OUTLINE These chemical messengers work together.

Like
1. Characteristics of theendocrine system domino effect in order to neutralize the abnormalities in
2. Organs of the endocrine system the body.
a. Hypothalamus and pituitary gland
b. Thyroid gland
c. Parathyroid gland Hormones affect only the region in the system where
d. Adrenal gland you can see its specific receptor. They can
e. Pancreas downregulate or upregulate depending on the situation
f. Thymus gland of the body.

There are 3 general classes of hormones:

I. CHARACTERISTICS OF THE ENDOCRINE
SYSTEM
Ductless glands, they secrete their products in
the interstitial fluid. Those products diffuse in the
bloodstream and go into its target organ.
Nervous and Endocrine System
• Act together to coordinate functions of all body
systems.
• Nervous System
• Nerve impulses/Neurotransmitters
• Faster responses, briefer effects, acts on specific
target
• Endocrine System
• Hormone – mediator molecule released in 1 part
of the body but regulates activity of cells in other
parts.
• Slower responses, effects last longer, broader
influence
Chemical Messengers
• Chemical messenger systems: (released by → in Hormone Types
→ for)
• Neurotransmitters – axon terminals → synaptic
junctions → controls nerve functions
• Endocrine Hormones – glands/specialized cells
→ circulating blood → influence function of target
cells in another location
• Neuroendocrine hormones – neurons →
circulating blood → influence function of target
cells in another location
• Paracrines – cells → ECF → neighboring target
cells of a different type
• Autocrines – cells → ECF → function of the same
cells that produced them
• Cytokines – peptides secreted by the cells → ECF
→ can function as
paracrines/autocrines/endocrine hormones
1) Proteins and polypeptides
• Hormones secreted by the anterior and
posterior pituitary gland, the pancreas
(insulin and glucagon), the parathyroid
hormone), etc.
• From RER and packaged by Golgi apparatus
and exits the cell through exocytosis.
2) Steroids
• Secreted by the adrenal cortex (cortisol and
aldosterone), the ovaries (estrogen and
progesterone), the testes (testosterone), and
the placenta (estrogen and progesterone).
• Synthesized from the cholesterol which are
readily diffused across the cell membrane.
3) Derivatives of amino acid Tyrosine
• Secreted by the thyroid (thyroxine and
triiodothyronine) and the adrenal medullae
(epinephrine and norepinephrine)
• No known hormones that are derived from
sugar nor nucleic acid
1. Circulating – circulate in blood throughout body
2. Local hormones – act locally
• Paracrine – act on neighboring cells
• Autocrine – act on the same cell that
secreted them
3. Lipid-soluble – use transport proteins
• Steroid
• Thyroid – hormones derived from the
thyrosine. Synthesized by attaching iodine to
amino acid thyrosine.
• Nitric oxide (NO) – have enzymatic ability;
both hormone and neurotransmitter
4. Water-soluble – circulate in ‘free’ form
• Amine – formed by removing the CO2
content of amino acid. (Ex: epinephrine,
norepinephrine, dopamine)
• Peptide/protein – smaller; contain 3 – 49
chain of amino acids. Larger 50-200 chains
(Ex: antidiuretic hormone and oxytocin
(peptide)) (Ex: Growth Hormone and insulin
(protein))
• Eicosanoid – contains 20 carbons in a fatty
acid. (prostaglandins and (?))
Functions of Hormones
1. Help regulate:
• Chemical composition and volume of
internal environment (ECF).
 •
Metabolism and energy balance. Growth Hormone Inhibits GH by All tissues of the
•
Contraction of smooth and cardiac muscle Inhibiting somatotropes body
fibers. Hormone
• Glandular secretions. Prolacting Inhibits Prolactin Mammary Gland
• Some immune system activities. Inhibiting by lactotropes
2. Control growth and development. Hormone
3. Regulate operation of reproductive systems.
4. Help establish circadian rhythms. Anterior Pituitary Gland is regulated by the
hypothalamus while the Posterior Pituitary Gland is
Control of Hormone Secretion controlled mainly by the nerve signals that is originating
from the hypothalamus.
• Regulated by:
• Signals from nervous system Hypothalamic – Hypophyseal Portal System
• Chemical changes in the blood
It goes first to the first capillary network and then
• Other hormones
to a vein then back to secondary capillary network.
• Most hormonal regulation by negative
Name is based on where the blood goes first.
feedback.
• Few examples of positive feedback Anterior Pituitary
II. ORGANS OF THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM • Somatotropes – secrete GH/hGH
Includes the pituitary gland, pineal gland,
• Thyrotropes – secrete TSH
thyroid gland, thymus gland, adrenal glands, pancreas,
• Gonadotropes – secrete FSH and LH
kidneys, ovaries (female), adipose tissue, and testes
• Lactotropes – secretes Prolactin
(male).
• Corticotropes – secrete ACTH
A. HYPOTHALAMUS AND PITUITARY GLAND • From Pars Intermedia - secrete MSH
• Hypothalamus is a major link between the (Melanocyte Stimulating Hormone)
nervous and endocrine system.
• Pituitary attached to hypothalamus by Hormone Function
infundibulum.
Growth • Causes growth of all tissues
• Anterior pituitary or adenohypophysis Hormone (GH) that are capable of growing
• Invagination from pharyngeal epithelium (Somatotrophin) • Enhances fat utilization for
when you were a fetus.
energy
• Posterior pituitary or neurohypophysis
• Causes amino acids to be
• Neural tissue outgrowth from the built into protein
hypothalamus. • Strongly stimulates osteoblast
Pituitary Gland (hypophysis) is a pea sized especially in membranous
structure that is sitting on the sella turcica found inside bones
the skull. It is divided into two: anterior and posterior. It • Stimulates glucose utilization
is 1 – 1.5 cm. It is the master of the endocrine system. in skeletal muscle.
• Utilizes carbohydrates in the
Hypothalamus is connected to pituitary gland via skeletal bodies but not on the
infundibulum. Master of pituitary gland. Infundibulum it blood.
also connects the neural and hormonal part of the body.

