effector
- it provides the means for the control center’s response (output) to the stimulus
 - information flows from the control center to the effector along the efferent pathways
(Efferent information exits from the control center)
- the results of the response then feedback to influence the stimulus, either by depressing it
(negative feedback) so that the whole control mechanism is shut off or by enhancing it
(positive feedback) so that the reaction continues at an even faster rate
Types of Homeostatic Control Mechanism
1. Negative Feedback Mechanism
- the net effect of the response to the stimulus is to shut off the original stimulus or reduce
its intensity
- most systems of the body are regulated by negative feedback mechanism which function
to maintain homeostasis
- a frequently used example of a negative feedback system is a home heating system
connected to a thermostat. In this situation, the thermostat contains both the receptor and
the control center. If the thermostat is set at 20 degrees Celsius, the heating system
(effector) will be triggered ON when the house temperature drops below that setting.
- Regulates most systems of the body to maintain homeostasis
- Negative - any deviation from the set point is resisted
2. Positive Feedback Mechanism
- typically, these mechanisms control infrequent events that occur explosively and do not
require continuous adjustments
- blood clotting, massive blood loss and the birth of a baby are the most familiar examples
- this mechanism is rare in the body
- Not homeostatic and is rare in a healthy individual
- Positive - when a value deviates from normal, the system’s response is to make it greater
Branches of Anatomy
1. Embryology - structures that emerge from the time of the fertilized egg through the eight
week in uterus.
2. Developmental anatomy - structures that emerge from the time of the fertilized egg to the
adult form
3. Histology – tissues
4. Cytology – cell
5. Surface Anatomy - anatomical landmarks on the surface of the study through visualization
and palpation
6. Gross Anatomy - structures that can be examined without using a microscope
7. systemic Anatomy - structure of specific systems of the body such as the nervous and
respiratory systems
8. Regional anatomy - specific regions of the body such as the head or chest
9. Radiographic anatomy - body structures that can be visualized with x-rays
10. Pathological anatomy - structural changes associated with diseases
Physiology
- came from the words “physio” which means nature and “logy” which means the study
- the science of body functions and processes – how the parts work
Main Goals of Physiology:
a. to understand and predict
b. to understand how the body maintains conditions
Branches of Physiology
1. Neurophysiology - functional properties of nerve cells
2. Endocrinology - hormones and how they control body functions
3. Cardiovascular physiology - function of the heart and blood vessels
4. Immunology - how the body defends itself against disease-causing agents
5. Respiratory Physiology - functions of the air passageways and lungs
6. Renal physiology - kidneys
7. Exercise Physiology - changes in cells and organ functions as a result of muscular activity
8. Pathophysiology - functional changes associated with disease and aging
Approaches to the Study of Anatomy:
1. Systemic Anatomy - study of the body by organ system
2. Regional Anatomy - study of the body by areas
General Ways to Examine the Internal Structures:
1. Surface Anatomy – study of external features; superficial structures to locate deeper
structures
 2. Anatomical Imaging - non-invasive method for examining deep structures; x-ray, CT scan,
PET scan, MRI
Subdivisions of the Abdomen
Right Left
Upper Upper
Quadrant Quadrant

Right Left
Lower Lower
Quadrant Quadrant

Right Left
Epigastric
Hypochondriac Hypochondriac
Right Left
Umbilical
Lumbar Lumbar
Right Left
Hypogastric
Iliac Iliac

Planes

Module 2: The Language of Anatomy

Anatomical Terminology/The Language of Anatomy - language of special terms when referring to
the body structures and their functions that allow us to communicate without using unneeded or
ambiguous term
Body Positions - descriptions of region or part of the human body assume that it is a specific stance
called the anatomical position
2 Terms that describe a reclining body
a. Prone – if the body is lying face down
b. supine – if the body is lying face
Regional Terms - these are many visible landmarks on the surface of the body
1. Head/Cephalic - consists of the skull and face
2. Neck/cervical - support the head and attaches it to the trunk
3. Trunk - consists of the chest, abdomen, and pelvis
4. Upper Limbs - attaches to the trunk and consists of the shoulder, armpit, arm, forelimbs, the
wrist and hand
5. Lower Limb - attaches to the trunk and consists of the buttock, thigh, leg, ankle, and foot

BODY PARTS AND REGIONS

Head Cephalic
Forehead Frontal
Eye Orbital
Nose Nasal
Mouth Oral
Ear Otic
Cheek Buccal
Chin Mental
Neck Cervical

TRUNK
 Thoracic Thorax
Chest Pectoral
Breastbone Sternal
Breast Mammary
Abdomen Abdominal
Navel Umbilical
Pelvis Pelvic
Groin Inguinal
Genital Pubic
Back Dorsal
Shoulder blade Scapular
Spinal Column Vertebral
Lumbar Loin
Between hips Sacral
Buttock Gluteal
Perineum Perineal

UPPER LIMBS
Collarbone Clavicular
Armpit Axillary
Arm Brachial
Front of elbow Antecubital
Forearm Antebrachial
Hand Manual
Wrist Carpal
Palm Palmar
Fingers Digital
Point of shoulder Acromial
Point of elbow Olecranon
Back of hand Dorsum

LOWER LIMBS
Hip Coxal
Thigh Femoral
Kneecap Pat`ellar
Leg Crural
Foot Pedal
Ankle Talus
Top of foot Dorsum
Toes Digital
Skull Cranial
Base of Skull Occipital
Back of Neck Nuchal
Hollow behind knee Popliteal
Calf Sural
Sole Plantar
Heel Calcaneal

Body planes and Sections - words that describe the position of one body part relative to another
1. Sagittal plane - vertical plane that divides the body or an organ into right and left sides
a. midsagittal/median plane - when such a plane passes through the midline of the body
or an organ and divides it out equal right and left sides
b. parasagittal plane - if the sagittal plane does not pass through the midline but instead
divides the body or organ into unequal right and left sides
2. Frontal or coronal plane - divides the body or organ into anterior and posterior position
3. Transverse plane
- divides the body or organ into superior or inferior portions
 - also known as cross section
4. Oblique plan - passes through the body or organ it an angle between the transverse plane
and either a sagittal or frontal plane
Body Cavities - spaces within the body that help protect, separate, and support internal organs
1. Dorsal cavity - located near the dorsal surface of the body
a. cranial cavity - formed by cranial bones and contain brain
b. vertebral cavity - formed by vertebral column and contains spinal cord
2. Ventral Cavity - located on the ventral aspect of the body
a. Thoracic cavity or Chest cavity - superior portion of ventral body cavity, contains
pleural and pericardial cavities and the mediastinum; bounded by ribs and the diaphragm
i. Pleural cavity - each surrounding a lung, the serous membrane of pleural cavities is
the pleura
ii. Pericardial cavity - surrounds the heart; the serous membrane of pericardial cavity is
the pericardium
iii. Mediastinum - central portion of thoracic cavity between the lungs; extends from
sternum to vertebral column and from neck and diaphragm, contains heart, thymus,
esophagus, trachea and several large blood vessels
iv. Peritoneal cavity – surrounds certain abdominal and pelvic organs
b. Abdominopelvic cavity - inferior portion of ventral body cavity
i. abdominal cavity - contains stomach, spleen, liver, gallbladder, small intestine, and
most of the large intestine; bounded by the diaphragm and the abdominal muscles
ii. Pelvic cavity - contains urinary bladder, portion of the large intestine, and internal
organs of reproduction; surrounded by the pelvic bones
Directional Terms
1. Lateral
- farther from the midline
- ex. The lungs as lateral to the heart
2. Medial
- nearer the midline
- ex. The ulna is medial to the radius
3. Intermediate
- between two structures
- ex. The transverse colon is intermediate between the ascending and descending colon
4. Proximal - nearer to the attachment of a limb to the trunk, nearer to the origination of a
structure
5. Distal - farther from the attachment of a limb to the trunk, farther from the origination of a
structure
6. Superior
- toward the head, or the upper part of a structure
- ex. The heart is superior to the liver
7. Inferior
- away from the head, or the lower part of a structure
- ex. The stomach is inferior to the lungs
8. Anterior
- nearer to or at the front of the body
- ex. The sternum is anterior to the heart
9. Posterior
- nearer to or at the back of the body
- ex. The esophagus is posterior to the trachea
DIRECTIONAL TERMS
Inferior Lower
Superior Higher
Anterior Front
Posterior Back
Ventral Belly
Dorsal Back
Proximal Nearest
Distal Distant
Lateral Away from the
midline
 Medial Towards the midline
Superficial Toward or on surface
Deep Internal

Other terms
1. Ipsilateral - on the same side of the body as another structure
2. Contralateral - on the opposite side of the body from another structure
3. Superficial
- toward or on the surface of the body
- ex. The ribs are superficial to the lungs
4. Deep
- away from the surface of the body
- the ribs are deep to the skin of the chest and back
Anterior Body Landmark
1. Abdominal - anterior body trunk
2. Acromial - point of shoulder
3. Axillary - armpit
4. Brachial - arm
5. Buccal - cheek area
6. Carpal - wrist
7. Cervical - neck region
8. Coxal - hip
9. Crural - leg
10. Digital - fingers, toes
11. Femoral - thigh
12. Fibular - lateral part of the leg
13. Inguinal - area where thigh meets body trunk, groin
14. Nasal - nose area
15. Oral - mouth
16. Orbital - eye area
17. Patellar - anterior knee
18. Pelvic - area overlying pelvis anteriorly
19. Pubic - genital area
20. Sternal - breastbone area
21. Tarsal - ankle region
22. Thoracic - chest
23. Umbilical – navel
Posterior Body Landmark
1. Calcaneal - heel of foot
2. Cephalic - head
3. Deltoid - curve of shoulder formed by large deltoid muscle
4. Femoral - thigh
5. Gluteal - buttock
6. Lumbar - area back of between ribs and hips
7. Occipital - posterior surface of head
8. Olecranal - posterior surface of elbow
9. Popliteal - posterior knee area
10. Sacral - area between hips
11. Scapular - shoulder blade region
12. Sural - the posterior surface of lower legs, the calf
13. Vertebral - area of spine
The plantar region, or the sole of the foot, actually on the interior body surface

