Evolution and Origin of Biodiversity: Patterns of Descent with

Modification
A. Pre-zygotic isolation mechanisms prevent fertilization and zygote formation.
I. geographic or ecological or habitat isolation – potential mates occupy different areas or
habitats thus, they never come in contact
II. temporal or seasonal isolation – different groups may not be reproductively mature
at the same season, or month or year
III. behavioral isolation – patterns of courtship are different
IV. mechanical isolation – differences in reproductive organs prevent successful
interbreeding
V. gametic isolation – incompatibilities between egg and sperm prevent fertilization
B. Post-zygotic isolation mechanisms allow fertilization but nonviable or weak or sterile hybrids
are formed.
I. hybrid inviability – fertilized egg fails to develop past the early embryonic stages
II. hybrid sterility – hybrids are sterile because gonads develop abnormally or there is
abnormal segregation of chromosomes during meiosis
III. hybrid breakdown - F1 hybrids are normal, vigorous and viable, but F2 contains many
weak or sterile individuals

Modes of speciation:
A. Allopatric speciation or geographic speciation (allo – other, patric – place; ‘other place’) -
occurs when some members of a population become geographically separated from the other
members thereby preventing gene flow. Examples of geographic barriers are bodies of water and
mountain ranges.
B. Sympatric speciation (sym – same, patric – place; ‘same place’) - occurs when members of a
population that initially occupy the same habitat within the same range diverge into two or more
different species. It involves abrupt genetic changes that quickly lead to the reproductive isolation
of a group of individuals. Example is change in chromosome number (polyploidization).
C. Parapatric speciation (para – beside, patric – place; ‘beside each other’) – occurs when the
groups that evolved to be separate species are geographic neighbors. Gene flow occurs but with
great distances is reduced. There is also abrupt change in the environment over a geographic
border and strong disruptive selection must also happen.
Development of Evolutionary
Thought
A. Carolus Linnaeus – order in the diversity of life; hierarchy of taxonomic categories
B. Thomas Malthus – ‘Essay on the Principle of Population’
C. Georges Cuvier – fossils, paleontology and the theory of Catastrophism
D. James Hutton – theory of Gradualism
E. Charles Lyell – principles of geology

Evidence from Structures

Structures in different organisms can be compared to infer common lineage.
HOMOLOGOUS STRUCTURES are structures with the same set of bones that presumably evolved
from a common ancestor. They appear different and may have varied functions
ANALOGOUS STRUCTURES are structures that perform the same function but have very different
embryological development or set of structures like bones.
VESTIGIAL STRUCTURES are structures or attributes that have lost most of its ancestral function
in more recent species.

The human vermiform appendix has lost much of its ancestral functions (distant ancestors ate more
vegetation).

EVIDENCE FROM EMBRYOLOGY

Embryology is the study of the development of an organism from an embryo to its adult form.
Common structures are shared in the embryo stage and disappear by the time the embryo reaches
the juvenile or adult form.

EVIDENCE FROM MOLECULAR BIOLOGY

Many organisms have similar molecules of life (RNA, DNA, proteins) that suggest descent from a
common ancestor with modifications. The near universality of the genetic code reflects an evidence
of common ancestry and relatedness and can be inferred from the similarities in the DNA sequences
between and among organisms.

Vertebrates have similarities in their embryo forms such as the pharyngeal gill
slits and the post-anal tail. In aquatic vertebrates, the gill slits become part of the
gills and tails are retained while land vertebrates become covered with skin and
some lose the tail in adult forms.

Many organisms have similar molecules of life (RNA, DNA, proteins) that suggest descent from a
common ancestor with modifications. The near universality of the genetic code reflects an evidence
of common ancestry and relatedness and can be inferred from the similarities in the DNA sequences
between and among organisms.
Many organisms have similar molecules of life (RNA, DNA, proteins) that suggest descent from a
common ancestor with modifications. The near universality of the genetic code reflects an evidence
of common ancestry and relatedness and can be inferred from the similarities in the DNA sequences
between and among organisms.