Hypothalamus Anterior Target Gland

Pituitary Gland Hypoglycemia

Thyrotropin Thyroid Thyroid Gland • Decreased blood levels of fatty acids

Releasing Stimulating • Increased blood levels of amino acids
Hormone Hormone by
• Sympathetic activity
thyrotropes
• Deep sleep
Gonadotropin FSH & LH by Gonads: Male • Testosterone, estrogens, thyroid hormones,
Releasing gonadotropes and Female and ghrelin.
Hormone Organs
Hyperglycemia
Corticotropin ACTH by Adrenal Gland
Releasing corticotropes • Increased blood levels of fatty acids
Hormone • Decreased blood levels of amino acids
• Obesity
Growth Hormone Secretion of All tissues of the
Releasing Growth Hormone body • Aging
Hormone by somatotropes • High blood levels of GH and IGFs
a. Hyposecretion – Dwarfism
 • Decreased secretion of GH Luteinizing •
Male: Leydig cells –
• Normal sized torso with short limbs Hormone (LH) testosterone synthesis
b. Hypersecretion – Gigantism • Testosterone: secondary
• Increased secretion of GH • Secreted by male characteristics
Gonads
• All body tissues grow rapidly • Female: responsible for
• Long limbs estrogen and
• Hyperglycemia progesterone synthesis
c. Hypersecretion – Acromegaly • Estrogen: Secondary
• Relatively rare, owing to tumor of the pituitary female characteristics
gland • Progesterone: prepare
• Growth of long bones stopped, so the bones the uterus for pregnancy
most affected are the membranous bones: and breast for lactation
cranium, nose, bosses of forehead, supraorbital
ridges, lower jawbone and portions of vertebrae Prolactin Hormone • Responsible for milk
(kyphosis), feet and hands. (Prl) production
• Other signs include amenorrhea, DM, profuse • Galactorrhea: milk
• Secreted by production in male
sweating and hypertension. Mammary
• Amenorrhea – female,
Hormone Function Gland
hypersecretion, absence
• Does not work of menstrual cycle.
Thyroid Hormone (TH) • Promotes brain alone (works
(Thyrotrophin) growth and with estrogen
development and
• Secreted by the thyroid during fetal life progesterone
gland • –
• Stimulates Dopamine
carbohydrate prolactin
Thyroxine (T4): 93% later
and fat inhibiting
converted to T3
metabolism hormone
Triiodothyronine (T3): 7% 4x • Increases • Prolactin
more potent than T4, persist in basal releasing
blood for shorter period of time metabolic rate hormone -
upgrade
Additional:

• Stimulate caticolamines (?) Epinephrine and Posterior Pituitary

NE which cause increase sympathetic activity.
(ex: increased heart rate, bronchodilation, • Supraoptic nuclei of hypothalamus:
increased cardiac output, vasoconstriction, and Vasopressin/Antidiuretic hormone
etc.) • Paraventricular nuclei of hypothalamus:
• Regulate the development of nervous tissue Oxytocin
and bones by promoting synapse formation, 1. Anti-diuretic • Secreted by supraoptic
myelin production and stimulate the growth of Hormone/Va nucleus
dendrites. sopressin • Stimulates the distal tubules
• Stimulates the growth of skeletal system by of the kidneys to reabsorb
stimulating the ossification centers and the water → decrease urination
synthesis of osteons proteins. • Stimuli: rise in blood
osmolarity and a decrease in
Hormone Function blood volume.
Adenocorticotrophic • Controls production and 2. Oxytocin • Secreted by Paraventricular
Hormone (ACTH) secretion of cortisol and Nucleus
(Corticotrophin) glucocorticoids. • Powerfully stimulates uterine
• Stimulated by CHR of contraction during delivery
• Secreted by hypothalamus
Adrenal Gland • Stimulates milk ejection:
• Glucocorticoids inhibit causes milk to be expressed
CRH and ACTH release from alveoli into ducts of
via negative feedback. breast
• Responsible for sexual
Follicle Stimulating • Male: Sertoli cells – sperm
feeling/orgasm during
Hormone (FSH) maturation.
intercourse
• Female: growth of follicles
• Secreted by in the ovaries.
Gonads
ADH Abnormalities

a. Hyposecretion – Diabetes Insipidus Hyperthyroidism Hypothyrodism

• Without ADH, water moving through the (Thyrotoxicosis) (Hyposecretion)
kidney is not reabsorbed but is lost in the urine Graves’dse
→ diluted urine (Hypersecretion) –
• Clinical Signs and Symptoms mataas metabolic rate,
• Polyuria (increase urination) active ang sympathetic
• Polydipsia (increase thirst) activity
• Dehydration
• High state of • Fatigue and extreme
• Nocturia, Fatigue, Irritability
excitability somnole
b. Hypersecretion – Symptoms of Inappropriate
• Heat intolerance → • Extreme muscular
Secretion of ADH
inc sweating sllugishness
• Result of marked retention of water in the
• Mild to extreme • Skowed HR
body while decreased in urine output
weight loss • Increased body wt &
• Clinical signs and symptoms
• Diarrhea & Mm composition
• Headache, Confusion, Lethargy (most
weakness • Metal sluggishness
significant early indicators)
• Nervousness or other • Depressed growth
• Weight gain without visible edema
psychic d/o and scaliness of the
• Muscle cramps
• Extreme fatigue but skin
• Seizures
inability to sleep • Development of
• Vomiting, Diarrhea
• Hand temor froglike husky voice
B. THYROID GLAND • Exophthalmos • Edematous
• Lies immediately below the larynx on each side (protrusion of eyes appearance
and anterior to trachea with retraction of Edematous
• One of the largest endocrine gland upper eyelid) appearance (severe)
• Normal mass: 30 g • Warm skin • Periorbital edema →
• Follicular cells: Synthesize T3 and T4 • Thin hair puffy face
hormones • Coarse, brittle hair
• Uses iodine → make iodide ions → iodinate
tyrosine (part of thyroglobulin) → formation of Myxedema (lack of thyroid hormone)
Colloid (contains of thyroid hormones)
• Occurs with almost total lack of thyroid hormone
• Ductless gland that secretes hormones function
responsible for metabolism, growth, and
• Bagginess under the eyes
development.
• Swelling of the face
• Increases sympathetic response.
(Cardiovascular: CO, Tissue BF, HR, HS, Cretinism
Respiration; Metabolism: Mitochondria, Na-K-
ATPase, O2 consumption, Glucose absorption, • Extreme hyperthyroidism during fetal life,
Gluconeogenesis, Glycogenolysis, Lipolysis, infancy and childhood.
Protein synthesis, BMR) • Failure of body growth and mental retardation
• Stimulus: exposure to cold environment • Congenital cretinism: congenital lack of thyroid
gland.
Hormone Function • Endemic cretinism: iodine lack in the diet