Module 3: The Chemical Composition of Living Matter

The Chemistry of Life
A. INTRODUCTION
Cells
- basic working units of the body.
- An enormous number of activities take place in the cells. Some of these activities:
a. serve to keep the cell itself alive
 b. contribute to the survival of the entire body
- Any activity that takes place in the body is the result of activities that take place in the cell.
- Example:
a. the pumping of the blood by the heart is due to the action of the heart cells
b. the formation of urine by the kidney is a result of activities that take place in the kidney
cells
- Living cells consists of various elements, the most abundant of which are: CARBON,
HYDROGEN, NITROGEN, and OXYGEN.
- In the human body, free oxygen and nitrogen have been found in the blood and intestines, but
the bulk of these elements exist in the form of complex compounds that are constituents of
the cells and body fluids. These complex compounds include: WATER, LIPID,
CARBOHYDRATES, PROTEINS, ENZYMES and NUCLEIC ACIDS.
- Cells, the smallest units of life, have all the characteristics of living things:
a. grow
b. reproduce and
c. respond to their environment.
- The individual parts of the cell are not living entities by themselves.
- The entire system that is the cell with its properly organized parts and its integrated reactions
is the real functional unit of the living system
B. ORGANIC COMPONENTS OF THE CELL
Organic Compounds
- compounds which contain carbon except the oxides and sulfides of carbon.
Functions:
a. source of energy within the cells
b. used as building materials of new tissues
c. used for synthesizing physiologically important chemicals, such as HORMONES and
ENZYMES
A) CARBOHYDRATES
- represent only about 2-3% of the total body mass
- substances containing carbon, hydrogen and oxygen.
- simpler carbohydrates are known as SUGARS.
- simplest form: GLUCOSE
Functions:
a. basic sources of heat and energy for cellular activities
b. can be converted to other types of molecules which form part of the cell or which will carry out
physiological functions
- Carbohydrates in excess of the body’s needs are converted to GLYCOGEN (stored in the
liver or in muscles) and FAT (adipose tissue).
Forms of Sugar:
1. Monosaccharides - simplest sugars; structurally containing up to 6-carbon atoms
a. Glucose
- primary sugar transported by the blood cells
- often referred to as BLOOD SUGAR
- Example: dextrose or grape sugar
b. Galactose – example: sugar in milk
c. Fructose – example: fruit sugar
d. Pentoses – form constituent groups of nucleic acids and nucleotides
Note: FRUCTOSE & GALACTOSE are converted to glucose before they are used by the cells
2. Disaccharides - consist of two molecules of simple sugars
a. Sucrose
- common table sugar; cane or beet sugar
- composed of two simple sugars = glucose and fructose
- has formed an increasingly larger portion of man’s diet
b. Lactose
- milk contained in sugar
- Composed of: glucose and galactose molecules
- normally, it is broken down in the digestive tract into monosaccharides which are then
absorbed by the cells.
c. Maltose
- this is found in fruit juices and grains (malt sugar)
 - composed of 2 glucose molecules.
3. Polysaccharides - multiple sugars; sugars with more than two monosaccharide units
a. Glycogen (“animal starch” or “emergency sugar”)
- stored form of carbohydrates in animals
- made up of 12 – 18 glucose units
b. Starch
- stored form of carbohydrates in plants
- present only in plants and is made up of a chain of 24 to 26 glucose units
- in the digestive tract, starch and glycogen are broken down into sucrose, then into
glucose and fructose.
- The simpler molecules can then be absorbed in the blood
c. Cellulose
- tough fibrous material which holds together the plant structure
- present in plants and consists of 2000 united glucose units
- cannot be broken down into simple sugars by humans.
- Humans lack the enzyme that digests cellulose
B) PROTEINS
- composes over 50% of the organic materials in the body
- simplest form: amino acids
- all proteins contain the elements carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen; some also contain
sulfur and phosphorous
- Examples:
a. myosin
b. hemoglobin
c. albumin
d. non-digestible structure like hair, nails and claw
Functions:
a. most important constituents of cells
b. core of the material that holds the various cells together
c. building blocks from which the cells are formed
d. regulate the chemical activity inside the cell
e. catalysts (enzymes) for a number of cellular reactions; reaction accelerators
f. responsible for the contraction of muscles
g. build and repair worn out tissues of the body
Structure of Proteins
- proteins are composed of a chain of smaller subunits called amino acids
- They are compounds that contain the amino groups (-NH2).
- There are approximately 20 different kinds of amino acids.
Kinds of Amino Acids:
a. nonessential amino acids - those that can be synthesized by the body
b. essential proteins - those that must be supplied by dietary proteins
Polypeptide - union of a large number of amino acids
Kinds of Proteins:
1. Complete proteins
- contain all the essential amino acids such as valine, isoleucine, glutamic acid and
tryptophan
- Example: most animal proteins
2. Incomplete proteins
- lack one or more essential amino acids
- Example: plant proteins
Forms of Protein:
1. Simple Proteins - made up only of amino acids or compounds in nature which upon
hydrolysis will yield only amino acids and its derivatives
a. soluble - example: albumens, blood serum
b. insoluble - example: keratin, globulins
2. Conjugated proteins - made up of simple amino acids in combination with an organic
compound which is nonprotein (prosthetic group) in nature.
a. Nucleoproteins - combination of histone (simple protein) with nucleic acid
b. Chromoproteins
- histone united with a color group
 - Example: hemoglobin, hemocyanin
c. Glycoproteins
- protein in combination with sugar
- Example: mucin, mucoid from connective tissues
d. Lecithoprotein
- protein in combination with lecithin, a phosphorized fat
- Example: egg yolk
e. Phosphoproteins
- protein in combination with phosphoric acid
- Example: casein in milk, Ovo vitellin in egg yolk
3. Derived Proteins
- proteins obtained by partial hydrolysis of natural proteins
- they are denatured and coagulated proteins
- Examples: peptones & proteoses, polypeptides and peptides
- About 3.5% of the protein present in the body are destroyed and resynthesized such as:
HEMOGLOBIN, NAILS and HAIR.
- Protein in the diet is therefore very essential to replace the continuous breakdown of body
proteins
C) LIPIDS
- groups of carbon-containing compounds which do not dissolve readily in water
- essential elements are C, H, O (with less O atoms than carbohydrates but more C, thus
furnish more heat)
- simplest form: glycerol and fatty acids
Function: provides heat and energy
- three most important groups:
Fats
- the most common lipids in the body are the triesters of fatty acids and glycerol
- Examples:
a. monoglycerides - combination of one fatty acid plus glycerol
b. triglycerides - two fatty acids plus glycerol
Two kinds of fats:
1. Unsaturated fats
- plant and vegetable fats
- have double bonds between some of the carbons
- vegetable fats represent less of a hazard than animal fats
2. Saturated fats
- animal fats
- a kind of fat that does not contain double bonds between the carbons
- excess of animal fat in the diet leads to cardiovascular diseases
Types of Lipids:
1. Phospholipids
- these are structurally similar to fats except that a group containing phosphorous or
nitrogen is attached to one of the carbons of glycerol
- important part of the plasma membrane surrounding the cell
- Example: Lecithin
2. Steroids
- composed of interconnected carbon rings
- these compounds are absorbed intact or in slightly modified form
Examples:
a. testosterone
- male reproductive hormone
- responsible for male secondary sexual characteristics such as deep voice, hair
growth on the face, and narrow hips
b. estrogen
- female reproductive hormone
- responsible for female secondary sexual characteristics such as high-pitched voice,
smooth skin, and wide hips
D) NUCLEIC ACIDS
- huge organic molecules that contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and phosphorous
- they were first discovered on the nucleus of the cells
 Types of Nucleic Acids
1. Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA)
- nucleic acid in the shape of a double helix
- constructed of nucleotides consisting of:
a. 1 of 4 nitrogenous bases (adenine, cytosine, guanine, or thymine)
b. Deoxyribose
c. a phosphate groups
- forms the inherited genetic material inside the cell; the genetic information is encoded in
the nucleotides
Gene
- biological letter of heredity
- an ultramicroscopic, self-reproducing DNA segment, located in a specific position on a
particular chromosome
- determines the traits we inherit
2. Ribonucleic Acid (RNA)
- a single-stranded nucleic acid
- nucleotides consist of:
a. a base (adenine, cytosine, guanine, or uracil)
b. ribose
c. phosphate
- Three types:
a. messenger (m-RNA)
b. transfer (tRNA)
c. ribosomal (rRNA)
E) REGULATORY SUBSTANCES - regulate chemical reactions
1) Vitamins
- accessory food factors needed for normal growth and development
- organic substances, present in small amounts in natural foodstuff
- essential for growth and normal metabolism
- we receive most of the vitamins needed by the body from the food we eat
- a deficiency in any of the vitamins may lead to disease
- any vitamin in excess will not strengthen the body and in fact, can lead to illness
I. Fat-soluble Vitamins – vitamins A, D, E, and K
1. Vitamin A
- formed in the liver from carotenoid pigments which are found in leafy green vegetables,
yellow vegetables and yellow fruits.
Functions:
a. concerned with growth of bone, teeth and epithelial tissues
b. synthesis of rhodopsin (the light-sensitive pigment of the cells in the retina)
Deficiency
a. cause skin to become dry and rough as there is suppression of the activity in the sweat
glands
b. epithelial lings of the respiratory, the alimentary, and the genito-urinary tracts become
keratinized
c. night blindness occurs
2. Vitamin D - formed in the skin in response to ultraviolet light which we get from the sun
Functions:
a. normal growth
b. absorption of calcium and phosphorous from the intestine
c. utilization of calcium and phosphorous in the development of bones and teeth
Deficiency:
a. rickets in children - disease which is characterized with:
- soft and fragile bones
- bowlegs
3. Vitamin E - found in leafy green vegetables, vegetable oils, unmilled cereals, corn, nuts and
eggs, especially the egg yolk
Functions:
a. minimizes the oxidation of carotene and Vitamin A in the I intestine
b. necessary in the utilization of the sex hormones, cholesterol, and Vitamin D
Deficiency
 a. responsible for cystic fibrosis and premature aging
4. Vitamin K
- found in liver, spinach, cauliflower, and cabbage
- also synthesized to a small degree by bacteria in the large intestine
Function:
a. necessary for prothrombin synthesis in the liver
Deficiency:
a. difficulty with blood clot formation in infants
II. Water-soluble Vitamins – B-Vitamins, Vitamin C
1. Thiamine
Function:
a. necessary for the conversion of glucose and pyruvic acid during the breakdown of
carbohydrates
Deficiency:
a. leads to disorders of the nervous system and heart failure
b. beriberi – disease characterized by:
- anorexia
- loss of weight
- peripheral neuritis
- debility
- edema
c. enlarged heart
d. high level of pyruvic acid and lactic acid in the blood
2. Riboflavin
- widely distributed in nature, it is present in all cells of plants and animals
- absence in diet causes the most common deficiency in man, characterized by glossitis,
cheilosis, and seborrheic dermatitis
Functions:
a. important in the metabolism of all types of foodstuffs
3. Niacin (nicotine acid)
- present in meat, poultry, fish, yeast, peanut butter, potatoes, and legumes.
- functional component of coenzymes
Functions:
a. essential for the development of the enzymes involved in the release of energy from
foodstuff
Pellagra - disease caused by the lack of niacin characterized by:
- fatigue
- headache
- anorexia
- backache
- loss of weight
- sore on the tongue, mouth and throat
- anemia
- vomiting
- diarrhea
- dermatitis
- mental confusion
- delusion of persecution
- dementia
4. Vitamin B12 - sources: liver, kidney, milk, and cheese
Functions:
a. essential for DNA synthesis (deoxyribonucleic acid)
b. important in rapidly dividing tissue
Deficiency:
a. anemia
5. Vitamin C (ascorbic acid)
- differs from the water-soluble B-Vitamins in that it lacks nitrogen
- found in citrus fruits and certain vegetables such as: camote tops, spinach, green
peppers, cabbage, ampalaya, potatoes, and sweet potatoes
Functions:
 a. necessary for maintaining intercellular protein
b. necessary for the production of hemoglobin
c. essential to the production of dentine, cartilage, and bone
d. facilitates the absorption of iron
Deficiency:
a. leads to an increase in susceptibility to infection, poor wound healing, and retardation of
growth
b. scurvy, characterized by bleeding of the gums, pain & tenderness
c. swelling of thighs and legs
2) Enzymes
- organic (protein) catalyst which increases the rate of a chemical reaction without itself
being used up
- proteins with high molecular weight and so it cannot diffuse across the cell membrane
- consists of two parts:
a. Apoenzyme - protein portion
b. Cofactor – non-protein portion
- maybe a metal ion or an organic molecule called coenzyme which are often derived from
vitamins are classified as:
a. Endoenzymes - those that act inside the cell
b. Exoenzymes - those that act outside the cell (e.g. digestive systems)
- names end the suffix –ase; examples:
a. lipases - enzymes that influence fats (lipids)
b. amylases / ptyalin – act on carbohydrates
c. phosphatases - split phosphates from organic combinations
d. cholinesterase - hydrolyzes acetylcholine
- factors that modify enzymatic activity (either accelerate or slows down the rate):
a. temperature (elevation in temperature accelerates the action of enzymes)
b. degree of acidity (there is optimal acidity for maximum reactivity)
c. concentration of the substrate and enzyme
d. presence of some chemical substances
3) Hormones
- organic (protein) chemical regulators secreted by the ductless glands, carried by the
blood stream and needed for the smooth functioning of the body
- Examples:
a. Insulin – secreted by the pancreas for the proper storage and utilization of glucose
b. Testosterone & Progesterone - secreted by the gonads and are responsible for
secondary sex characteristics
C. INORGANIC COMPONENTS OF THE CELLS
- compounds which do not contain hydrocarbon, but include the oxides and sulfides of carbon
A) MINERAL ELEMENTS - in the form of salts or are combined with protein, carbohydrates, and
lipids
Salts
- the ion of the salts has essential in the proper maintenance and control of bodily functions
- found throughout the body:
a. in the cell
b. in extracellular fluids
c. in the blood
d. in the lymph
MINERAL ELEMENTS AND THEIR FUNCTIONS
Chemical Element % Of Total Significance
Body Mass
1. oxygen 65.0 - Part of water and many organic (carbo-containing
molecules)

- Used to generate ATP, a molecule used by cells to

temporarily store chemical energy
2. carbon 18.5 - Forms backbone chains and rings of all organic
molecules: Carbohydrates, lipids(fats), proteins,
nucleic acids (DNA and RNA)
3. hydrogen 9.5 - Constituent of water and most organic molecules
 - Ionized form (H+) makes body fluids acidic
4. nitrogen 3.2 - Component of all proteins and nucleic acids
5. calcium 1.5 - Contributes to hardness of bones and teeth

- Ionized form (Ca2+) needed for blood clotting,

release of hormones, contraction of muscles,
and many other processes
6. phosphorus 1.0 - Component of nucleic acids and ATP

- Required for normal bone and tooth structure

7. potassium 0.35 - ionized form (K+) is the most plentiful cation
(positively charged

particle) in extracellular fluids needed to generate action

potentials
8. sulfur 0.25 - Component of some vitamins and many proteins
9. sodium 0.2 - Ionized form (Na+) is the most plentiful cation in
extracellular fluid

- Essential for maintaining water balance

- Needed to generate action potentials

10.chlorine 0.2 - Ionized form (Cl-) is the most common plentiful
anion (negatively charged particle) in
extracellular fluids essential for maintaining
water balance
11.magnesium 0.1 - Ionized form (Mg2+) needed for action of many enzymes,
molecules that increase the rate of chemical reactions in
organisms
12.iron 0.005 - Ionized forms (Fe2+& Fe3+) are part of hemoglobin (oxygen-
carrying protein in red blood cells) and some enzymes
(proteins that catalyze chemical reactions in living cells)
13.trace elements 0.2 - Aluminum (Al), Boron (B), Chromium (Cr), Cobalt
(Co), Copper (Cu), Flourine (F), Iodine (I),
Manganese (Mn), Molybdenum (Mo), Selenium
(Se), Silicon (Si), Tin (Sn), Vanadium (V), Zinc
(Zn)
Water
- most important component of tissue and constitutes about two-thirds of body weight

- estimated to be 85-92% of the weight of the cell

- medium in which all of the physiological activities necessary for life take place
- forms the major component both of the extracellular fluid which surrounds the cell and the
interior of the cell itself.
- in an average person, 60-70% of the body weight is water
Properties of Water:
1. Universal Solvent – can dissolve many substances
2. Has High Ionizing Power – therefore a great number and many kinds of solute molecules
yield a large number of varied ions
3. Has the ability to absorb a large amount of heat (has a high specific heat) – hence the
heat produced by cell metabolism makes comparatively little change in the temperature of the
cell
4. has a high heat-conducting power
- means that the heat produced in the cell can pass to body fluids even if the temperature
of the cell is barely above that of the fluid around the cell.
 - The body fluids can hold this heat and pass it on with little change in temperature to the
blood and finally to the skin.
5. It has a great fluidity thus served as a vehicle for the transport of materials
6. It has a high surface tension

Module 4: Cell Physiology

- The cell is regarded as a highly organized unit engaged in ceaseless chemical activities.
- These activities are dependent on the continuous reception of substances from the so-called
internal environment (tissue fluid) and the elimination of substances to the tissue fluid.
- The circulatory liquids continually bring substances from the external environment, and
continuously take eliminated substances to the eliminating organs for final removal to the
external environment.
Movement of Cellular Materials
- Since the cell is a living functional unit, it must be able to acquire materials from its
surrounding medium and also either secrete essential substances or excrete waste materials.
- Hence, material must enter and leave the cell.
Intracellular fluid
- (Collectively, the nucleoplasm and cytosol) is a solution containing small amount of gases
(oxygen and carbon dioxide), nutrients, and salts, dissolved in water.
Interstitial fluid
- the fluid that continuously bath the exterior of our cell
- it contains thousands of ingredients, including nutrients (amino acids, sugars, fatty acids,
vitamins), regulatory substances such as hormones and neurotransmitters, salts, and waste
products
A) PASSIVE TRANSPORT
a. no need for energy and mainly achieved through diffusion
b. no need for oxygen
c. follows the concentration gradient that is from greater to lesser concentration
d. flow is slower (transport of water and smaller molecules)
1. Diffusion
- Applied to the spreading or scattering of molecules of gasses or liquids.
- When two gases are mixed together, continual movement of the molecule of gas will soon
produce a uniform mixture
- Diffusion of essential materials between the body fluids and the cells continually take place.
- Oxygen moves from the blood into the fluid around the cell and into the cell. So that, it moves
to the area of lesser concentration.
- The oxygen supply of the cell is continually due to the movement of blood through the lungs
and the circulatory system; the oxygen is continually used in metabolic processes once it
enters the cell.
Factors Affecting Diffusion:
a. Temperature – The higher the temperature, the faster the of diffusion.
b. Mass of diffusing substance
- the larger the mass of the diffusing particle, the slower its diffusion rate.
- Molecules with smaller molecular weights diffuse more rapidly than the larger ones.
c. Surface area – The larger the membrane surface area available for diffusion, the faster the
diffusion rate.
d. Diffusion distance
- The greater the distance over which diffusion must occur.
- Diffusion across a plasma membrane takes only a fraction of a second because the
membrane is so thin.
2. Osmosis
- The movement of solvent particles, such as water particles through the membrane.
- The movement of water from an area of high-water concentration through a semi-permeable
to an area of low water concentration.
- Osmosis is simply a special name for the diffusion of water.
- Solvents with different molecular dimensions, when separated by a membrane, will traverse
the membrane at different rates, thus an osmotic pressure will be established between them.
- Osmotic pressure is determined by a number of particles of solute dissolved in a particular
solution.
 - The more particles are in a solution, the greater is the osmolality of that solution and the
greater it its “pull” for water.
- It is therefore, worthy to note, that the particles in solution are the critical factor in determining
osmotic pressure.
- In physiology, however, the osmotic characteristics of different solutions are often determined
by the way it affect the red cells of the blood. Their effect is compared with that of the blood
serum.
a. isotonic – RBC remains unchanged, the solution is said to have the same osmotic
characteristics as the blood serum
b. hypertonic – the RBC shrink, the solution has a higher osmotic characteristic than the
blood serum
c. hypotonic – the RBC swell, the solution has a lower osmotic characteristic than that of
the blood serum
Dialysis
- sometime used for the diffusion of molecules of the soluble constituents such as the solutes
through a permeable membrane.
- The different particle may be ions, molecules or small molecular aggregates
3. Filtration
- It is the passage in solution across a semi-permeable membrane as a result of a mechanical
force (gravity and blood pressure)
- The movement is from an area of higher pressure to an area of lower pressure, and the size
of the membrane pores will determine which molecules will be filtered.
- It occurs in the kidney thus allows proteins, which are of large molecular size to be retained
by the body, whereas, waste materials of smaller molecular weight may be excreted.
B) ACTIVE TRANSPORT
- In active transport it is felt that the transported substance is attached to a component of the
cell membrane.
- This may be a protein, a lipid, or most often an enzyme referred to as a “carrier” that pick up
the substance for transport and carries it across the membrane.
- In the process of active transport, the cell provides energy, usually in the form of ATP, to
activate the carrier.
a. needs energy from within the cell (in the form of ATP)
b. needs oxygen
c. direction of flow: flow is from lesser to greater concentration
d. flow is faster (transport of large molecules)
C) ENDOCYTOSIS - movement of substance into a cell in vesicles
1. Pinocytosis
- It is known as “cell drinking”.
- In this process, the cell membrane indents and then surrounds, finally engulfs w/in a vacuole,
small molecules.
- The molecules that may be used by the cell are transported in this manner and also noxious
substance are ingested.
- If the substance is of noxious nature, lysosomes become attached to the vacuole and cellular
digestion occurs.
2. Phagocytosis
- This process is quite to pinocytosis, the major difference being the ingestion of larger particles
such as bacterial cell fragments or foreign materials.
- The vacuoles formed within the cell are called phagosomes and attach to lysosomes.
- The hydrolytic enzymes of lysosomes effectively digest the particular matter
D) EXOCYTOSIS
- movement of substance out of a cell in secretory vesicles that fuse with the plasma
membrane and release their contents into the extracellular fluid
- the substances transported are neurotransmitters, hormones, and digestive enzymes
Plant and Animal Cells
- Basis of comparison Animal cell Plant cell
Presence of chloroplasts No Yes
Presence of cell walls No Yes
Presence of Cilia Yes, in most animal cells. No
Plastids No Yes
Shape Irregular or round Square or rectangular
 Vacuoles Usually small and sometimes, Few large or single and
they are absent. centrally positioned vacuole.
Mode of nutrition Heterotrophic – they cannot Primarily autotrophic – they
prepare their own food cannot make their own food
Movement Have the ability to move freely. Generally rooted in one place
and do not move on their own.
Ability to sense Have a much more highly Have either no or very basic
developed sensory and ability to sense.
nervous system.
Excretion of waste In the form of vapour, gum, In the form of urea, uric acid,
sap, resins, etc. ammonia, etc.

