General Biology 1

1st Quarter
Worksheet # 7(Week7)
Structures and Functions of Biological Molecules - Carbohydrates - Lipids - Proteins - Enzymes - Nuc
leic Acid

MELC: Describe the components of an enzyme STEM_BIO11/12-Ii-j-17

Explain oxidation/reduction reactions STEM_BIO11/12-Ii-j-18
Determine how factors such as pH, temperature, and substrate affect enzyme activity
STEM_BIO11/12-Ii-j-19

Objectives:
1.Present a model demonstrating the components of a specific enzyme in a biological system and the
reaction it catalyzes
2.Design a simple experiment that illustrates how pH, temperature, or amount of substrate affect enzyme
activity (i.e., includes problem statement, hypothesis, materials and methods)

There are four major classes of biological macromolecules:

1. carbohydrates
2. lipids
3. proteins
4. nucleic acids
Biomolecules

Organisms contain a wide variety of organic molecules with numerous functions which depend on
the chemical structures and properties of these molecules. All organic molecules contain a carbon backbone
and hydrogen atoms. The carbon atom is central in the formation of a vast variety of organic molecules
ranging in size, shape and complexity; inorganic molecules on the other hand, generally have simpler
structures. The outermost shell of a free carbon atom can accommodate eight electrons but is occupied by
only four electrons, therefore it can form four covalent bonds and bond with up to four atoms. Alternatively,
it can also bond with fewer atoms by forming double or triple bonds. This versatility of carbon atoms allows
organic molecules to display intricate structures, such as chains, branches, and rings, among others.

Organic molecules that naturally occur in organisms are called biomolecules. Besides carbon and
hydrogen, biomolecules also contain other elements such as oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulfur. In
general, smaller units of biomolecules come together, as repetitive sequences, to form larger biomolecules.
These small modular units of biomolecules are called monomers. Two monomers typically join each other to
form a dimer through a process known as dehydration synthesis, which is simply the removal of a hydrogen
atom from one monomer and a hydroxyl (OH-) ion from the other monomer to create a water molecule to be
expelled out while linking the two monomers with a covalent bond. The reverse of this process is
called hydrolysis, in which the molecule splits back into its original monomers with a water molecule
providing a hydrogen atom to one monomer and a hydroxyl ion to the other. Many monomers can be
attached together by dehydration to form polymers. Sometimes different polymers can come together to
form even larger and more complex molecules, which are known as biological macromolecules.

Biomolecules are classified based on the elements that compose them, and their structure and
function inside living organisms. Almost all biomolecules can be classified into one of the four general
categories: carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids.
Carbohydrates

Carbohydrate simply means “carbon water” because these molecules are composed of carbon,
hydrogen, and oxygen atoms roughly in the ratio of 1:2:1. Carbohydrate monomers are known as
monosaccharides, which are also referred to as simple sugars. Glucose (C6H12O6) is the most common
monosaccharide in living organisms and is a subunit of many polysaccharides. Numerous organisms also
synthesize other six-carbon monosaccharides with the same chemical formula as glucose but slightly
different structures, such as fructose and galactose. When two monosaccharides are linked together, they
form disaccharides. For example, sucrose is composed of glucose and fructose, whereas lactose contains
glucose and galactose. These monosaccharides and disaccharides are used for short-term energy storage in
living organisms. Maltose is another disaccharide that is made up of two glucose molecules and is usually
formed when polysaccharide chains such as starch and glycogen are broken down during digestion. Starch is
a polysaccharide that serves as an energy storage molecule in plants and is made up of two types of glucose
polymers: amylose and amylopectin. Amylose constitutes 10-20% of starch and is a helical polymer of
glucose. Amylopectin makes up the bulk of the starch and is a branched polymer of glucose. Glycogen is
virtually the same as starch, however it is synthesized, stored and used in animal liver and muscle tissues.

Besides serving as energy stores, carbohydrates also have other functions in organisms. The five-
carbon monosaccharides, ribose and deoxyribose, are integrated into the nucleic acid structure and are
present in every living cell. Moreover, the polysaccharide cellulose, which is a long polymer made up of
glucose, serves as a rigid structural material in plants. Humans do not have digestive enzymes to break down
cellulose in food, which is also called dietary fiber. However, dietary fiber consumption helps to maintain a
healthy gut flora, which in turn contributes to the health of digestive and immune systems1. Similar to plants,
some animals and fungi use another polysaccharide, chitin, as a structural molecule. Arthropods use chitin to
build and maintain their exoskeletons, whereas fungi incorporate it into their cell walls to maintain rigidity.

Lipids

The second class of biological macromolecules are lipids, which include fats, oils, and waxes. Lipids
are hydrophobic molecules that are almost entirely made up of carbon and hydrogen atoms. Often, lipids are
grouped in three major categories; triglycerides, phospholipids, and steroids.

The most common type of lipid is triglycerides, which include fats from animals and oils from plants.
Triglycerides generally serve as long-term energy storage molecules, except indigestible waxes, which are
instead used as a waterproofing substance in both plants and animals. Triglycerides contain three fatty acid
chains, which can be either saturated or unsaturated, connected to a glycerol molecule. Saturated fatty acid
chains are linear molecules with a maximum number of hydrogen atoms, where every carbon in the chain is
connected via a single bond. On the other hand, unsaturated fatty acid chains have kinks due to the presence
of at least one double bond. Additionally, unsaturated fats can be “trans” fats if the hydrogens around the
double bond oppose each other. While trans fats occur naturally, they are generated during industrial
production of saturated vegetable oils with hydrogen. Similar to saturated fatty acids, trans fats stack very
well due to their relative linearity. However, trans fats cause problems for human heart health, such as the
damaging the lining of arteries and causing inflammation when digested2.