1. Thyroid Hormone • Iodine is required for C. PARATHYROID GLAND

a. Thyroxine (T4) formation of T3 • Located immediately behind the thyroid gland
b. Triiodothyronine • Increases metabolic • 40 mg each lobe
(T3) rate • Chief cells – PTH
• Controlled primary by • Occi(paycheck sa book di ko alam sinsabi nya)
TSH cells – PT Gland
• Secretion occurs in • 4 Parathyroid glands
Follicular Cells
Hormone Function
2. Calcitonin • Decreases plasma Ca
concentration Parathyroid • Increases plasma Calcium
• Synthesis and secretion Hormone concentration
occurs in Parafollicular (Parathormone) • Calcitriol – active form of vit. D
cells
Hypoparathyroidism (Hypocalcemia)

• Tetany develops
 • Laryngeal muscles: sensitive to tetanic spasm, • Hypertension
may obstruct respiration • Acne
• Hirsutism (excess growth of facial hair)
Hyperparathyroidism (Hypercalcemia)
E. PANCREAS
• Osteomalacia: inadequate mineralization of • Both GIT and Endocrine System
bones in adult • 2 Types of Tissues:
• Rickets: inadequate mineralization of bones in 1) Pancreatic acini – produces digestive
children enzymes; cluster of exocrine cells
2) Pancreatic Islets/Islets of Langerhans
D. ADRENAL GLAND Hormone Produced by Function
• Glands that lie in the kidneys. Insulin Beta cells Decreases
• Regions: Adrenal Cortex and Medulla blood glucose
level
• Adrenal Cortex
Glucagon Alpha cells Increases blood
• Zona Glomerulosa: Mineralocorticoids
glucose level
• Zona Fasciculata: Glucocorticoids
Somatostatin Delta cells Inhibits
• Zona Reticularis: Androgens
secretion of
• Adrenal Medulla insulin and
• Chromaffin Cells: Epinephrine and glucagon.
Norepinephrine Pancreatic F cells Regulate the
Hormone Function Polypeptide secretion of
Adenocortico A. Adrenal Cortex somatostatin.
trophic • Mineralocorticoids/Aldosterone Controls gall
Hormone • Secreted by Zona bladder
(ACTH) Glomerulosa (Outer Zone) secretions.
• Steroid hormones that
regulate fluid and mineral
balance F. THYMUS GLAND & PINEAL GLAND
• Increases sodium • Pineal Gland is attached in the superior aspect
reabsorption thereby of epithalamus.
increasing the blood pressure
and blood volume Hormone Function
• Glucocorticoids/Cortisol Melatonin • Important in circadian rhythm
• Secreted by Zona Fasciculata (Pineal • “sleep trigger” and is peak levels at
(middle zone) and reticularis Gland) night
(inner zone) Thymosin • For WBC (T-cells/T-lymphocytes)
• Steroid hormone responsible development and immune response
for controlling the metabolism
of glucose
• Resist long-term stress
• Sex Hormones
• Secreted by Zona Fasciculata
and Reticularis
• Major androgen:
dehydroepiandrosterone
(DHEA)
• Androgen for males
• Estrogen for females
B. Adrenal Medulla
• Catecholamines
• Epinephrine/adrenaline
• Norepinephrine/noradrenalie
• Chromaffin cells
• Released upon sympathetic
nervous system activation
(alarn stage)
• Resist short-term stress
Hypoadrenalism
• Hyponatremis, hyperkalemia (dec. cortisol)
• Dec. CO and BP
• If untreated in 4 days – 2 weeks, may die due to
shock
• Reduce protein and fat mobilization
• Muscle weakness
Hyperadrenalism
• Hyperatremia, hypokalemia
• Fat deposition (moon facie, buffalo hump,
truncal obesity