Module 5: Cell Structures and their Functions

Cell Structure
A) Introduction
Cytology
- study of the structure, composition and functions of the cell
Cell
- the basic structural unit of all living things consisting of a mass of protoplasm with a centrally
–located nucleus.
- The functional human RBC is without a nucleus.
- In adipose tissue, the nucleus is eccentric (off center) in position.
Functions of the cell:
a. Cell metabolism and energy use.
b. Synthesis of molecules.
c. Communication.
d. Reproduction and inheritance
Protoplasm - refers to all substances within the cell, both the nucleus and the cytoplasm
Cytoplasm
- region of the protoplasm outside the nucleus
- location where nutrients are absorbed, transported, and processed.
- During the processing of nutrients, waste products accumulate. The cytoplasm stores the
wastes until proper disposal can be carried out.
- Living material
Nucleoplasm (karyoplasm) - protoplasm of the nucleus
Cell Theory states that: “All living things are composed of cells and new cells arise only from
pre-existing cells.” The first part of the theory was contributed by German biologists Matthias J.
Schleiden and Theodor Schwann and the second part by German physiologist Rudolf Virchow.
- The cell is the unit of structure and function of all organisms
- All living things are made up of cells, the fundamental units of life.
- The cell marks the boundary between the nonliving and the living.
- The molecules that serve as food for a cell and the organic molecules that make up a cell are
not alive, and yet the cell is alive.
- The answer to what life is will have to be found within the cell, because the smallest living
organisms are UNICELLULAR, while larger organisms are MULTICELLULAR –
composed of many cells.
- All cells are produced from other cells.
- A multicellular animal develops from a single cell. This single cell is the egg fertilized by a
sperm. During the process of early embryonic development, many cells are formed, become
differentiated, and specialized for specific functions.
B) HISTORY OF CELL BIOLOGY
1. Robert Hooke (1665)
- English physicist; observed thin slices of cork (bark from a type of oak tree) with a
magnifying glass, saw boundaries or walls (appeared into little boxes) and called the
hollow spaces “CELLS”.
- Although he did not realize the significance of his observation, he was the first human to
see cells.
2. Anton von Leeuwenhoek (1674) – Dutchman; observed a variety of plant and animal
structures and suggested that organisms are composed of cells.
3. Robert Brown (1831)
 - observed cells with a central part, the nucleus
- described the streaming movement of the cytoplasm as “Brownian Movement”
4. Dujardin (1835) – cells are not hollow but filled with thick jelly-like fluids (protoplasm)
5. Mathias Schleiden (1838), a botanist &Theodore Schwann (1839), a zoologist
- both concluded that organisms are composed of cells, and that cells are the basic
structural and functional units of life
6. Rudolf Virchow (1858)
- revealed that all cells come from pre-existing cells
- also suggested that human disease results from changes taking place on the cellular
level
C) FUNCTIONS OF THE CELL
- Cells come up in many different shapes and sizes, but no matter what the shape or the size,
each carry on the functions associated with life – interacting with the environment, obtaining
chemicals and energy, growing and reproducing.
- A cell requires energy, genetic information to direct biochemical activities, and structures to
carry out these activities.
- Movement occurs within living cells, and some cells, such as the swimming sperm cell can
move about in the environment.
- In short, the functions of cells are similar to the functions of whole organisms.
1. Mechanical Function - exhibited by the contraction of muscle cells
2. Chemical Function - synthesis of protein, DNA and RNA
3. Osmotic Function - uptake of material by the cell from the outside
4. Specialized Functions:
a. nerve cell – able to exhibit electrical phenomena in the conduction of impulses
b. microvilli
- surface of the cells facing the lumen are thrown into folds which increase the surface for
absorption
- responsible for the absorption of digested food
c. cilia – long protoplasmic processes which through their collective movement propel foreign
materials to the outside
d. flagellum – single, longer cilium which propel the sperm cell in its movement
D) PHYSIOLOGICAL PROPERTIES OF CELLS THAT TAKE PLACE IN THE PROTOPLASM
1. Respiration – the taking in of Oxygen and using this for oxidation of food substances with the
resulting liberation of energy
2. Excretion – the ability to eliminate waste materials
3. Absorption and Assimilation – the ability of living cells to take in food and other substances
and utilize them
4. Secretion – the ability of cells to synthesize useful substances from those that they absorb
and give off the secretory products
5. Irritability – the property that enables a cell to respond to stimulus
6. Conductivity – the ability to transmit a wave of excitation of the cell on being stimulated,
7. Elasticity - ability of cells to shorten and return to its original length when the stimulus is
removed
8. Cell Division – the ability of the cells to grow to a limited extent and produce other cells
E) SIZE OF THE CELL – variable
1. mostly microscopic like sperm cells and the cells of the body
2. some are macroscopic – ex. Chicken’s egg
3. lower limit for the size of an active living cell is 200-250 micrometer
4. The volume of a cell with a 200-micrometer diameter is 4x10 6 mu3. The bulkiest components
of the cell are macromolecules, proteins and nucleic acids
F) SHAPE OF THE CELL
1. Varies but generally spheroidal
2. Often, the shape is related to its function
a. muscle cells - long (inches in length) which is best for contractility
b. neuron - with a number of processes like the axon (1.2 – 1.5 m or 4 – 5 feet long) which
is responsible for conveying information to various part of the body
3. factors that modify cell shape:
a. solitary or in groups
b. rigidity of the membrane
c. relationship and pressure exerted by adjoining cells
 d. turgor pressure – content and viscosity of the cytoplasm
e. functional adaptation and specialization
Two general types of cells
1. Prokaryotic Cells (pro – before; karyon – nucleus)
- primitive cells that do not have a true nucleus or a nuclear membrane
a. Bacteria
b. Cyanobacteria - formerly called blue-green algae
2. Eukaryotic Cells (eu – true; karyon – nucleus)
- cells that have a true nucleus; the nuclear membrane surrounds a well-defined nucleus
a. Animal Cells
b. Plant Cells
Comparison of Prokaryotic Cells to Eukaryotic Cells
Characteristic Prokaryotic Cells Eukaryotic Cells
1. Organisms Bacteria (including Protists, fungi, plants, animals
cyanobacteria)
2. Cell size 1-10 micrometer 10-100 micrometer
3. Membrane – bound No Yes
organelles
4. Ribosomes Yes (small) Yes (large)
5.DNA (genetic material In cytoplasm In nucleus
location)
6. Protein Synthesis RNA and protein synthesis are RNA and protein synthesis are
not spatially-separated spatially separated
7. Membranes Some Many
8. Cytoskeleton No Yes
9. Cellular Organization Single cells or colonies Some single-celled, most
multicellular with differentiation
of cell function
10. Photosynthetic May contain chlorophyll but not Chlorophyll, when present,
Apparatus in chloroplasts contained in chloroplasts
Cell Structures
- All cells are essentially similar in their basic feature.
- They however differ in their details of organization.
- A typical cell is composed of three elements:
a. the plasma membrane
b. nucleus, and
c. cytoplasm
Organelle - specialized structures
A. Cell Membrane/Plasma Membrane/Plasmalemma - “Gatekeeper of Cell”
- Both animal and plant cells are surrounded by a cell membrane, a phospholipids bilayer in
which protein molecules are embedded.
- extremely thin, semi-permeable, and elastic in nature.
- It consists of a double layer of lipids organized between two layers of protein.
- Plasma Membrane - encloses the cytoplasm and nucleus
- Cell Membrane - Outer boundary of the cell; Determines what enters and leaves the cell
Functions:
a. maintains the integrity of the cell
b. contains the cell contents
c. prevents the contents of one cell from mixing with those of the other cells
d. controls the entrance and exit of materials in the cell.
e. it separates the contents of the cell, called the cytoplasm, from the surrounding environment
f. compartmentalizes the cell; it divides the cell into specific regions
Extracellular - substances outside the cell
Intracellular - substances inside the cell
Fluid-Mosaic Model – arrangement of molecules in the cell membrane
Selectively permeable – allows some substances to pass into or out of the cells
Movement through the Cell Membrane
1. Diffusion - Movement of a solute from an area of higher to lower concentration gradient
a. Concentration gradient – difference in the concentration of a solute in a solvent minus
the concentration of the solute at another point
 b. Leak channels – allow ions to pass through
c. Gated channels – limit the movement of ions across the membrane
2. Osmosis – Diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane
a. Osmotic pressure – force required to prevent movement of water across a selectively
permeable membrane
b. Hypotonic – lower concentration
c. Isotonic - same concentration
d. Hypertonic - higher concentration
e. Lysis – when cells swell, then ruptures
f. Crenation – cell shrinking
Carrier-Mediated Transport Mechanisms
1. Carrier-mediated transport – movement of a substance across a membrane by means of a
carrier molecule
2. Facilitated diffusion – moves substances from a higher to lower concentration; does not
require ATP
3. Active transport – moves substances from a lower to higher concentration; requires ATP
a. Cystic fibrosis – genetic disorder that affects the active transport of Cl- into cells
4. Secondary active transport – moving concentration gradient to move another substance
a. Cotransport – same direction
b. Counter-transport – opposite direction
Endocytosis and Exocytosis
1. Endocytosis – movement of materials into cells by formation of vesicles
a. Phagocytosis – cell eating; solid particles are ingested
b. Pinocytosis – cell drinking; smaller vesicles are formed and contains liquid
2. Exocytosis – secretion of materials from cells
Cell Wall – “Supporter of Plant Cells”
- Plant cells (but not animals) have a cell wall in addition to a cell membrane.
- Many plant cells have both a primary and secondary cell wall separated by the middle lamella
Lamella - a region that contains a sticky substance, usually pectin.
a. Primary Cell Wall
- main constituent is cellulose.
- Cellulose molecules form threadlike microfibrils, which in turn are found in fibrils.
- Several layers of fibrils lying at right angles to one another are located within the cell wall.
This arrangement adds strength
b. Secondary Cell Wall
- forms inside the primary cell wall
- contains lignin - a substance that makes them even stronger than primary cell walls
B. Nucleus – “Controller of Cells”
- The nucleus is a large organelle having a diameter of about 5 micrometers
- Most cells have one nucleus; some have two (liver cells); others have a multiple number
(skeletal muscle cells); and some cells have none (mature erythrocytes/RBC, platelets and
those in the retina).
- contains genetic material
Functions:
a. directs cell division
b. contains the hereditary information in the form of genes
c. controls protein synthesis
d. controls many of the metabolic activities of the cell
Cells that lack nuclei:
a. cannot undergo cell division
b. are not capable of protein synthesis
c. have limited metabolic activities
Parts of the nucleus:
a. nuclear envelope
- double membrane;
- keeps the content of the nucleus separate from the cell’s cytoplasm
- two-layered membrane that bounds the nucleus
b. Nuclear pores
- pores in the nuclear envelope;
- allow large molecules to pass into and out of the nucleoplasm.
 - each pore is lined by a complex of 8 somewhat cylindrical proteins that regulate the
passage of materials into and out of the nucleus.
- where materials can pass into or out the nucleus
c. Nucleoplasm – the liquid interior of the nucleus
d. Chromatin
- threadlike material located within the nucleus
- loosely coiled chromosomes
- It is non distinct in the dividing cell but condenses into rodlike structures called
CHROMOSOMES at the time of cell division
- Chromatin and therefore chromosomes contain DNA, the hereditary material.
Note: DNA directs protein synthesis in the cytoplasm, and it is this function that makes the nucleus
the CONTROL CENTER of the cell. A cell’s proteins help to determine its structure and function.
e. Nucleoli - Maker of RNA
- One or more nucleoli (singular – nucleolus) are present in the nucleus.
- Specialized parts of chromatin in which a type of RNA called ribosomal RNA (rRNA) is
produced from DNA located there
- Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) is necessary to the formation of small ribosomes, which function
in the cytoplasm
- consists of ribosomal RNA and proteins
C. Cytoplasmic Organelles
I. Granule-like Organelles
1. Ribosomes - Site of Protein Synthesis in the cytoplasm
- looks like small, dense granules in low-power electron micrographs, but they are actually
composed of 2 subunits.
- Each of these subunits has its own particular mix of rRNA and proteins.
- Ribosomal RNA joins with proteins within the nucleolus, but the 2 subunits are not
assembled into one ribosome until they reach the cytoplasm
Location:
a. Can be attached to the endoplasmic reticulum - Ribosomes attached to ER make
proteins that are secreted from the cell.
b. Lie free within the cytoplasm
- It is in ribosomes that amino acids are linked together to form protein.
- When several ribosomes are making the same protein, they are arranged in a
functional group called a polysome.
II. Membranous Canals and Vacuoles
2. Endoplasmic Reticulum - Transporter of Molecules
- forms a membranous system of tubular canals, which is continuous with the nuclear envelope
and branches throughout the cytoplasm
- Forms tubules/sacs throughout the cell
- an intercellular transport system, conveying protein through the canals either to the exterior of
the cell or to the Golgi apparatus, where it is packed and later release from the cell
Functions:
a. involved in synthesis & modification of macromolecules (proteins, steroid hormones, etc)
b. the canals act as passage of substances between the cell membrane and the nuclear
membrane
Kinds of Endoplasmic Reticulum:
1. Rough ER/granular
- if ribosomes are attached to the ER (canals are studded with ribosomes
- specializes in protein synthesis and modification
- The ribosomes attached to rough ER make proteins for export from the cell.
- The proteins enter the lumen (interior space) of rough ER, where they may be modified.
After arriving at the lumen of smooth ER, a vesicle (small vacuole) pinches off and then
carries the protein to the Golgi apparatus, where it is further processed. This is how the
ER serves as a transport system
- Contains ribosomes
2. Smooth ER/agranular
- if ribosomes are not present
- lipid synthesis, detoxification, and Ca storage
Functions:
a. produces different molecules in different cells
 b. site of the synthesis of steroid hormones (in the adrenal cortex).
c. In the liver, smooth ER is involved in the detoxification of drugs, including alcohol. Special
vacuoles (membrane-enclosed sac) called peroxisomes are often attached to smooth ER,
and these contain enzymes capable of detoxifying drugs.
d. concerned with the rapid transport of metabolites needed for muscular contraction
3. Golgi Apparatus/Golgi Bodies - Processor & Packager (surrounded by a membrane)
- is named for the person who first discovered its presence in cells.
- Modifies, packages, and distributes lipids and proteins
- It is composed of a stack of about a half-dozen or more saccules (flattened vacuoles),
which look like hollow pancakes. Vesicles occur at the edges of the saccules.
- made up of a series of smooth membranes usually continuous with the ER.
- Enzymes have been found to be concentrated along the surface of the membranes.
- it consists of several flattened tubular membranes known as CISTERNAE stacked
upon each other and vacuoles, found at the dilated terminal area, at either end of the
cisternae.
a. Inner face - side of the stack which is directed toward the nucleus and ER
b. Outer face - other side of the stack which is directed toward the cell membrane.
Functions:
a. packaging, storage and distribution of molecules produced by the ER
- After the molecules from the ER are received at its inner face, they move from one
saccule to the next newly formed vesicles
- As they go from saccule to saccule of the Golgi Apparatus, the molecules undergo
many different modifications. Their basic structure can change or modified by the
addition of a carbohydrate or a phosphate group. For example: often, carbohydrates
which are synthesized within the Golgi body are combined with protein to form
glycoprotein.
- Finally, molecules are packaged in secretory vesicles – Transports and stores
materials within cells. These move to the cell membrane and discharge their
contents. For example: this is the way hormones are secreted into blood by the
glands that produces them
b. contributes to the formation of secretory products
c. contributes to the liberation of such products from the cell
4. Vacuoles - Storer of Molecules
- a vacuole is a large membrane-closed sac, a vesicle is a small vacuole.
- most often, vacuoles are storage areas
- Animal cells have vacuoles; but much more prominent in plant cells
Plant cells
- have one or 2 very large vacuole filled with a watery substance, which gives added support to
the cell.
- most of the central area of the plant cell are occupied by a vacuole, and the other contents of
the cell are pushed to the sides.
- plant vacuoles contain not only water, sugars and salts but also pigments and toxic
substances.
Pigments - responsible for many of the red, blue, or purple colors of flowers and some leaves
Toxic substances - help protect a plant from predaceous animals (as long as the substance is
contained within a vacuole, it is not harmful to the plant)
5. Lysosomes - Digester of Molecules
- vesicles formed by the Golgi Apparatus
- large spherical structures scattered in the cytoplasm
- membrane-bound, dense structures that contain enzymes that are collectively referred to
as acid hydrolases or hydrolytic enzymes (digestive enzymes) w/c:
a. break down intercellular molecules
b. digest foreign organisms like bacteria which enter the cell
c. digest and destroy the components of the cell, thus the name “suicide bag”
d. digest or catabolize macromolecules (large molecules):
i. protein: for structure and metabolism
ii. carbohydrate: for energy and structure
iii. lipids: for stored energy and membranes
iv. nucleic acids: for reproduction and control of protein synthesis
Macromolecules (large Monomers (smaller
 molecules) molecules)
Protein Amino Acid
Carbohydrate Monosaccharide
Lipids Glycerol and Fatty Acid
Nucleic Acid Nucleotide
Note: Macromolecules are sometimes brought into a cell in vesicles formed at the cell membrane. A
lysosome can fuse with such a vesicle and digest its contents into simpler molecules, which then
enter the cytoplasm.
6. Peroxisomes
- these organelles are also called microbodies and are similar to lysosomes.
- they are membrane-bound sacs containing enzymes
- most commonly found in liver cells and in the cells of the proximal convoluted tubules of
the kidney.
- Enzymes that digest fatty acids and amino acids
- Enzymes that catalyze the breakdown of hydrogen peroxide
Functions:
a. involved in either the production of hydrogen peroxide or the breaking down of peroxide
into molecules of water
b. appear to be involved in purine catabolism
c. breaking down of nucleic acid
d. conversion of fat to glucose, hence, they are active in the internal metabolism of the cell
III. Energy Converting Organelles
- The energy related organelles, chloroplasts and mitochondria, convert one form of energy into
another.
- While chloroplasts are unique to plant cells, mitochondria are found in both plant and animal
cells
1. Mitochondria - Producers of ATP (Major site of ATP production) adrenosine-triphosphate
- between 0.5 and 1.0 micrometer in diameter and 7 micrometers in length
- bounded by a double-layered membrane:
a. inner membrane
- folded to form little shelves called cristae.
- folds contain most of the enzymes which are used in the conversion of food energy
used by the cell to do the cellular work
b. outer membrane – smooth
Matrix - the inner space filled with a gel-like fluid
Functions:
a. production of energy in the form of ATP (adenosine triphosphate) to support mechanical
and chemical work performed by the cells. Because of this, these organelles are often
called the “powerhouse” of the cell.”
- every cell uses a certain amount of ATP energy to synthesize molecules and to carry
out their specialized functions
- Examples:
a) muscle cells use ATP for muscle contraction, w/c produces movement
b) nerve cells use ATP for the conduction of impulses w/c make us aware of our
environment
Mitochondria - are abundantly found in those cells whose energy requirements are high,
such as in the cardiac muscle and liver cells.
b. carry on aerobic cellular respiration (The oxygen you breath in enter cells and then
mitochondria; the carbon dioxide you breath out is released by mitochondria.)
Carbohydrate + Oxygen Carbon Dioxide + Water + Energy
- The mitochondria convert the chemical energy of glucose products into the chemical
energy of ATP molecules. In the process, mitochondria use up Oxygen and give off
Carbon Dioxide and Water.
2. Chloroplasts - Producers of Food
- found only in plants and photosynthetic protests
- they belong to a group of plant organelles known as plastids
other plastids are:
a. leucoplasts – store starch
b. chromoplasts
- contain red and orange pigments
 - contains chlorophyll and carry out photosynthesis, which converts solar energy to
carbohydrate energy
Chlorophyll
- makes chloroplasts and leaves green.
- It absorbs solar energy, and chloroplasts convert this energy into ATP, the type of
energy used by enzymes to make carbohydrate glucose
Photosynthesis
- the opposite of aerobic cellular respiration
Carbon Dioxide + Water Carbohydrate + Oxygen + Energy
- Chloroplasts take in Carbon Dioxide, Water, and Solar Energy in order to produce
Glucose. They give off Oxygen w/ exits the leaves as a gas.
3. Proteasomes
- Not bound by membranes
- Digest selected proteins
IV. Cytoskeleton - For Shape and Motion
- Within the cytoplasm, several types of filamentous protein structures form a cytoplasm.
- Holds organelles in place; enables the cell to change shape
Functions:
a. helps to maintain the cell’s shape
b. anchors the organelles
c. allows the cell and its organelles to move
d. directs the movement of the cell’s organelles
It contains:
1. Microtubes
- composed of the protein tubulin; dominant in cytoplasm
- important in the maintenance of the shape of the cell, in cell division, and in the
movement of organelles within the cell
- support the cytoplasm; assist in cell division
2. Actin Protein Filaments/Microfilaments
- long, extremely thin protein fibers that usually occur in bundles
- protoplasm has the property of contractility and the components responsible for this
property are the filaments
- Microfilaments - involved in cell movement
- Intermediate filaments – provide mechanical support
3. Centrioles and Other Organelles
- Centrioles and related organelles are composed of microtubules arranged in specific
patterns
- Centrosome means “cell center.” - The region of the centrosome is quite near the
nucleus. Within the centrosomes is a pair of small rod-like structures called the
centrioles.
Centrioles: Organizer of microtubules
- short cylinders having a 9 pattern of microtubules.
- animal cells, but not plant cells, have 2 centrioles.
- Plant cells do not have centrioles but if an animal cell lacks the centrioles, it cannot
undergo the process of cell division.
- self-duplicating organelles
- specialized zone of the cytoplasm
Functions:
a. active in the process of cell division
b. active in the formation of cilia
Centrosome – where microtubule formation occurs
Spindle fibers - involved in separation of chromosome during mitosis
4. Cilia (sing., cilium) and Flagella (sing., flagellum) - Movers of the cell
- hairlike extension of cells that can move in either in an undulating fashion, like a whip, or
stiffly, like an oar.
- Cells that have these organelles are capable of movement
- Examples:
a. single-celled paramecia move by means of cilia
b. male sperm cells move by means of cilia
 c. cells that line our respiratory tract are ciliated. These cilia sweep debris trapped within
mucus back up into the throat, an action that helps to keep the lungs clean.
d. cilia are much shorter than flagella, but even so they both are constructed similarly
Cilia - moves substances over the surface
Flagella – propel sperm cells
Microvilli – increase the surface area of cells; aids in absorption
Comparison of Prokaryotic Cells to Eukaryotic Cells
Prokaryotic Cells Eukaryotic Cells
(Bacteria) Animal Cells Plant Cells
1. Cell membrane Yes Yes Yes
2. Cell Wall Yes (not cellulose) No Yes (Cellulose)
3. Nuclear Envelope No Yes Yes
4. Nucleolus No Yes Yes
5. Mitochondria No Yes Yes
6. Chloroplasts No No Yes
7.Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) No Yes Yes
8. Ribosomes Yes (smaller) Yes Yes
9. Vacuoles Some Yes (small) Yes (usually
large, single
vacuole)
10.Golgi Apparatus/Bodies No Yes Yes
11. Lysosomes No Always Often
12. Cytoskeleton No Yes Yes
13. Centrioles No Yes No
14. Cilia or Flagella No Often Some male
gametes
Whole Cell Activity
Gene Expression
Gene
- sequence of nucleotides Transcription
- making a copy of a gene
Messenger RNA (mRNA) – the copy itself
Codons – groups of three nucleotides
- Anti-codon – series of three nucleotides of tRNA
- UAA – stop codon
Translation - converting that copied information into a protein
- Translation RNA (tRNA) – carry the amino acids
Nucleotide Pairs
Cytosine Guanine
Thymine Adenine
Uracil Adenine
Two Phases of the Cell Life Cycle
1. Interphase – non-dividing phase
2. Cell Division – formation of daughter cells from a single parent cell
Differentiation
- Cells develop specialized structures and functions
Apoptosis
- Programmed cell death
Cellular Aspects of Aging
1. Cellular clock.
2. Death genes.
3. DNA damage.
4. Free radicals.
5. Mitochondrial damage
Module 6: Mitosis and Meiosis
Cell Division/Mitosis
Living cells have three important characteristics to make possible the continuity of life. They do
these to perpetuate their own kind/ species and these are:
a. they reproduce their own kind
b. they transmit their characteristics to the next generation
c. they develop from single functional structure into complex functional organisms
Cell division is necessary for:
a. growth of organisms
b. repair of multicellular organisms
c. reproduction of all organisms
All cells arise through the growth and division of existing cells.
- This process of cellular reproduction which is strictly an asexual reproduction give rise to
every cell in the body.
- Although details may vary, the same stages take place in every cell cycle
Cell division requires division of both the:
a. Nucleus
b. Cytoplasm
Nucleus
- The nucleus contains the chromatin (long threads made up of DNA double helix and
associated proteins
- At the time of cell division, the chromatin coils, loop, and condense to give a highly
compacted structure (chromosome)
- Each type of organism has a characteristic number of chromosomes:
a. corn plants – 20 chromosomes
b. cats – 38 chromosomes
c. houseflies – 12 chromosomes
d. cows – 60 chromosomes
e. horses – 64 chromosomes
f. humans – 46 chromosomes
g. hydras – 32 chromosomes
- The particular number of chromosomes has nothing to do with the complexity of the
organism. Example: Hydras which are very simple microscopic organisms have 32
chromosomes, houseflies, w/ 12.
- Chromosomes can be viewed through karyotyping. Steps for human karyotype
preparation:
a. cells are treated
b. cells are photographed
c. cells are enlarged
- from photographs of cell divisions, chromosomes can be cut out
- chromosomes are arranged in pairs (pairs of chromosomes have the same size and
general appearance
Karotype - The resulting display of chromosome pairs
Chromosomes in human
a. Both human males and females have 23 pairs of chromosomes.
b. One pair is of unequal length of males.
- X Chromosome - The larger chromosome of this pair
- Y chromosome - the smaller chromosome
c. Females have two X chromosomes in their karyotype
d. Two types of chromosomes:
i. sex chromosomes - X and Y chromosomes; carry the genes that determine sex
ii. autosomes – all other chromosomes except X and Y chromosomes
46 Chromosomes – diploid no. of chromosomes
2 “X Chromosome” = Female
X + Y Chromosome = Male
Note:
- Prior to division, each chromosome is composed of 2 identical parts called sister chromatids
- Sister chromatids are genetically identical – they contain the same genes (the units of
heredity that control the cell
- Centromere – region where the chromatids are held together
The Life Cycle of Animals
 - Advanced multicellular animals, including humans, typically have a life cycle that requires two
types of cell division:
a. meiosis and
b. mitosis
Life Cycle of Humans
- Meiosis in males is a part of sperm production, and meiosis in females is a part of egg
production.
- When a haploid sperm fertilizes a haploid egg, the zygote is diploid.
- Gametes contain half the number of chromosomes in a karyotype – one chromosome from
each of the pairs of chromosomes.
- This is called N, or haploid, number of chromosomes.
- The haploid number of chromosomes in humans is 23.
- The zygote has the 2N, or diploid, number of chromosomes. (N from father + N from mother =
2N)
- In humans, the diploid number is 46 because there are 23 pairs of chromosomes.
- The zygote undergoes mitosis as it develops into a newborn child.
- Mitosis continues after birth until the individual reaches maturity; then the cycle begins again.
Cell Cycle
- Cells undergo a sequence of activities that is repeated at regular intervals. This is called the
cell cycle
The cell cycle is composed of four phases:
1. G1 (growth phase 1)
- it starts with the growth of the newly divided daughter cell.
- the cell increases in size, due to: accumulation of nutrients and water, the production of
new protoplasm and cell organelles
2. S (synthesis) stage
- this is the stage where the DNA is produced and duplicated.
- it is also where RNA is synthesized
3. G2
- another growth phase where RNA and proteins are also produced
- G1, S, G2 are lumped together as the interphase stage prior to mitosis
4. M (mitosis or division)
- process whereby a parent cell give rise to two daughter cells with an equal number of
chromosomes as that of their parent cell
- Cells involved in the cell cycle are the generalized ones. For instance, cells that replace
old and dead cells undergo mitosis to be able to do these functions.
- However, there are cells that have become specialized (like nerve and muscle cells).
These cells are said to be in a suspended Go stage.
- Cells in the suspended Go stage cannot reenter the cell cycle.
Stages of Mitosis:
1. Prophase
- chromosomes appear as long thin threads. Nucleolus becomes less distinct
- each chromosome to be seen as composed of 2 chromatids
- nuclear membrane disappearing
- chromosomes move toward the equator
- in animal cell, the centrioles start to move to the opposite pole
- chromatin condenses
2. Metaphase
- nuclear membrane has disappeared
- chromosomes align at the center
- centromeres of each attached to spindle fibers at the equator
- nucleolus no longer visible
3. Anaphase
- centromeres have uncoupled and begun moving toward opposite poles of spindle
- 2 sets of new stranded chromosomes are near to respective poles
- cytokinesis begins (division of the cytoplasm)
4. Telophase
- new nuclear membranes are forming
- chromosomes become longer, their, ad less distinct
- nucleolus reappears
 - cytokinesis completed resulting into the formation of 2 new daughter cells
- plant cell - formation of cell plate
- animal cell – invagination of the cell membrane forming an animal furrow
- formation of 2 daughter cell with diploid number of chromosomes
- chromosomes unravel to become chromatin
Meiosis
- the word came from the Greek meioun, meaning “to make smaller” since it results in a
reduction of chromosome number in the gamete cell
- the process by which one diploid eukaryotic cell divides to regenerate four haploid cells often
called gametes
- essential for sexual reproduction and occurs I all eukaryotes (including singled-celled
organisms) that reproduce sexually
First meiotic division - reduction – division (from diploid to haploid)
1. Prophase 1
- disintegration of nuclear membrane and nucleolus
- chromosomes are distinct
- pairing of homologous chromosomes
- crossing over of homologous chromosomes
2. Metaphase 1
- each synaptic pair moves to the equator of the spindles as a unit
3. Anaphase 1
- centromeres do not uncouple
- double stranded chromosomes move apart to opposite poles
- start of cytokinesis (plant cell – formation of cell plate)
- animal cell – invagination of the cell membrane forming an animal furrow
4. Telophase 1
- new haploid nuclei form
- completion of cytokinesis
- formation of 2 daughter cells with haploid number of chromosomes
- reappearance of nuclear membrane and nucleolus
Second meiotic division - mitotic in nature
1. Prophase 2
2. metaphase 2
3. anaphase 2
4. telophase 2 – 4 daughter cells are formed with haploid number of chromosomes