Evidence from Biogeography Biogeography is the study of geographical distribution of fossils and
living organisms. Organisms usually arise in areas where similar forms already exist. Similar
organisms may also be found in different locations which could mean that the two places were
previously connected.
Evolutionary Relationships of
Organisms 

INFERRING RELATIONSHIPS FROM EVIDENCES OF EVOLUTION

Living things share some biomolecules which may be used to prove relationships. These chemicals
include DNA and proteins. The building blocks of these chemicals may be analyzed to show
similarities and differences among organisms. The more similarities, the closer the relationships.
One of these is the protein cytochrome-c, an important enzyme found in virtually all organisms. It is a
highly conserved protein which functions in the electron transport chain system of the mitochondria
which is needed for the release of energy from food. It also performs a role in apoptosis
(programmed cell death) by being released into the cytosol activating the events of cell death. The
diagram below shows the structure of cytochrome c and its location in the mitochondrial inner
membrane.
Systematics Based on Evolutionary
Relationships: Tree of Life and
Systematics 
Phylogeny-the evolutionary history of a species or group of species
Systematics- the study of the kinds and diversity of organisms and of any and
all relationships among them.
Homology-similarity due to shared ancestry
Molecular clock- a yardstick for measuring the absolute time of evolutionary
change based on the observation that some genes and other regions of
genomes appear to evolve at constant rates
Systematics is the study of the kinds and diversity of organisms and of any and all relationships
among them. Tracing phylogeny is one of the goals of systematics; hence, it is considered as the
study of biological diversity in an evolutionary context. Systematists use data ranging from fossils to
molecules and genes to infer evolutionary relationships. These information enable biologists to
construct a comprehensive tree of life that will continue to be refined as additional data are collected.

Lines of evidence to infer evolutionary relationships:

1. Fossil evidence
2. Homologies - Similar characters due to relatedness are known as homologies. Homologies can
be revealed by comparing the anatomies of different living things, looking at cellular similarities and
differences, studying embryological development, and studying vestigial structures within individual
organisms.
Developmental biology- Studying the embryological development of living things provides clues
to the evolution of present-day organisms. During some stages of development, organisms
exhibit ancestral features in whole or incomplete form.

3. Biogeography- the geographic distribution of species in time and space as influenced by many
factors, including Continental Drift and log distance dispersal.
4. Molecular clocks help track evolutionary time- The base sequences of some regions of DNA
change at a rate consistent enough to allow dating of episodes in past evolution. Other genes
change in a less predictable way.

The connection between classification and phylogeny is that hierarchical classification is reflected in
the progressively finer branching of phylogenetic trees. The branching patterns in some cases match
the hierarchical classification of groups nested within more inclusive groups. In other situations,
however, certain similarities among organisms may lead taxonomists to place a species within a
group of organisms (for example genus or family) other than the group to which it is closely related.
If systematists conclude that such mistake has occurred, the organism may be reclassified (that is
placed in a different genus or family) to accurately reflect its evolutionary history.

The Connection between Classification and Phylogeny.

Hierarchical classification can reflect the branching patterns of phylogenetic trees. This tree
traces possible evolutionary relationships between some of the taxa within order Carnivora,
itself a branch of class Mammalia. The branch point (1) represents the most recent common
ancestor of all members of the weasel (Mustelidae) and dog (Canidae) families. The branch
point (2) represents the most recent common ancestor of coyotes and gray wolves.
Mammalia (Mammals) 22
Prototheria
Monotremata (Egg-laying mammals)
Ornithorhynchidae (Platypus)
Tachyglossidae (Echidnas)
Theria
Eutheria (Placentals)
Afrotheria (Golden mole, hyrax, shrew, elephant, manatee, aardvark)
Carnivora (Dog, cat, mongoose, hyena, skunk, otter, weasel, bear, pinniped)
Cetartiodactyla (Whale, dolphin, hippopotamus, ruminantes, pig)
Chiroptera (Bats)
Dermoptera (Flying lemur)
Edentata (Sloth, armadillo, anteater)
Insectivora (Hedgehog, shrew, moles)
Lagomorpha (Rabbits and hares)
Perissodactyla (Odd-toed ungulates: horses, zebra, rhinoceros, tapir)
 Pholidota (Pangolins)
Primates (Old and New World monkeys, hominid, gibbon, lemur)
Rodentia (Rats, mice, guinea pig, chinchilla, capybara, porcupine, squirrel)
Scandentia (Tree shrews)
Metatheria (Marsupials)
Dasyuromorphia (Marsupial mice, Tasmanian devil, dunnart))
Didelphimorphia (Opossums)
Diprotodontia (Possums, tree kangaroo, wallaby, koala)
Microbiotheria (Monito del monte)
Notoryctemorphia (Marsupial moles)
Paucituberculata (Shrew opossums)
Peramelemorphia (Bandicoots)