Phospholipids are similar to triglycerides, however, one of the fatty acid chains is replaced with a
phosphate-containing polar group. Therefore, phospholipids have a hydrophilic head and two hydrophobic
fatty acid tails. These properties of phospholipids are crucial to the cell membrane structure and function.

Steroids are lipids that are composed of fused carbon rings with varying functional groups.
Cholesterol is a steroid that is also a cell membrane component. Moreover, cholesterol is used to synthesize
other steroids, including sex hormones such as estrogen and testosterone. Although cholesterol is essential
for cell membrane structure and hormone synthesis, high levels of plasma cholesterol are implicated in
plaque accumulation inside blood vessels and causing coronary disease3.
Proteins

The third class of biological macromolecules are proteins, which are made up of chains of amino
acids. There are 20 different amino acids, all with a similar base structure but each has a unique side chain
called an ‘R-group’. A single amino acid has an N-terminal end which is an amino group (NH3+) and a C-
terminal end which is a carboxyl group (-COOH). These groups link together, N-terminal to C-terminal, in a
chain connected by peptide bonds. Proteins are important for maintaining body functions as enzymes,
hormones, structural components and transport molecules, and play vital roles in muscle contractibility,
immunity and blood clotting. However, issues can arise in protein structure and function, and these issues
are often genetic. For instance, normal red blood cells are round, but in people affected by sickle cell anemia,
cells have a curved shape with an exposed hydrophobic region, caused by a mutation in a protein called
hemoglobin S. This shape reduces the capacity to carry oxygen and causes the cells to get stuck in blood
vessels. This results in many detrimental symptoms to the person carrying the mutation, and people who
inherit two copies of the sickle cell gene often suffer ill effects or even possibly die because of the reduced
capacity of sickled cells to transport oxygen. In a twist, those carrying only one copy of the gene are
resistant to infection from malaria, so the disease has been able to be passed on and persists in countries with
elevated levels of malaria infections4.

Nucleic Acids

The fourth class of biological macromolecules are the nucleic acids, which are composed of
monomers known as nucleotides. These monomers are composed of three parts: a phosphate group, a ribose
sugar and a nitrogen base. Nucleotides differ from each other by their nitrogen bases and the type of ribose
they contain. Single nucleotides generally act as energy carriers inside cells, as well as function as
messenger molecules. However, the nucleotide polymers or nucleic acids such as deoxyribonucleic acid
(DNA) or ribonucleic acid (RNA) are hereditary molecules that contain the genetic information to construct
cellular products.

Comparing the Biological Macromolecules

Basic Formula, key

Macromolecule Monomer Examples Uses
features

CHON
Storage; Signals;
Enzymes,
−NH2 + −COOH +R Structural; Contractile;
Proteins Amino acids some
group Defensive; Enzyme;
hormones
Transport; Receptors

C:H:O Energy storage;

Butter, oil,
Fatty acid and Protection;
Lipids cholesterol
Greater than 2:1 H:O glycerol Chemical
, beeswax
(carboxyl group) messengers; Repel

Glucose,
Fructose,
Starch,
C:H:O Monosaccharides Glycogen
Energy storage;
Carbohydrates ,Disaccharide,Pol Maltose
Structure
1:2:1 ysaccharide Lactose
Sucrose,
CelluloseG
lycogen
 Basic Formula, key
Macromolecule Monomer Examples Uses
features

CHONP
DNA,
Nucleic Acids Nucleotides Genetic information
pentose, nitrogenous RNA
base, phosphate

What are enzymes?

Enzymes are organic or biological catalysts. Catalysts are substances that speed up a reaction without
being used up, destroyed, or incorporated into the end product. They are vital to the regulation of the
metabolic processes of the cell. Many enzymes are proteins. We will focus on this type of enzymes in this
discussion. RNA enzymes called ribozymes will be discussed later.

What keeps spontaneous reactions from occurring more rapidly? • All chemical reactions between
molecules involve the breaking and forming of bonds. Converting starch into glucose involves contorting
starch into a highly unstable state before the reaction can proceed. This unstable state is called the transition
state that happens when reactants absorb energy from their surroundings and. This initial investment of
energy in order to start a reaction is called the activation energy. It is often supplied as thermal energy or
heat absorbed by reactants from their surroundings. Reactant molecules absorb heat which causes them to
collide more frequently and more forcefully. This agitates the atoms within the molecules that results in the
likely breaking of bonds. • When the new bonds of the products form, energy is released as heat and the
molecules return to stable shapes with lower energy. This results in an overall decrease of free energy.

How do enzymes affect reactions?

Heat speeds up reactions. This is inappropriate for biological systems because it denatures proteins,
kills cells, and speeds up all reactions, not just those that are needed. Enzymes catalyze specific reactions by
lowering the activation energy barrier and allowing the reactant molecules to absorb enough energy at
moderate temperatures. Enzymes cannot change a reaction and can only hasten reactions that would
eventually occur anyway.

Reaction in Enzymes

Exergonic reactions is energy releasing processes, ones that "generate" energyendergonic reactions require
Energy to initiate Reduction is the gain of an electron.
Oxidation is the loss of an electron (or hydrogen)
Anabolism is the total series of chemical reactions involved in synthesis of organic compounds
Catabolism is the series of chemical reactions that breakdown larger molecules.
Activity 1
Construct a mind map on Catabolism, Anabolism, Oxidation,Reduction, Endergonic and Exergonic
Reaction in Enzymes.

Activity 2
Enumerate 5 roles of each biological molecules in specific metabolic processes
1-5 Carbohydrates
6-10 Lipids
11-15Proteins
16-20Nucleic Acid