Module 7: The Integumentary System

- denotes the skin / integument and its accessory structures – hair and nails with various
glands
- covers the external surface of the body
- it is the largest organ of the body in surface area and weight
- In adults, it covers an area of about 2 square meters and weighs 4.5 – 5 kg, about 16 % of the
total body weight
Functions of the Integumentary System:
1. Body temperature regulation
- Normal body temperature. = 37oC (98.6 oF)
- Rate of chemical rxns within the body can increased or decreased based on the
body temp.
Factors that raise body temperature:
a. Exercise
b. Fever
c. Increase in environmental temperature
- The skin controls heat loss from the body through dilation and constriction
of blood vessels
- Sweat glands produce sweat, which evaporates and lowers body temperature
- Heat is lost by radiation (infrared energy), convection (air movement), conduction (direct
contact)
2. Reservoir for blood.
3. Protection from external environment
- Reducing water loss
 - Prevents microorganisms from entering the body
- Protects underlying structures against abrasion
- Hair on head = insulator
- Eyebrows = keep sweat out of the eyes
- Eyelashes = protects the eyes from foreign objects
- Hair in the nose, ears = prevents the entry of dust
- Nails = protect the ends of the fingers, toes from damage; can be used in defense
4. Cutaneous sensationp
5. Excretion and absorption
- Skin glands remove water and salt
- Also removes small amounts of urea, uric acid, ammonia
6. Vitamin D synthesis/production
- Skin exposed to UV light produces cholecalciferol (modified in the liver,
then in the kidneys to produce active vitamin D)
- Best sources of Vit. D = fatty fish, vitamin D, fortified milk
- Small amounts of Vit D = eggs, butter, liver
- Active Vit. D stimulates the small intestine to absorb calcium and phosphate (normal
bone growth, normal muscle function)
7. Sensation - Sensory receptors for pain, touch, hot, cold, pressure
Layers of the Skin
1. Epidermis
- is keratinized stratified squamous epithelium
- it contains four principal types of cells: keratinocytes, melanocytes, Langerhans cells
and Merkels cells
- Most superficial layer
- In deepest layers, mitosis occurs
Keratinization
- cells change shape and chemical composition; cells become filed with the protein keratin
(hard)
- transformation of the living cells of the stratum basale into the dead squamous cells of the
stratum corneum
Callus - thickened area
Corn - bony prominence, thickened corn shaped structure
Sublayers of the Epidermis
a. Stratum basale
- the deepest layer composed of a single layer of cuboidal or columnar keratinocytes
- some cells in this layer are stem cells that undergo cell division to produce new cells
b. Stratum spinosum
- from the spino - thornlike cell
- made up to ten rows of many-sided keratinocytes with bundles of tonofilaments
- includes projections of melanocytes and Langerhans
c. Stratum granulosum
- three to five rows of flattened keratinocytes, in w/c organelles are beginning to
degenerate
- cells contain the protein keratohyalin, whicch converts tonofilament into keratin, and
lamellar granules w/c release a lipid-rich, water repellent secretion
d. Stratum lucidum
- present only in skin of fingertips, palms, and soles
- consists of three to five rows of clear, flat, dead keratinocytes with large amounts of
keratin
e. Stratum corneum
- made up of twenty – five to thirty rows of dead, flat keratinocytes that contain mostly
keratin which are continuously replaced by cells from the deeper strata
- most superficial stratum;
- dead squamous cells filled with keratin (structural strength); lipids (prevent fluid loss);
joined by desmosomes
2. Dermis
- also known as corium and the true skin
- composed mainly of connective tissue containing collagen and elastic fibers
- blood vessels, nerves, glands, and hair follicles are embedded in dermal tissue
 - Dense collagenous connective tissue, contains fibroblasts, adipocytes, macrophages
- Nerves, hair follicles, smooth muscles, glands, lymphatic vessels
Collagen - resist stretching & elastic fibers – structural strength
Cleavage lines/Tension lines – collagen fibers are oriented in some directions; skin is most
resistant to stretch along these lines
Stretch marks – skin is overstretched, leaving lines that are visible
Dermal papillae – contain blood vessels that supply the epidermis with nutrients, remove waste
products, and regulate body temperature
Layers of the Dermis
a. Papillary region
- the superficial part of the dermis w/c is about one-fifth of the thickness of the total layer
- consists of areolar connective tissue containing fine elastic fibers
- its surface is greatly increased by small finger like projections called dermal papilla
b. Reticular region
- consists of dense irregular connective tissue containing bundles of collagen and some
course of elastic fibers
- a few adipose cells, hair follicles, nerves, sebaceous glands and sudoriferous occupy the
spaces between fibers
- combination of collagen and elastic fibers I the reticular regions provides the skin w/
strength, extensibility, and elasticity
Epidermal ridges
- The surface of the palms, fingers, soles, and toes have a series of ridges and grooves. They
appear either as straight lines or as a pattern of loops and whorls, as of the tips of the digits
- develop during the third and fourth fetal months as the epidermis conforms to the contours of
the underlying dermal papillae of the papillary region
- increase the surface area of the epidermis and thus increase the grip of the hand or foot by
increasing friction
Dermatoglyphics - refers to the study of the pattern of epidermal ridges
3. Subcutaneous Layer
- dominated by fat or adipose tissues and areolar connective tissues
- serves as storage depot for fat and contains large blood vessels that supply the skin
- also contains nerve endings called lamellated (Pacinian) corpuscles that are sensitive to
pressure