Systematics Based on Evolutionary

Relationships: Taxonomy
Classification – method of grouping organisms; arranging entities into some type
of order to provide a system for cataloguing and expressing relationships between
these entities
Hierarchy- a system of organizing groups into ranks according to status; putting
groups at various levels according to importance or power
Nomenclature- the formal naming of taxa according to some standardized system.
For plants, fungi, and algae, rules for naming are provided by the International Code
of Botanical Nomenclature. For animals, rules on naming are based on the
International Code of Zoological Nomenclature.
Identification- is the process of associating an unknown taxon with a known one
Description- is the assignment of features or attributes (characters) to a taxon
Taxonomy- the theory and practice of classifying organisms
Reminder:
Taxonomy is a major part of systematics that includes description, identification,
nomenclature and classification
The taxonomic system was devised by Carolus Linnaeus (1707-1778). It is a hierarchical system
since organisms are grouped into ever more inclusive categories from species up to kingdom. In
1981, a category higher than a kingdom, called domain, was proposed by Carl Woese. The table
below illustrates how four species are classified using the present classification system. (Note that it
is standard practice to italicize the genus and species names).
 .

A dichotomous key is a tool that helps identify unknown organisms to some taxonomic level (e.g.,
species, genus, family, etc.). The key is constructed in such a way that a series of choices is made
that leads the user to the correct identity of a sample organism. "Dichotomous" means, "divided into
two parts." Therefore, a dichotomous key always offer two choices for each step, each of which
describes key characteristics of a particular organism or group of organisms.

Glossary of terms
 1. axillary –relating to or located in an axil: an axillary bud
2. basal- located at or near the base of a plant stem, or at the base of any other plant part
3. berry –fleshy fruit with many seeds derived from a single flower containing one ovary
4. foliage- collectively, a cluster of leaves
5. fascicled- in bundles or clusters; canbe appied to stems, flowers or leaves
6. globose-rounded
7. petiole-the stalk that attaches the leaf blade to the stem;
8. raceme- an inflorescence in which the pedicellate flowers are borne along the main
stem, with the oldest flowers at the base
9. solitary-growing singly

Glossary of terms

1. Carapace-a bony or chitinous covering on the dorsal part of the turtle

2. Imbricated- overlapping or layered as scales and shingles

3. Lateral-relating to the side or sides

4. Medial- relating to or situated toward the middle

5. Plastron-the ventral part of the shell of the turtle

6. Posterior-located behind a part or toward the rear of a structure; on or near the hind end

7. Scutes-a chitinous bony external plate, as on the shell of a turtle

8. Terminal-situated at, pertaining to or forming the end; towards the end

Systematics Based on Evolutionary

Relationships: Cladistics and
Phylogeny
Phylogeny- the evolutionary relationships among organisms
Cladogram- a phylogenetic tree that shows relationship of taxa based on shared
derived characters
Character- any trait of an organism that can be described or measured
Character state- describes the character. A particular character can have several
character states
Example: Corolla is a character. Character states can be: shape of the corolla, color
of corolla, number of petals comprising the corolla.
 Homologous characters - characters having similar structures because these
were derived from a common ancestor
Analogous characters-characters that have separate evolutionary origins, but are
superficially similar because they perform the same function. Analogous characters
are the result of convergent evolution.
Example: Bird and bat wings are analogous since both are used for flying.
Clade- a group of taxa consisting of an ancestor and all of its descendant taxa
Cladistics studies relationships between taxa using shared derived characters. The basic
assumption behind cladistics is that members of a group share a common recent ancestor
and are thus more "closely related" to one another than they are to other groups of
organisms. Related groups of organisms are recognized because they share a set of
derived characters. These derived characters were inherited from a recent ancestor.