Comparison between Thin and Thick skin

Features Thin Skin Thick Skin
1. Distribution all parts of the body Palmar surface and surface of
except the palms, the sole
palmar surface of
digit
2. Epidermal thickness .10-.15 mm .6 – 4.5 mm
3. Epidermal S. lucidum lacking, strata spinosum &
thinner thick strata corneuspinosum, & corneum
lucidum,
4. Epidermal ridges lacking due to poorly Present due to well
developed & fewer develop dermal
dermal papillae papillae &
numerous dermal
papillae
5. Hair follicles & arrector pili Present Absent
muscle
6. Sebaceous gland Present Absent
7. Sudoriferous gland Fewer More numerous
8. Sensory receptors Sparser Denser
Skin Color
1. Melanin - pigments responsible for skin, hair, eye color
 a. Melanin pigments – yellow (Caucasian), brown (Asians), black (African)
b. Melanocytes - produce melanin; irregularly shaped cells; s. basale
c. Melanosomes - vesicles derived from GA where melanin is produced
Factors of Melanin Production
a. Genetic factors
b. Exposure to UV light
c. Hormones
Albinism - recessive genetic trait that causes deficiency/absence of melanin
Cyanosis - bluish skin color; decreased blood O2
Carotene - yellow pigment in plants (squash, carrots); source of vitamin A
Birthmarks – congenital disorder of the capillaries in the dermis
Subcutaneous Tissue
- Attaches the skin to underlying bones
- Also called the hypodermis
- Loose connective tissue
- Storage of our body’s fat (padding, insulation)
Accessory Structures of the Skin
A. Hair
- are present in most skin surfaces except soles, and plantar surfaces of the feet
- in adults, hair usually is most heavily distributed across the scalp, in the eyebrows, in the
axillae, and around the external genitalia
- Columns of dead, keratinized epithelial cells
- Produced in the hair bulb
Anatomy of the hair
1. Shaft
- the superficial portion, most of which projects from the surface of the skin
- the shaft of straight hair is round in transverse section, that of wavy hair is oval, and that
of curly hair is kidney-shaped
- above the skin
2. Root
- the portion deep to the shaft that penetrates into the dermis, and sometimes into the
subcutaneous layer
- below the skin
The shaft and root are composed of:
a. medulla - inner w/c may be lacking I thinner hair and composed of two or three rows of
irregularly shaped cells containing granules and air spaces; soft central core
b. cortex - middle layer consists of elongated cells that contain pigment granules in dark hair but
mostly in gray or white hair; hard keratin
c. cuticle
- outermost layer, consists of a single layer of cells
- in the deeper part of the root, the cells of the cuticle are nucleated
- in the upper part of the root and in the shaft, they are scale-like and lack nuclei
- single layer of overlapping cells that holds the hair in the hair follicle
Hair Follicle
- where each hair rises
- surrounding the root w/c is made up of:
a. external root sheath
- downward continuation of the epidermis
- near the surface, it contains all the epidermal layers
- at the base of the hair follicle, it contains only the Stratum basale
b. internal root sheath
- produced by the matrix
- forms the cellular tubular sheath of epithelium between the external root sheath and
the hair
Hair Bulb
- onion-shaped structure at the base of the hair follicle
- it houses the nipple-like structure indentation, the papilla of the hair, which contains the
areolar connective tissue and many blood vessels that nourish the growing follicles
- consists of a germinal layer of cells called the matrix which is responsible for the growth of
existing hairs, and they produce new hair
 - site of hair cell formation
Structures associated with the hair:
a. sebaceous gland
b. arrector pili muscle
- a bundle smooth muscle that extends from the superficial dermis of the skin to the side of
the hair follicle
- under physiologic or emotional stress or condition, such as cold and fright, autonomic
nerve endings stimulate the muscle to contract, which pulls the hair shafts perpendicular
to the skin surface. Such action causes goose bumps or gooseflesh because the skin
around the shaft forms slight elevation
Functions of the Hair
a. hair of the head guards the scalp from injury and the sun’s rays
b. decreases heat loss from the scalp
c. eyebrows ad eyelashes protect the eyes from foreign particles as does in the nostrils and in
the external ear canal
d. hairs function in sensing light touch
Growth Stage
a. Hair is formed by epithelial cells within the hair bulb
b. Divide and undergo keratinization
c. Hair root + shaft = columns of dead keratinized epithelial cells
Resting Stage
a. Growth stops
b. Hair is held in the hair follicle
Next growth stage
a. A new hair is formed
b. The old hair falls out
Eyelashes – grow for about 30 days; rest for 105 days
Scalp hairs – grow for 3 years; rest for 1 – 2 years
Arrector Pili – smooth muscles; contraction = hair to stand on end; produces goose bumps
B. Nail
- plates of tightly packed, hard, keratinized epidermal cells
- Dead stratum corneum cells
- Contain a very hard type of keratin
Each nail consists of:
a. nail body - portion of the nail that is visible
b. free edge - the part may extend past the distal ed of the digit
c. nail root - the portion that is buried in a fold of skin; part of the nail covered by skin
d. lunula - the whitish, crescent-shaped area of the proximal end of the nail body
e. hyponychium
- thickened region of the stratum corneum beneath the free edge
- it secures the nail to the finger tip
f. eponychium/cuticle - a narrow band of epidermis that extends from ad adheres to the
margin of the nail wall
g. nail matrix - the epithelium deep to the root where cells divide by mitosis to produce growth;
produces the nail
h. Cuticle – eponychium; s. corneum that extends onto the nail body
i. Nail bed - contributes to nail formation
Functions of the Nail:
a. helps us grasp ad manipulate small objects in various ways
b. provides protection against trauma to the ends of the digits
c. allow us to scratch various parts of the body
Glands of the Skin
1. Sebaceous Glands
- the oil glands, are simple, branched acinar gland
- with few exceptions, they are connected to hair follicles
- the secreting portion lies in the dermis and usually opens into the neck of a hair follicle
- in some locations, such as the lips, glans penis, labia minora, and tarsals of the eyelids,
sebaceous glands open directly onto the surface of the skin
- absent in the palms and soles, small in areas of the trunk and limbs, but large in the skin
of the breasts, face, neck, and upper chest
 - Simple, branched acinar glands
- Connected by a duct to the superficial part of the hair follicle
Sebum - oily, white substance rich in lipids; released by holocrine secretion; lubricates
the hair/surface of the skin (prevents drying and protects against bacteria)
2. Sudoriferous Glands
- there are three to four million sweat glands
- the cells of a sweat glands release their secretions by exocytosis and empty them into
hair follicles or onto the ski surface through pores
3. Ceruminous Glands
- modified sweat glands in the external ears
- produce a waxy substance called cerumen
- cerumen together with hairs are in the external auditory canal, provides a sticky barrier
that impedes the entrance of foreign bodies
4. Sweat Glands
a. Eccrine Sweat Glands
- Simple, coiled, tubular glands
- Release sweat by merocrine secretion
- Numerous in the palms and soles
b. Apocrine Sweat Glands
- Simple, coiled, tubular glands
- Produce a think secretion rich in organic substances
- Released primary by merocrine secretion; some glands demonstrate holocrine
secretion
- Open into hair follicles, in armpits and genitalia
- Become active at puberty
5. Ceruminous glands – cerumen (earwax)
6. Mammary glands – milk
Physiology of the Skin
- The skin function to regulate body temperature in warm blooded or homoeothermic animals
like birds and mammals like man.
- The body temperature is maintained through a balance between production and heat loss.
- Maintenance is regulated by the temperature-sensitive area, the preoptic area which consists
of a group of neurons in the anterior most portion of the hypothalamus.
- These neurons directly respond to temperature changes (increase or decrease in
temperature).
Generally, the hypothalamus is divided into two major control division:
a. an anterior heat-losing center - reduces body heat when stimulated
b. a posterior heat-promoting center – increases body heat when stimulated
Hypothalamic mechanisms for increasing body temperature
1. Vasoconstriction or constriction of blood vessels of the skin effecting
- lessening the flow of warm blood from internal structures of the skin
- fall in the temperature of the skin equaled with that of its surrounding
- retention of heat by internal organs thus raising their temperature
2. Sympathetic stimulation of metabolism
- stimulates the adrenal medulla to secrete both epinephrine and norepinephrine
throughout the body
- effect: increase metabolic rates thus increase body temperature
3. Shivering - respond of body to cold
- increase tone in muscle causing continuous shaking which increase
4. Piloerection - hairs stand on one end; not applicable to man due to scarcity of hair
5. Increased Thyroid Hormone Production - body is exposed to cold for several weeks cause
thyroid gland to produce large quantities of thyroid hormone as a result there is increase in
metabolic rate and therefore increase heat production
Hypothalamic mechanisms for decreasing body temperature
a. Dilation of blood vessels
b. Decrease metabolic rate
c. Decrease in muscular tone
d. Decrease in the production of thyroid hormone
e. Sweating: response of the body to excessive heat
Things to remember:
 1. Heat exhaustion
- caused by overheating in conditions where the amount of water vapor in the air is high
- Danger: high temperature can cause fainting and even death
2. Heat stroke
- results due to continual sweating at high temperature due to physical effort
- Reason: stress is put on the heart to pump blood around the body and supply of liquid for
sweating may cease
- Effect: cause temperature to rise further thus fainting occurs and medical treatment is
needed.
3. Skin hygiene
- skin care: washing to remove unpleasant dirty film
- hair should be washed thoroughly
Integumentary System as a Diagnostic Aid
1. Cyanosis - bluish color to the skin caused by decreased blood O2 content
2. Jaundice – yellowish skin color caused by liver damage (viral hepatitis)
3. Rashes & lesions – symptoms of problems elsewhere; e.g. Scarlet fever causes reddish
rash, allergic reaction to food or drugs can develop rashes
4. Vitamin A Deficiency – excess keratin; sandpaper texture characteristic
5. Iron Deficiency Anemia – nails become flat or concave
6. Lead Poisoning – high levels of lead in the hair
Burns - injury to a tissue caused by heat, cold, friction, chemicals, electricity, and radiation
1. Partial-thickness Burns
- S. basale remains viable;
- Regeneration of the epidermis occurs within the burn area
a. First degree burns
- Epidermis
- Red and painful
- Slight edema (swelling)
b. Second-degree burns
- Epidermis, dermis
- Epidermis regenerates from the epithelial tissue
- Dermal damage is minimal: Redness, pain, edema, blisters, Healing = 2 weeks, No
scarring
- Deep into the dermis: Red, tan, or white; Takes several months to heal; Might scar
2. Full-thickness Burns
a. Third-degree burns
- Epidermis, dermis, and underlying tissues are completely destroyed
- Recovery occurs from the edges of the burn wound
- Region of the 3rd degree burn is painless (sensory receptors have been
destroyed)
- White, tan, brown, black, deep cherry red
- Take a long time to heal
- Form scar tissue
- Skin grafts are used to prevent complications and to speed healing
Skin Cancer
- Most common type of cancer
- Exposure to UV light from the sun
- Usually on face, neck, hands
- Most like to have skin cancer = fair skinned or older than 50
- Limiting exposure to sun, using sunscreen;
- reduces the likelihood of developing skin cancer
- Ultraviolet light
a. UVA
- Longer wavelength
- Causes most tanning of the skin
- Development of malignant melanoma
b. UVB
- Most burning of the skin
- Development of basal cell and squamous cell carcinoma
A. Basal cell carcinoma
 - Most frequent type
- S. basale and extends into the dermis to produce an open ulcer
- Cure; surgical removal or radiation therapy
- Little danger of cancer to spread, metastasize
B. Squamous cell carcinoma
- Immediately superficial to the s. basale
- Cells continue to divide as they produce keratin = nodular, keratinized tumor confined to the
- epidermis
- Can invade the dermis, metastasize, and cause death
C. Malignant melanoma
- Rare form of skin cancer that arises from melanocytes; usually from a pre-existing
mole
- Mole – an aggregation or nest of melanocytes
- Large, flat, spreading lesion or deeply pigmented nodule
- Metastasis is common
- Often fatal
FX of Aging on the Integumentary System
- Epidermis thins
- Amount of collagen in the dermis decreases
- Skin infections are most likely
- Repair of skin occurs slower
- Decrease no. of elastic fibers in the dermis and loss of fat (sagging of skin, wrinkles)
- Decrease of activity of sweat glands = reduced ability to regulate body temp.
- Decrease sebaceous gland activity = skin becomes drier
- Decrease no. of melanocytes
- Some areas, the no. of melanocytes increase = age spots
- Increased melanin production = freckles; also, gray/white hair
- Skin that is exposed to sunlight = shows signs of aging more rapidly

Module 8: The Muscular System

Functions of Muscular System:
a. Producing movement
b. Maintaining posture
c. Stabilizing joints
d. Generating heat
e. Heart beat
f. Constriction of organs and vessels
g. Communication
Additional Notes:
h. Respiration
Vertebrate Musculature
Comparison of the Different Types of Muscle Tissue
Basis of comparison Skeletal muscle Smooth muscle Cardiac muscle
Location Attached to the Walls of the stomach Walls of the heart
skeleton and intestine
Shape of the fiber Elongate or Spindle-shaped or Elongate fibers that
filamentous fusiform branch (net-like)
Number of nuclei Many per muscle One per muscle One per muscle cell
but appears to be
many (syncytial)
Nervous control Voluntary Involuntary Involuntary
Striations Striated Unstriated Striated
Position of nuclei Peripheral Central Central
Speed of contraction Most rapid Slow Intermediate
Characteristics Of Skeletal Muscle
1. Contractility
- the ability of skeletal muscle to shorten with force
- contraction will cause movement of structures to w/c they are attached
- Constitutes approx. 40% of body weight
2. Excitability
 - is the capacity of skeletal muscle to respond to a stimulus
- normally skeletal muscle contracts as a result of stimulation by nerves
3. Extensibility - means that skeletal muscle can be stretched
4. Elasticity - the ability of skeletal muscles to recoil to their original resting length after they
have been recoiled
Additional Notes:
5. Also called Striated Muscle; transverse bands or striations
Structure of a Skeletal Muscle
1. Epimysium/Muscular Fascia - a connective tissue sheath surrounding each skeletal muscle
2. Muscle fasciculi - numerous visible bundles making up a muscle
3. Perimysium - a loose connective tissue surrounds the muscle fasciculi; connective tissue
that envelopes several bundles of fasciculus and extend into the muscle fibers as
endomysium
4. Endomysium - separates one, two or more muscle fibers; loose connective tissue that
surrounds a muscle fiber
5. Fascia - large sheet-like connective tissue that covers entire muscles
a. superficial fascia - when located on the surface of the muscles
b. deep fascia - when found inside or deep muscles
6. Muscle fibers - several muscle cells that composes a fasciculus
Parts Of Muscle Cell (Muscle Fiber Structure)
1. Sarcolemma - an exceedingly thin, elastic, tough sheath or membrane that cover a muscle
fiber or cell; cell membrane of the muscle fiber
2. Sarcoplasm
- the cytoplasm of a muscle fiber which is semi-fluid ground substance or matrix where
myofibrils are suspended
consists of 2 sets of separate tubules:
a. Sarcoplasmic reticulum or ER of a muscle cell
- consists of longitudinal tubules that lie parallel to the myofibrils
- more extensive in rapidly contracting muscles
- each end terminates in a bulbous sac called terminal cisternae w/c store high
concentrations of calcium
- action potential induces the calcium ions to escape in large numbers from the
cisternae to the intracellular matrix, acting as a direct stimulant to contraction
- does not open into the outside so that even if in direct contact with the transverse
tubule (T-tubule), no intercommunication between cavities exists thus no mixing of
contents
- highly organized smooth E.R.; has a relatively high concentration of Ca2+ (muscle
contraction)
b. Transverse tubule or T-tubule
- tube-like invaginations w/c occur at regular intervals along the muscle fiber
- deep invaginations or indentations of the sarcolemma into the interior of the muscle
fiber, serving as a duct system for:
i. the stimulus to reach all the myofibrils w/c can contract together when action
potential is propagated across the cell surface (transmit electrical currents to the
interior of the cell)
ii. the movement of fluid containing ions and other substances in and out of the cell
iii. opens to the exterior rather than the interior of the cell and contains extracellular
fluid rather than intracellular fluid
c. Triad - area of contact between the longitudinal section (sarcoplasmic reticulum) on the
two sides of the T-tubule
3. Myofibrils
- threadlike structures composed of:
a. Actin Myofilaments - thin filaments; purple
b. Myosin Myofilaments - thick filaments; green
- the arrangement of the actin and myosin filaments in a sarcomere gives the myofibril a
banded appearance
a. A- band
- anisotropic or dark band that is made up of thick myosin filaments as well as the ends
of actin filaments that overlap with the myosin
- central region in each sarcomere
 - darker, central region that extends the length of the myosin of myofilaments
b. Z disk
- network of protein fibers forming an attachment site for actin myofilaments
c. I band
- isotropic or light band that contains only actin filaments
- spans each z disk and ends at the myosin filaments
d. H zone
- a second light zone in the center of each sarcomere
- which consists only of myosin myofilaments that are anchored in the center of the
sarcomere at a dark staining band called the M line
e. M line - dark staining band
- consists of two myofilaments: myosin & filaments which are arranged into highly
ordered repeating units along the myofibrils called the sarcomere
i. Myosin filament/heads
- thicker, resemble bundles of minute golf clubs
- the part of the myosin molecule resembles golf club heads can bind to the
exposed attachment sites on the actin myofilament
- Bend and straighten; Break down ATP
ii. Actin
- thin, resemble two-minute strands of pear twisted together
- Troponin molecules - attached at specific intervals along the actin
myofilament and provide calcium binding sites on actin myofilament; binding
sites for Ca2+
- Tropomyosin - filaments are located along the groove between the twisted
strands of actin myofilament subunits.; these filaments expose attachment
sites on the actin myofilament when calcium is bound to troponin, and they
cover attachment sites on the actin myofilament when calcium is not bound to
troponin
4. Sarcomeres
- is the basic structural and functional unit of skeletal muscle because it is smallest portion
of the skeletal muscle capable of contracting
- each sarcomere extends from one Z disk to another Z disk
- each z disk is a network of protein fibers forming an attachment site for actin myofilament
- highly ordered, repeating units of actin + myosin myofilaments
- joined end to end to form the myofibril
Note: The arrangement of the actin and myosin filaments in sacromeres gives the myofibrils a banded
appearance. The alternating I bands and A bands of the sacromeres are responsible for the striations
in the skeletal muscle fibers
Excitability of Muscle Fibers
Membrane Potential/Resting Membrane Potential
- the outside of most cell membranes is positively charged compared with the inside of the cell
membrane
- cell membranes have a negative charge on the inside relative to a positive charge outside
- the charge difference is called resting membrane potential which, develops for two reasons:
a. The concentration of K+ inside the cell membrane is higher than that of the outside of the
cell membrane
b. The cell membrane is more permeable to K+ than it is to other ions, including negatively
charged molecules, such as proteins, located inside the cell. This occurs because some
K+ channels are open, whereas other ion channels, such as those for Na+, are closed
Ion Channels and the Action Potential
1. Resting membrane potential
- Na+ channels and some but not all, are closed
- a few K+ diffuse down their concentration gradient through the open K+ channels, making
the outside of the cell membrane positively charged compared to the inside
2. Depolarization
- Na+ channels are open
- a few Na+ diffuse down their concentration gradient through the open Na+ channels,
making the inside of the cell membrane positively charged compared to the outside
3. Repolarization
- Na+ channels are closed, and Na+ movement into the cells stops
 - more K+ channels open
- K+ movement out of the cell increases, making the outside of the cell membrane positively
charged compared to the inside
4. Action Potentials
- the rapid depolarization and repolarization of the CM
- results in muscle contraction
Additional Notes:
Different types of Ion Channels
1. Nongated/Leak channels – always open
2. Chemically gated channels – closed until a chemical bind them and stimulates them to open
Nerve Supply
1. Motor neurons
- are nerve cells along w/c action potentials travel to skeletal muscle fibers
- axons of these neurons enter muscles and send out branches to several muscle fibers
- each branch forms a junction w/ a muscle fiber, called a neuromuscular junction or
synapse
- specialized nerve cells that stimulate muscles to contract
2. Neuromuscular junction
- formed by a cluster of enlarged axon terminals resting in indentations of a muscle fiber’s
cell membrane
- located near the center of a muscle fiber
- a single motor neuron and all the skeletal muscle fibers it innervates constitute a motor
neuron
- forms a junction with a muscle fiber
3. Presynaptic terminal - an enlarged axon terminal where a neuromuscular junction is formed
by a cluster and resting
4. Synaptic cleft - the space between the synaptic terminal and muscle fiber membrane
5. Postsynaptic membrane - the muscle fiber membrane
6. Synaptic vesicles
- small sacs contain in each presynaptic terminal
- contain acetylcholine which functions as neurotransmitter, a molecule released by a
presynaptic nerve cell that stimulates or inhibits a presynaptic cell
Additional Notes:
7. Synapse – cell-to-cell junction bet. a nerve cell and another nerve cell/effector cell
8. Motor unit – a single motor neuron and all the skeletal muscle fibers it innervates
9. Acetylcholine (ACh) – neurotransmitter contained in the vesicles; a molecule released by a
presynaptic nerve cell that stimulates/inhibits a postsynaptic cell
10. Acetylcholinesterase – an enzyme that rapidly breaks down the synaptic cleft bet. the
neuron and the muscle fiber
Function Of the Neuromuscular Junction
a. An action potential arrives at the presynaptic terminal causing Ca2+ channels to open,
increasing the Ca2+ permeability of the presynaptic terminal.
b. Calcium ions enter the presynaptic terminal and initiate the release of a neurotransmitter,
acetylcholine (Ach), from synaptic vesicles into the presynaptic cleft.
c. Diffusion of Ach across the synaptic cleft and binding of Ach-to-Ach receptors on the
presynaptic muscle fiber membrane opens Na + channels and increases permeability of the
presynaptic membrane to Na+.
d. The increase in Na+ permeability results in depolarization of the postsynaptic membrane;
once threshold has been reached a postsynaptic action potential result
Muscle Contraction
1. Sliding filament model - sliding of actin myofilaments past myosin myofilaments during
contraction
2. Cross-bridges – myosin heads attach to the myosin attachment sites on the actin
myofilaments
Physiology Of Muscle Contraction
- muscles respond to any of the four types of stimuli: electrical, mechanical, thermal or
chemical.
- In the laboratory, artificial stimuli like electrical current cause to contract. In living organisms,
nerve impulses stimulate contraction
 - The interdigitation theory or sliding filament theory of contraction states that when a muscle
contracts, two sets of filaments slide past one another. During the contraction, neither the
actin nor myosin fibers shorten. The H zone and I band shorten during contraction, but the A
bands do not change in length
- The Huxley proposed that cross bridges act as hooks or levers that enable myosin filaments
to pull the actin filaments
1. Actin and myosin myofilaments in a relaxed muscle and a contracted muscle are of the same
length. Myofilaments do not change length during muscular contraction
2. During contraction, actin myofilaments at each end of the sarcomere slide past the myosin
toward each other. As a result, the Z disks are brought closer together, and the sarcomere
shorten.
3. As the actin myofilaments slide over the myosin myofilaments, the H zones and the I band
narrow. The A bands, w/c are equal to the length of the myosin myofilaments, do not narrow,
because the length of the myosin myofilaments does not change.
4. In a fully contracted muscle, the ends of the actin myofilaments overlap and the H zone
disappears.
Additional Notes:
Muscle Twitch, Summation, Tetanus, Recruitment Muscle
Twitch - contraction of a muscle fiber in response to a stimulus
1. Lag/Latent Phase – time bet. the application of a stimulus and the beginning of contraction
2. Contraction Phase – time during which the muscle contract
3. Relaxation Phase – time during which the muscle relaxes
Summation – the force of contraction of an individual muscle fiber is increased by rapidly stimulating
them
Tetanus – convulsive tension; a sustained contraction that occurs when the frequency of stimulus is
so rapid that no relaxation occurs; Caused by Ca+ build up in the myofibrils
Recruitment – the no. of muscle fibers contraction is increased by the increasing no. of motor units
stimulated + muscle contracts with more force
Stimulus frequency – number of times a motor neuron is stimulated per second
Summary Of the Skeletal Muscle Contraction
1. An action potential travels along an axon membrane to a neuromuscular junction.
2. Ca2+ channels open and Ca2+ enter the presynaptic terminal.
3. Acetylcholine is released from the synaptic vesicles in the presynaptic terminal of the neuron.
4. Acetylcholine diffuses across the synaptic cleft and binds to receptor sites on Na + channels in
the muscle cell post synaptic membrane causing Na+ channels to open.
5. Sodium diffuses into the muscle cell, initiating an action potential in the muscle cell. The
action potentials travel along the sarcolemma and T tubule membranes.
6. Action potentials in the T tubules cause the sarcoplasmic reticulum to release Ca 2+
7. Calcium ions bind to troponin molecules, associated w/ actin myofilaments. The binding
causes tropomyosin molecules to move into grooves along the actin myofilament, w/c
exposes myosin attachment sites.
8. Muscle contraction requires energy. ATP molecules, bound to the myosin heads, are broken
down to ADP and P, releasing energy, which briefly stored in the myosin heads.
9. Some of the stored energy is used to supply the energy for movement of the myosin heads.
The heads of myosin myofilament bind to exposed attachment sites on the actin
myofilaments, forming cross-bridges. The P are released from the myosin heads.
10. The heads of the myosin myofilament bend, causing the actin myofilaments to slide over the
surface of the myosin myofilaments.
11. ADP molecules are released from the myosin head
12. ATP molecules bind to the myosin heads and are broken down to ADP and P. Energy is
stored in the myosin heads. The actin myofilament is released and the myosin heads bend
back to their resting position.
13. As long as Ca2+ remain attached to troponin, and as long as ATP remains available, step 8 is
repeated send the muscle continues to contract.
Types Of Muscle Contraction
1. Isometric contractions
- the amount of tension increases during the contraction process, but the length of the
muscle does not change
- responsible for the constant length of the postural muscles of the body, such as the
muscles of the back
 2. Isotonic contractions
- the amount of tension produced by the muscle is constant during contraction, but the
length of the muscle decreases
- ex. movement of the arms or fingers
Types:
a. Concentric contraction
- are isotonic in which muscle tension increases as the muscle shortens
- ex. Most movements performed by muscle contractions
b. Eccentric contraction
- an isotonic contraction in w/c tension is maintained as the muscle lengthens
- are used when a person lets a heavy weight down slowly
- substantial force is produced in muscles during eccentric contractions, such as in the
hamstring muscles when a person runs downhill
Factors needed for muscle contraction
a. myofibrils or striations
b. energy
c. contractile proteins- myosin and actin
Muscle Tone
- refers to the constant tension produced by muscles of the body over long period of time
- responsible for keeping the back and legs straight, the head held in an upright position, and
the abdomen from bulging
- depends on a small percentage of all the motor units in a muscle fiber being stimulated at any
point in time, causing their muscle fibers to contract titanically and out of phase with one
another
Muscle Fatigue
- results when ATP is used during muscle contraction faster than it can be produced in the
muscle fibers and lactic acid builds up faster it can be removed
- as a consequence, ATP falls to levels too low for muscle fibers to produce their maximum
force of contractions become weaker and weaker

Module 9: Skeletal System

Functions:
a. framework of the body (all endoskeleton)
b. gives physical support (vertebral column)
c. protection (exoskeleton structures, skull and ribs)
d. muscle attachment
e. leverage for locomotion
f. prevent the loss of body fluid (carapace and plastron, feathers)
g. manufacture of RBC in the bone marrow of long bones
Skeleton - any hardened portion of the body which may either be located externally (exoskeleton) or
internally (endoskeleton)
Types of skeletons as to location in the body
1. Exoskeleton - ex. Carapace and plastron of turtles, feathers and hair
2. Endoskeleton - ex. Cartilage and bones
Elements of the endoskeleton
1. Cartilage - present in all invertebrates
2. Bones - present in all vertebrates except cyclostomes and cartilaginous fishes (shark)
Structures of a bone:
1. Epiphysis
- meaning growing over
- are distal and proximal ends of the bone, each metaphysic includes an epiphyseal plate is
replaced
2. Diaphysis
- the bone’s shaft or body
- the long cylindrical, main portion of the bone
3. Metaphysis
- are the regions in a mature bone where the diaphysis joins the epiphysis
- in a growing, each metaphysic includes an epiphyseal plate, a layer of hyaline cartilage
that allows the diaphysis of the bone to grow in length
4. Articular cartilage
 - a thin layer of hyaline cartilage covering the epiphysis where the bone forms an
articulation with one another
- reduces friction and absorbs shock at freely movable
5. Periosteum
- tough sheath connective tissue that surrounds the bone surface wherever it is not
covered by articular cartilage
- secured to the bone by hundreds of connective tissue fibers called perforating or
Sharpey’s fiber
6. Medullary cavity/marrow cavity
- the space within the diaphysis that contain fatty yellow bone marrow in adult
7. Endosteum
- thin membrane that lines the medullary cavity
Classifications of Bones
1. Long bones
- found in the upper extremities, the only exceptions being the bones of the wrist, the ankle,
and the knee cap
2. Short bones - located at the wrist and the ankles
3. Flat bones
- relatively thin, each being composed of two plates of compact bone which enclose
between them a layer of spongy bone
- the ribs and several of the skull bones are good examples
4. Irregular bones
- appear in various shapes and include all that are in one of the preceding classes
- examples are the bones of the spinal column and the jaw
5. Sesamoid bones
- with the exception of the patella are very small rounded bones
- they develop in the capsules of joints or tendons, and their function is to reduce friction
Microscopic Anatomy of the bone:
1. Lacunae - tiny cavities within the matrix where osteocytes are located
2. Lamellae - concentric circles around the central (Haversian) canals where lacunae are
arranged
3. Canaliculi
- tiny canals that radiate outward from the central canals to all lacunae
- from a transportation system that connects all the bone cells to the nutrient supply
through the hard bone matrix
4. Perforating (Volmann’s) canals - serve as the communicating pathway from the outside of
the bone to its interior (and the central canals)
Note: Each complex consisting of central canal and matrix rings is called an osteon or Haversian
system
Two general types of bone
1. Compact bone
- forms most of the diaphysis of long bones and the thinner surfaces of all other bones
- most of the lamellae are organized into sets of concentric rings, with each set surrounding
a central or haversian canal
- each central canal, with the lamellae and osteocytes surrounding it, is called as osteon or
haversian system
- each osteo, seen in cross section looks like a microscopic target, with the central canal as
the “bull’s eye”
- the canaliculi give the osteon the appearance of having tiny cracks in the lamellae
2. Cancellous bone
- also called spongy bone because of its appearance, is located mainly in the epiphysis of
long bones, and it forms the interior of all bones
- consists of delicate interconnecting rods/plates of bones called trabeculae, w/c resemble
the beams or scaffolding of a building w/c add strength to a bone without the added
weight
- the spaces between trabeculae are filled with marrow
- usually, no blood vessels penetrate the trabeculae and the trabeculae has no central
canals
Bone Ossification
- is the formation of bone by osteoblasts
 - involves the synthesis of an organic matrix containing collagen and proteoglycans and the
addition of hydroxyapatite crystals to the matrix
- after an osteoblast becomes completely surrounded by bone matrix, it becomes a mature
bone cell, or osteocyte
Two types of Bone Ossification
1. Intramembranous Ossification
- bone formation that occurs w/in connective tissue membranes
- occurs primarily in the bones of the skull
- osteoblasts line up on the surface of connective tissue fibers and begin depositing bone
matrix to form trabeculae
- the process begins in areas called ossification centers and the trabeculae radiate out
from the centers
- usually, two or more ossification centers exist in each flat skull bone, and the skull bones
results from fusion of these centers as they enlarge
- the trabeculae are constantly remodeled after their initial formation, and they may enlarge
or be replaced by compact bone
2. Endochondral ossification
- bone formation that occurs inside cartilage
- both types of bone formation result in compact and cancellous bone
- the bones at the base of the skull and most of the remaining skeletal system develop
through this process from cartilage model
A cartilage model - with the general shape of the mature bone, is produced by chondrocytes.
A perichondrium surrounds most of the cartilage model.
A bone collar - is produced and the perichondrium of the diaphysis becomes the periosteum.
The chondrocytes hypertrophy, and the cartilage is calcified.
A primary ossification center - forms as blood vessels and osteoblasts invade the calcified
cartilage. The osteoblasts lay down bone matrix, forming trabeculae.
Secondary ossification centers - form the epiphyses of long bones
Bone Growth - occurs by the deposition of new bone lamellae onto existing bone or other connective
tissue and such process is called appositional growth
1. New cartilage is produced on the epiphyseal side of the plate as the chondrocytes divide and
form stacks of cells.
2. Chondrocytes mature and enlarge.
3. Matrix is calcified, and chondrocytes die.
4. The cartilage on the diaphyseal side of the plate is replaced by bone
Bone Remodeling
- involves the removal of existing bone by osteoclasts and the deposition of new bone by
osteoblasts
- occurs in all bone
1. When a bone is broken, a clot forms in the damaged area.
2. Blood vessels and cells invade the clot and produce a fibrous network and cartilage between
the broken bones, called callus.
3. Osteoblasts enter the callus and form cancellous bone.
4. The cancellous bone is slowly remodeled to form compact bone and the repair is complete
Bone and Calcium Homeostasis - bone is the major storage site for calcium in the body, and
movement of calcium into and out of bone helps to determine blood calcium levels, which is critical for
normal muscle and nervous system function
1. calcium ions removed from blood by osteoblasts
2. in the kidneys, PTH promotes calcium ions reabsorption from the urine
3. in the kidneys, PTH promotes active vitamin D formation
General Anatomical Terms for various features of Bon
Terms Description
Major features Main portion
1. Body, shaft Enlarged (often rounded) end
2. Head Constricted area between head and body
3. Neck Smooth, rounded articular surface
4. Condyle Small, flattened articular surface
5. Facet Prominent ridge
6. Crest Prominent projection
7. Process Knob or enlargement
 8. Tubercle/tuberosity Main portion
9. Trochanter Large tuberosity found only on the proximal
femur
10. Epicondyle Enlargement near or above a condyle
Openings/Depressions
1. Foramen Hole
2. Canal, meatus Tunnel
3. Fissure Cleft
4. Sinus Cavity
5. Fossa Depression

Types of Endoskeletons according to position in the body

A. Axial
- endoskeleton which is located at the center or axis of the body zygomatic
- divided into three parts: the skull, the vertebral column, and the bony thorax
1. Skull - is formed by two sets of bones: the cranium w/c encloses and protects the brain and
the facial bones that hold the eyes in an anterior position and facial muscles
a. Cranium
- composed of eight large, flat bones
- except for two paired bones (the parietal and temporal), they are all single bones (frontal,
occipital, sphenoid, and ethmoid)
b. Facial Bones - consist of fourteen bones, twelve are paired; only the mandible and the vomer
are single
Hyoids
- though not really a part of the skull, is closely related to the mandible and temporal bones
- the only bone in the body that does not articulate directly with any other bone
- instead, it is suspended in the mid-neck region about 2 cm above the larynx, where it is
anchored by ligaments to the styloid processes of the temporal bones
- serves as a movable base for the tongue and an attachment point for neck muscles that
raise and lower the larynx when we swallow and speak
2. Vertebral Column (Spine)
- axial support of the body; encloses as well as protects the spinal cord
- extends from the skull, w/c it supports, to the pelvis, where it transmits the weight of the
body to the lower limbs
- the adult vertebral column has four major curvatures:
i. the cervical region curves anteriorly
ii. the thoracic region curves posteriorly
iii. the lumbar region curves anteriorly
iv. the sacral and coccygeal regions together curve posteriorly
a. cervical vertebrae (7), C1 – C7
- C1 – Atlas
- it holds the head movement between the atlas and the occipital bone is responsible
for a “yes” motion of the head
- it also allows a slight tilting of the head from side to side
- C2 – Axis
- a considerable amount of rotation occurs at this vertebra, as in shaking the head “no”
- this rotation occurs around a process called the dens, w/c extends superiorly from the
axis
b. thoracic vertebrae (12), T1 – T12
- possess long, thin spinous processes that are directed inferiorly
- also have extra articular facets on their lateral surfaces that articulate with the ribs
c. lumbar vertebrae (5), L1 – L5
- have large, thick bodies and heavy, rectangular transverse and spinous processes
- the superior articular facets of the lumbar vertebrae face medially, whereas the
inferior articular facets face laterally
- this arrangement tends to “lock” adjacent lumbar vertebrae together, giving the
lumbar part of the vertebral column more strength
- the articular facets in other regions of the vertebral column have a more “open”
position allowing for more rotational movement but less stability than in the lumbar
region
 d. sacrum (1)
- fusion of the five sacral vertebrae which articulate with the pelvic girdle
- the spinous processes of the first four sacral vertebrae form the median sacral crest
- the spinous process of the fifth vertebra does not form, leaving a sacral hiatus at the
inferior end of the sacrum, which is the site of “caudal” anesthetic injections given just
before childbirth
e. coccyx (1)
- fusion of the five caudal vertebrae
- also known as tail bone
- the vertebrae do not have the typical structure of most other vertebrae
- they consist of extremely reduced vertebral bodies, w/o the foramina or processes,
usually fused into a single bone
3. Bony Thorax/Rib Cage
- sternum, ribs, and the thoracic vertebrae make up the bony thorax
- often called the thoracic cage because it forms a protective, cone-shaped cage of
slender bones around the organs of the thoracic cavity (heart, lungs, and major blood
vessels)
a. Sternum (breastbone) - is a typical flat bone and the result of the fusion of three
bones: manubrium, body, and xiphoid process
b. Ribs
i. true ribs – costal cartilage of the ribs is attached to the sternum (7 in man)
ii. false ribs – indirectly attached to the sternum since it is attached to the preceding rib
(3 in man)
iii. floating ribs – rib without ventral attachment (not attached to the sternum nor to a ribs
(2 in man)
Bones
Axial Skeleton
Skull
Braincase
Paired Parietal 2
Temporal 2
Unpaired Frontal 1
Occipital 1
Sphenoid 1
Ethmoid 1
Face
Paired Maxilla 2
Zygomatic 2
Palatine 2
Nasal 2
Lacrimal 2
Inferior nasal concha 2
Unpaired Mandible 1
Vomer 1
_________
Total 22

Auditory Ossicles Malleus 2

Incus 2
Stapes 2
________
Total 6

Hyoid 1
Vertebral Column Cervical vertebrae 7
Thoracic vertebrae 12
Lumbar vertebrae 5
Sacrum 1
Coccyx 1
________
 Total 26
Thoracic Cage
Ribs 24
Sternum 1
________
Total 25

Total Axial skeleton 80

B. Appendicular Skeleton
- composed of 126 bone of the limbs (appendages) and the pectoral and pelvic girdles,
which attach the limbs to the axial skeleton
Appendicular Skeleton
Pectoral girdle: Hip bone: - 2
Scapula - 2
Clavicle - 2 Patella - 2

Upper limbs: Lower Limbs:

Humerus - 2 femur - 2
Radius - 2 Tibia - 2
Ulna - 2 Fibula - 2
Carpals - 16 Tarsals - 14
Metacarpals - 10 Metatarsals - 10
Phalanges - 28 phalanges - 28
--------- ---------
Total girdle &upper 64 Total girdle & lower limbs 62

1. Pectoral Girdle/ Shoulder Girdle

- consists of four bones, two scapulae and two clavicles, which attach the upper limb to the
body: Scapula and the clavicle
a. scapula (dorsal and anterior) - shoulder blade
- a flat, triangular bone with three large fossae, where muscles extending to the arm
are attached
- a fourth fossa, the glenoid cavity, is where the head and the humerus connect to the
scapula
i. spine - a ridge that runs across the posterior surface of the scapula
ii. acromion process – extends from the scapular spine to form the point of the
shoulder
b. clavicle (ventral and anterior) – collar bone
- the coracoids process curves below the clavicle and provides attachment for arm and
muscles
2. Pelvic Girdle - place where
a. ilium (dorsal and anterior)
b. pubis (ventral and anterior)
c. ischium (posterior)

Differences between Male & Female Pelvic Girdle

Bases of Comparison Male Female
1.General Heavier Lighter

a. Weight Funnel shape Less funnel shape

b. Shape
c. Muscle attachment More muscle attachment Less muscle attachment points
points
2.Sacrum Narrower Broader w/ the inferior
portion directed
more posteriorly;
the sacral
promontory
projects less
 anteriorly in female
3.Pelvic inlet Heart-shaped Oval in shape
4.Pelvic outlet Narrower and less shallow Broader and more shallow
5.Subpubic angle Less than 90o 90o or more
6.Ilium Less shallow More shallow and flared
laterally
7.Ischial spines Less apart Farther apart
8.Ischial tuberosities Turn medially Turn laterally

3. Forelimbs/Upper Limb
A. Arm - the region between the shoulder and the elbow and contains the humerus
a. humerus (upper arm)
i. head - attaches the humerus to the scapula at the glenoid cavity
ii. greater & lesser tubercle - Lateral to the head
iii. deltoid tuberosity - where the deltoid muscle attaches
iv. epicondyles - provide attachment sites for forearm muscles
B. Forearm - consists of two bone: the ulna – on the medial side of the forearm and radius – on
the lateral side
i. olecranon process - it is an extension of the ulna just proximal to the semilunar notch w/c
can be felt at the elbow
ii. coronoid process - distal to the semilunar notch that w/c helps complete the “grip” of the
ulna on the distal end of humerus
iii. styloid process - the distal end of the ulna forms a head, w/c articulates w/ with bones of
the wrist
iv. radial tuberosity - just distal to the radial head where one of the arm muscles, the biceps
brachii, attaches
C. Wrist
- relatively short region between the forearm and hand
composed of the eight carpal bones:
- scaphoid
- lunate
- triquetrum
- pisiform
- trapezium
- trapezoid
- capitate
- hamate
D. Hand
Composed of:
a. five metacarpals (palm)
- are attach to the carpal bones and form the bone framework of the hand
- the metacarpals are aligned with five digits: the thumb and fingers (numbered 1-5 from
thumb to the little finger)
b. finger
- consists of three small bones called phalanges
- the phalanges of each finger are called proximal, middle, and distal, according to their
position in the digits
4. Lower Limb - consists of the bones of the thigh, leg, ankle, and foot
A. Thigh
- the region between the hip and the knee
- contains a single bone called the femur
a. Femur – can be distinguish from the humerus by its long neck located between the head
and the trochanter
i. head - articulates w/ the acetabulum of the coxa
ii. condyles - the distal end of the femur that articulates w/ the tibia
iii. epicondyles - located medial and lateral to the condyles w/c are points of ligament
attachment
b. Patella/Kneecap
- located w/in the major tendon of the anterior thigh muscles
- enables the tendon to turn the corner over the knee
 B. Leg
- the region between the knee and the ankle
- contains two bones: Tibia & Fibula
i. condyles - flat proximal end of the tibia where the rounded condyles of the femur rest
ii. tibial tuberosity - where the muscles of the anterior thigh attach
iii. malleolus - a prominence w/c can be seen on each side of the ankle
C. Ankle
- consists of seven tarsal bones:
i. talus
ii. calcaneus
iii. cuboid
iv. navicular
v. cuneiforms (medial, intermediate, and lateral)

Note:
- a mnemonic for the distal row:MILC – medial, intermediate, and lateral cuneiforms
- That for the proximal three bones is: No Thanks Cow – that is Navicular, talus, and calcaneus
D. Foot
- consists of the metatarsals and phalanges w/c are arranged and numbered in a manner
very similar to the metacarpals and phalanges of the hand
- the metatarsals are somewhat longer than the metacarpals, whereas the phalanges of the
foot are considerably shorter than those of the hand
- there are three arches in the foot, formed by the positions of the tarsals and the
metatarsals, and held in place by ligaments
- the arches function similarly to the springs of a car, allowing the foot to give and spring
back
Joint/Articulation
- meeting point between two bones
- hold the bones together securely to facilitate movements
Syndesmology - the study of joints (facilitate movement)
Three types of Joints According to function
1. Synarthrosis
- immovable joints
- ex. Sutures of the skull
- Ankylosis – joint that had fused; ex. Pelvic girdle
2. Amphiarthrosis
- slightly movable
- ex. Invertebral disk (in between vertebrae); union of the sacrum and ilium
3. Diarthrosis - a freely movable joint
Three Types of Joints Accdg. To Structure
1. Fibrous Joints - the bones are united by fibrous tissue and exhibit a little no movement
a. Sutures
- are fibrous joints between the bones of the skull
- in a newborn, some parts of the sutures are quite wide and are called fontanels (allow
flexibility in the skull during the birth process, as well as growth of the head after birth)
b. syndesmoses
- the bones are separated by some distance and held together ligaments
- an example is the fibrous membrane connecting most of the distal parts of the radius and
ulna
c. gomphoses
- consist of pegs fitted into sockets and held in place by ligaments
- example: joints between tooth and its socket
2. Cartilaginous Joints
- the bone ends are connected by cartilage
- only slight movement can occur at these joints
- examples of this joint that are slightly movable are the pubic symphysis and intervertebral
joints of the spinal column where the articulating bone surfaces are connected by pads of
fibrocartilage
3. Synovial Joints
 - are those in which the articulating bone ends are separated by joint cavity containing
synovial fluid
- freely movable joints
- they account for all joints of the limbs
several features of synovial joints are important to their function:
a. articular cartilage – which provides a smooth surface where bones meet
b. joint cavity - filled with synovial fluid
c. joint capsule - encloses the joint cavity w/c helps hold the bones together and, at the
same time, allows for movement
d. synovial fluid - fluid that lubricates the joints w/c is complex mixture of polysaccharides,
proteins, fat, and cells
e. synovial membrane
- lines the joint cavity everywhere except over the articular cartilage
- produces synovial fluid
- may extend as a tendon sheath along some tendons associated with joints
f. bursa - are small clefts, or fissures, lined with synovial membrane which thus converts
them into closed sacs containing synovial fluid
Types of Synovial joints: Accdg. To their shape
a) arthrodia or plane or gliding joints
- consist of two opposed flat surfaces that glide over each other
- ex. Articular facets between vertebrae
b) ginglymus or hinge joints
- permit movement in one plane only
- ex. Elbow, knee joints, and finger joints
c) enarthrosis or ball and socket joints
- consist of a ball (head) at the end of one bone and a socket in an adjacent bone into w/c
a proportion of the ball fits that allows a wide range of movement in almost any direction
- ex. Shoulder and hip joints
Ellisoid or condyloid joints
- are elongated ball-and-socket joints
- the shape of the joint limits its range of movement nearly to a hinge motion, but in two
planes
- ex: the joints between the occipital condyles of the skull and the atlas of the vertebral
column and the joints between the metacarpals and phalanges
d) diarthrosis rotatoria or pivot joints
- restrict movement to rotation around a single axis
- each pivot joint consists of a cylindrical bony process that rotates w/in a ring composed
partly of bone and partly ligament
- ex. Joint between the atlas and axis
e) saddle joints
- consist of two saddle-shaped articulating surfaces oriented at right angles to each other
- movement occurs in two planes
- example: observe the great range movement possible at the carpocarpal joint at the base
of your thumb
Movement of Joints
1. Flexion - decreasing the angle between two joints
Plantar flexion - movement of the foot toward the plantar surface (sole of the foot), such as
when standing on the toes
Dorsiflexion - movement of the foot toward the shin, such as when walking on the heels
2. Extension - increasing the angle between 2 bones
Hyperextension – when the part is moved beyond the straight position. Ex. Arching the back
3. Abduction - when a part is moved away from the midline of the body
4. Adduction – when a part of the body moved toward the midline of the body
5. Rotation - motion of bone around the central axis as in shaking the head “no”
Medial rotation of the arm - brings the forearm against the anterior surface of the abdomen
Lateral rotation moves it away from the body
6. Circumduction
- occurs at freely movable joints such as the shoulder
- the arm moves so that it describes a cone with the shoulder joint at the apex
7. Supination – outward rotation of the forearm causing the palms to anteriorly
 8. Pronation – inward rotation of the forearm causing to face posteriorly
Special movement
1. Elevation – motion to raises a part
2. Depression – motion to lower a part
3. Inversion – twisting of foot so that the sole faces inward
4. Eversion – twisting of foot so that the sole faces outward
5. Protaction – the motion that moves a part such as the mandible forward
6. Retraction – the motion that return a protracted part to its usual position

Types of gait (Manner of walking)

1. Plantigrades
- type of gait which the entire sole of the foot touches the ground
- ex. Man, apes, raccoons and bears
2. Digigrade - type of gait in which the digits touch the ground and the rest of the foot is
elevated (the digits are provided with special sole pads)
3. Unguligrade
- type of gait in which the tips of the digits (specialized into hoofs) touch the ground
- ex. Hoofed mammals like carabaos, cows, pig and goats
Module 10: The Nervous System
Nervous System
- The nervous system functions for electrochemical control.
- It is specialized for rapidly conducting electrochemical messages and mediating short term
responses.
- The signals that transverse the nervous system move along well-defined cable and activate
limited number of cells at pathways receiving and transmitting information to and from various
organs.
The nervous system is involved in some way in nearly every body function. Some major functions of
the nervous system are:
1. Sensory input - sensory receptors monitor numerous external and internal stimuli that may
be interpreted as touch, temperature, taste, smell, sound, blood pressure, and body position
2. Integration
- the brain and spinal cord are the major organs for processing sensory input and initiating
responses
- the input may produce an immediate response, may be stored as memory, or may be
ignored
3. Homeostasis
- the nervous system plays an important role in the maintenance of homeostasis, such
function depends on the ability of the nervous system to detect, interpret, and respond to
changes in the internal and external conditions
- the NS can stimulate or inhibit the activities of other systems to help maintain a constant
internal environment
4. Mental activity - the brain is the center of mental activity, including consciousness, memory,
and thinking
5. Control of muscles and glands - skeletal muscles normally contract only when stimulated
by the nervous system, thus, the NS controls the major movement of the body and
participates in controlling cardiac muscle, smooth muscle, and many glands
Neuron
- the functional unit of the nervous system
- its function is to receive, transmit and interpret, integrate or evaluate nerve impulses
Parts:
1. Cell body
Composed of:
a. neurolemma – cell membrane
b. neuroplasm – cytoplasm of the cell
c. neurofibrils – thread like structures that help in the transmission of impulses
d. Nissl’s bodies – granular bodies similar to the ribosomes, also for protein synthesis
2. Cell processes
a. Axon
- single, longer process, carries impulses away from the cell body
- maybe unmyelinated or myelinated axons
 - have node of Ranvier for saltatory transmission or current flow easily between extra
cellular fluid and the axon, & action potentials can develop
- myelin sheath is an excellent insulator w/c prevents almost all electrical current flow
through cell membrane
i. Myelinated axons - have a specialized sheath called myelin sheath
ii. Unmyelinated axons - rest in indentations of the oligodendrocyte in the CNS and
Schwann cells in the PNS
b. Dendrites - numerous, shorter processes; brings impulses towards the cell body
3. Nucleus
- source of information for protein synthesis
- it is surrounded by extensive RER, Golgi apparatus, and mitochondria
Synapse
- space or gap between the axon of one neuron and dendrites of the following neuron
- regulate the amount of impulses being conducted
Impulse - electrochemical message transmitted by the neuron
Types of Impulse Transmission
1. Axonal transmission - electrical in nature; due to changes in ion concentration along the
axon
2. Synaptic transmission - chemical in nature
a. Acetylcholine (Ach) – secreted by the tip of the axon
b. Acetylcholinesterase – secreted by the dendrite
Types of Neurons based on the Number of Processes
1. Unipolar – single process usually an axon
2. Bipolar – two processes, one axon and one dendrite
3. Multipolar – one axon and several dendrites
Functional Classes of Neuron:
1. Sensory neuron - receives stimuli from the environment and transmit impulses to the central
nervous system
Types of Sensory Nervous according to stimuli received
a. Mechanoreceptors – detect mechanical deformation found in the skin and ears
b. Thermoreceptors – detect changes in temperature; found in the skin
c. Photoreceptors – detect light; found in the eye
d. Chemoreceptors – detect chemical factors in the food, air, blood; found in the skin, nose
e. Nociceptors – detect pain; found in the skin
2. Motor neuron - conduct messages from the brain and spinal cord to the glands and muscles
3. Interneuron - act in an integrative capacity and shuttle signals back and forth between the
neurons of various parts of the brain and spinal cord
Neuroglia
- made up of nervous tissue but do not perform nervous functions; they perform auxiliary or
support functions in the nervous tissue
- the have the ability to divide, whereas most neurons do not
- far more numerous than neuron
Types of Neuroglia
1. Astroglia - the cell is called astrocyte; the function of the tissue is to derive nutrients from the
nearby blood vessels for the nutrition of the other cells in the tissue
2. Oligodendroglia
- the cell is called oligodendrocyte
- the tissue is believed to be involved in the synthesis of the myelin sheath
3. Ependyma
- the cell is called ependymal cell
- the tissue lines the ventricles of the brain and the central canal of the spinal cord
4. Microglia
- the cell is called microglial cell
- the cell is phagocytic therefore it is responsible for the elimination of foreign substances
and bodies in the nervous tissues
Physiology - neurons have two major functional properties:
1. Irritabilty - property of all nerve tissues which enables an organism to respond to changes in
the environment
2. Conductivity - the ability to transmit the impulse to the other neurons, muscles, or glands
a. Resting membrane
 b. Stimulus initiates local depolarization
c. Depolarization and generation of the action potential
d. Propagation of the action potential
e. Repolarization
f. Restoration of ionic concentrations via sodium-potassium pump
How Neurons Communicate at the Chemical Synapses
1. Action potential arrives
2. Vesicle fuses with plasma membrane
3. Neurotransmitter is released into the synaptic cleft
4. Neurotransmitter binds to receptor on receiving neuron’s membrane
5. Ion channel opens
6. Ion channel closes
Structural Organization of The Nervous System
I. Central Nervous System
- made up of the brain and the spinal cord
- for controlling, directing and integrating all messages within the body
- they interpret incoming sensory information and issue instructions based on past experience
and current conditions
Protection of the CNS
a. skeletal – cranium and vertebrae
b. meninges - three connective tissue membranes that surrounds and protect the brain and
spinal cord
i. dura
- the most superficial and thickest of the meninges
- the folds extend into the longitudinal fissure b/n the two cerebral hemisphere and b/n
the cerebrum and cerebellum
- the dura mateer of the brain is tightly attached to the periosteum of the skull to form a
single functionla layer
- the dura mater of the spinal cord is surrounded by an epidural space b/n the dura
mater and the periosteum of the vertebrae
ii. arachnoid
- second meningeal membrane
- is very thin, wispy, spiderlike
- the space b/n the dura mater and arachnoid is the subdural space, w/c is normally
only a potential space containing a very small amount of serous fluid
iii. pia mater
- the third meningeal membrane
- very tightly bound to the surface of the brain and spinal cord
- b/n the pia mater and the arachnoid mater is the subarachnoid space w/c is filled with
cerospinal fluid and contains blood vessels
c. cerobrospinal fluid
- bathes the brain and spinal cord, providing a protective cushion around the CNS
- it is produced by the choroid plexus, specialized structures made of ependymal cells,
w/c are located in the ventricles
A. Brain
1. Cerebrum
- paired cerebral hemisphere
- largest part consisting of more than half the 10 billion neurons of the entire NS
- the entire surface exhibits elevated ridges of tissue called gyri, separated by shallow
grooves called sulci and less numerous are the deeper grooves called fissures w/c
separate large regions of the brain
- other fissures or sulci divide each cerebral hemisphere into a number of lobes:
a. Parietal lobe
- contains the somatic sensory area
- impulses travelling from the body’s sensory receptors (except for special senses –
interpreted in the cortical areas) are localized and interpreted in this area
b. Occipital lobe – visual area
c. Temporal lobe – auditory area
d. Frontal lobe – primary motor area (allows us to consciously move our skeletal
muscles)
 - composed of two halves:
a. Cortex (outer surface) – center of the mind, seat of conscious thought, memory,
speech, intelligence, personality and judgment, center of sensory motor coordination
b. White matter (inner cerebrum) – center of sensation, including sight, hearing, etc
- divided into two hemispheres:
a. Right cerebral hemisphere
- receives sensory inputs from and control muscular activities in the left half of the body
- thought to be more involved in functions such as three dimensional or spatial
perception or musical ability
b. Left cerebral hemisphere
- receives input from and control muscles in the right half of the body
- thought to be more analytical emphasizing such skills as mathematics and speech
2. Diencephalon
a. Thalamus
- by far the largest part of the diencephalon
- consists of cluster of nuclei and is shaped somewhat like a yo-yo, with two large,
lateral parts connected in the center by a small interthalamic adhesion
- relay station of forebrain; relay sensory information to the cortex; regulate sleep and
wakefulness together with the hypothalamus
Epithalamus
- is a small area superior and posterior to the thalamus
- consists of a few small nuclei that are involved in the emotional and visceral response
to odors and the pineal body
Pineal body
- an endocrine gland that may influence the onset of puberty
- it also may play a role in controlling some long-term cycles that are influenced by the
light-dark cycle
- known to influence annual behaviors such as migration in birds, as well as changes in
fur color and density in some mammals
b. Hypothalamus
- the most inferior part of the diencephalon and contains several small nuclei w/c are
very important in maintaining homeostasis
- controls basic drives (eating, drinking, sleeping and sex)
- controls emotion
- regulates metabolic activities (blood pressure, temperature, water balance)
- regulates the pituitary gland
Infundibulum - a funnel- shaped stalk that extends from the floor of the hypothalamus to
the pituitary gland
Mammilary bodies - form externally visible swellings on the posterior portion of the
hypothalamus and are involved
3. Brainstem
- connects the spinal cord to the remainder of the brain
- consists of the midbrain, medulla oblongata, pons
a. Midbrain
- just superior to the pons, is the smallest region of the brainstem
- the dorsal part consists of four mounds called the colliculi:
a. the two inferior colliculi are major rely centers for the auditory nerve pathways in
the CNS
b. the two superior colliculi are involved in visual reflexes
- also contains a black nuclear mass, called the substantia nigra, which is a part of the
basal nuclei and is involved in the regulation of general body movements
b. medulla oblongata
- the most inferior portion of the brainstem and is continuous with the spinal cord
- composed of ascending& descending tracts and discrete nuclei with specific functions
such as regulation of heart rate, blood vessel diameter, breathing, swallowing,
vomiting, coughing, sneezing, balance and coordination
c. Pons
- immediately superior to the medulla oblongata
- it contains ascending and descending nerve tracts, as well as several nuclei
- bridge linking the various parts of the brain
 relay information between the cerebrum and cerebellum
4. Cerebellum
- means little brain, the second largest part of the brain
- attached to the brainstem by several large connections called cerebellar peduncles that
provide communication between the cerebellum and other parts of the CNS
- balance, coordination, equilibrium
- exerts control over unconscious activities of the body
- coordinates sensory and motor activities to produce smooth, steady movement
B. Spinal Cord
- center of reflexes
- extends from the foramen magnum at the base of the skull to the second lumbar vertebra
- the spinal nerves communicate between the spinal cord and the body
- the inferior end of the spinal cord and the spinal nerves exiting there resemble a horse’s tail
and are called the cauda equina
- spinal nerves arise from numerous rootlets along the dorsal and ventral surfaces of the spinal
cord
- a cross section reveals that the cord consists of a peripheral white matter (consists of
myelinated axons) portion and a central gray matter (mainly a collection of neuron cell bodies)
portion
a. White matter
- consists of myelinated axons
- the white matter in each half of the spinal cord is organized into three columns called the
dorsal, ventral, and the lateral columns
- each column of the spinal cord contains ascending tracts (consist of axons that conduct
action potential) and descending tracts (consist of axons that conduct action potential
away from the brain)
b. Gray matter
- is mainly a collection of neuron cell bodies
- shaped like the letter H, with posterior and anterior horns
Reflexes
- automatic, involuntary reaction in response to a stimulus applied to the periphery and
transmitted to the CNS
- allow a person to react to stimuli more quickly than is possible if conscious thought is involved
- involves the simplest pathway to the spinal cord
- uses 3 neurons; sensory, association and motor
- occur over neural pathways called reflex arcs, and involve both CNS and PNS structures
Reflex arc
- is the neural pathway by which a reflex occurs
- is the basic functional unit of the nervous system because it is the smallest, simplest pathway
capable of receiving a stimulus and yielding a response
- has five basic components:
a. sensory receptor
b. sensory neuron
c. interneuron
d. motor neuron
e. effector organ
Types of Reflexes
1. Somatic reflexes
- include all reflexes that stimulate the skeletal muscles
- ex. When you quickly pull your hand away from a hot object, a somatic reflex is working
2. Autonomic reflexes
- regulate the action of the smooth muscles, the heart, and glands
- secretion of saliva and changes in the size of the eye pupils
- regulate such body functions as digestion, elimination, blood pressure, and sweating
Peripheral Nervous System
- consists of all the nerves and ganglia located outside the brain and spinal cord
- collects information from numerous sources both inside and on the surface of the body and
relays it by way of sensory fibers to the CNS, where information is ignored, triggers a reflex,
or is evaluated more extensively
- connects the CNS within the outlying parts of the body
 - made up of 12 pairs of cranial nerves and 31 pairs of spinal nerves w/c serves as a
communication line by linking all parts of the body by carrying impulses from the sensory
receptors to the CNS and from the CNS to the appropriate glands or muscles
Nerve
- is a bundle of neuron fibers found outside the CNS
- w/in a nerve, neuron fibers, or processes, are wrapped in protective connective coverings
- consists of:
a. endoneurium – delicate connective tissue covering each fiber
b. perineurium – coarser connective tissue wrapping groups of fibers to form fiber bundles
c. epineurium - tough fibrous sheath that bind together all the fascicles to form the cordlike
nerve
Cranial Nerves
- there are two general categories of cranial nerve function: sensory and motor
- the motor functions are further subdivided into somatic and parasympathetic
- the sensory functions can be divided into the special senses such as vision and the more
general senses such as touch and pain in the face
Cranial Nerves and their Functions

Numbe Name General Specific Function

r functio
n
1 Olfactory S Smell
2 Optic S Vision
3 Ocolomotor Motor to four of six
extrinsic
M, P muscles &
upper eyelid,
constricts pupil;
thickens lens
4 Trochlear M Motor to one
extrinsic eye
muscle
5 Trigeminal Sensory to face and
teeth; motor to
S, M muscles of
mastication

6 Abducen M Motor to one

extrinsic eye
muscle
7 Facial Sensory: taste;
motor to
S, M, P muscles of
facial
expression;
parasympatheti
c to salivary &
tear glands
8 Vestibulocochlea S Hearing and
r balance
9 Sensory: taste &
touch to back of
Glossopharyngea S,M, P tongue; motor
l to pharyngeal
muscles
10 Vagus S, M, P Sensory to pharynx,
larynx, and
 viscera

Motor to palate,
pharynx, &
larynx
11 Accessory M Motor to two neck
and upper back
muscles
12 Hypoglossal M Motor to tongue
muscle
Spinal Nerves
- arise along the spinal cord from the union of the dorsal roots and ventral roots
- all the spinal nerves are mixed nerves because they contain axons of both sensory and
somatic motor neurons
- some spinal nerves also contain parasympathetic or sympathetic axons
- most of the spinal nerves exit the vertebral column between adjacent vertebrae
- they are categorized by the region of the vertebral column from which they emerged:
a. cervical
b. thoracic
c. lumbar
d. sacral, and
e. coccygeal
- also numbered according to their order within the region
- organized into three plexuses where nerves come together and then separate
Plexus of the Spinal Nerves
Plexus Origin Major Nerves Muscles Skin Innervated
innervated
Cervical C1 – C4 Several neck Neck &
muscle posterior head
Phrenic Diaphragm
Brachial C5 –C8 andT1 Axillary Two shoulder Part of
muscles shoulder
Radial Posterior arm & Posterior arm,
forearm muscle forearm, and
hand
Musculocutaneous Anterior arm Radial surface
muscles of forearm
Ulnar Two anterior Ulnar side of
forearm muscles hand
Most intrinsic
hand muscle
Median Most anterior Radial side of
forearm muscles hand
Some intrinsic
hand muscles
Lumbosacral L1 – S4 Obturator Medial thigh Medial thigh
muscle( adductor
s)
Femoral Anterior thigh Anterior thigh,
muscle(extensor) medial leg &
foot
Ischiadic (sciatic) Posterior thigh Posterior leg &
Tibial musces ( flexor), sole of foot
anterior&
posterior leg
muscles, most
foot muscle
Common fibular Lateral thigh & Anterior and
leg, some foot lateral leg, &
 muscles dorsal part of
foot
Subdivisions of the PNS
A. Sensory or Afferent Division
- conducts action potentials from sensory receptors to the CNS
- the neurons that transmit action potentials from the periphery to the CNS are the sensory
neuron
B. Motor or Efferent Division
- conducts action potentials from the CNS to effector organs such as muscles and gland
- the neurons that transmit action potentials from the CNS toward the periphery are the motor
neuron
- further subdivided into:
a. somatic motor nervous system - transmits action potentials from the CNS to skeletal
muscles
b. autonomic nervous system
- transmit action potentials from the CNS to cardiac muscles, smooth muscles, and
gland
- in turn subdivided into:
a. sympathetic – prepares body for physical activity
b. parasympathetic – stimulates vegetative activities; slows heart and respiration
rates; constrict pupil; thickens lens
c. enteric nervous system - associated with the digestive tract