Gen Bio 2 Individual Learning Worksheet 4

LESSON 1: SYSTEMATICS

https://www.google.com/search?q=phylogenetic+tree+of+life

CRISTINA CECILIA B. MANALO

Iloilo National High School
Luna St. La Paz Iloilo City

This lesson will discuss and describe how the structural and developmental characteristics and relatedness in DNA sequences
are used to classify living things. Furthermore, this module contains the following: content, content standard, performance standard and
most essential learning competency set by the Department of Education. Laboratory activity, quiz and extension activities are also
included. This is to be achieved by the Senior High School Learners of Iloilo National High School in the specialized subject General
Biology 2.

This module consists of the following:

Content: Systematics
Topics:
1. Basic Taxonomic Concepts and Principles
2. Phylogeny

Content Standard
Basic Taxonomic Concepts and Principles, Description, Nomenclature, Identification, and Classification
Most Essential Learning Competencies:
The learners shall be able to explain how the structural and developmental characteristics and relatedness of DNA sequences
are used in classifying living things (STEM_BIO11/12IIIhj-14)
Learning Objectives:
At the end of this lesson the Grade 12 STEM learners of Iloilo National High School should be able to:
• describe the multiple lines of evidence used to infer evolutionary relatedness;
• discuss how anatomical, developmental and relatedness in DNA sequences are used as evidence to infer the relatedness of
taxa; and
• explain that classification is based on evolutionary relatedness
Time Allotment: 3 hours
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Definition of Terms
1. Homology - similarity of the structure, physiology, or development of different species of organisms based upon their descent
from a common evolutionary ancestor (https://www.britannica.com/science/homology-evolution)
2. Molecular clock - the average rate at which a species' genome accumulates mutations, used to measure their evolutionary
divergence and in other calculations. (https://languages.oup.com/google-dictionary-en/)
3. Phylogeny - A phylogeny is a hypothetical relationship between groups of organisms being compared. A phylogeny is often
depicted using a phylogenetic tree. (https://biologydictionary.net/phylogeny/)
4. Systematics - the branch of biology that deals with classification and nomenclature; taxonomy. (https://languages.oup.com/google-
dictionary-en/)

Let’s begin our Journey!

What makes you unique and what makes you similar too your siblings, mother or father?

SIMILARITIES UNIQUE

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

What Do You Need To Know?

Read the Information Sheet very well then find out how much you can remember and how much you learned by doing
the Self- check.

More than 2 million species have been identified so far, and over 80 percent have not yet been described. Before we consider
the evolutionary relationships of organisms, we must sort the millions of animal and plant species into categories, which can be done
by determining the degrees of similarities and differences that define each category.
This chapter will introduces you to how taxonomic categories show evolutionary relationships between groups of organisms
and explain the modern scientific techniques used in classifying organisms.

Basic Taxonomic Concepts and Principles

Taxonomy is a branch of science that deals with the naming and classification of organisms. The information provided by
taxonomic research serves as a fundamental basis for the biological grouping of organisms. The primary goal of taxonomy is to
describe and arrange those groups in the context of correct evolutionary relationships and account for the order that is an inherent
property of biological diversity.
Taxonomy is the raw material from which hypotheses of phylogeny are derived. Biological science and its applications link
specific data to species names and use these names for effective communication. Moreover, society has an increasing need for
reliable taxonomic information to better understand the world's biodiversity.

Phylogeny
Taxonomy is based on phylogeny. Phylogeny is a representation of relationships and, therefore, of how organisms evolved
from a common ancestor. Phylogeny shows the tree of life as a product of evolution and the degrees of relationship by descent from a
common ancestor.
Traditionally, most of the data used in making phylogenetic trees is based on morphology (form and structure). For instance,
plants are classified according to the shape of their leaves, number of floral parts, and even absence or presence of conducting
tissues. Animals may be classified according to their cells, symmetry, and habitat, among others.
Comparative morphology, which examines varying shapes and sizes of organismal structures, including their developmental
origins, is also used. In comparative morphology, the homologies or similarities in structures that are inherited from a common ancestor
and analogies or similarities in terms of certain functions between species that inhabited the same environment are also studied. In
addition, the fossil record is again used to estimate the ages of clades distinguished by certain characters. A lineage representing the
most recent common ancestor of all taxa in the clade is then added to the phylogenetic tree.
Today, chromosomal and molecular characters are extensively used for this purpose. Members of a species share a common
gene pool so they form a very real biological unit. Scientists also study molecules of DNA and RNA, which vary in number, appearance,
and amino acid sequence among different organisms.

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Biologists use phylogenetic trees for many purposes, including:
I. Testing hypotheses about evolution
II. Learning about the characteristics of extinct species and ancestral lineages
III. Classifying organisms

The connection between classification and phylogeny is that hierarchical classification is reflected in the progressively finer
branching of phylogenetic trees. The branching patterns in some cases match the hierarchical classification of groups nested within
more inclusive groups. In other situations, however, certain similarities among organisms may lead taxonomists to place a species
within a group of organisms (for example genus or family) other than the group to which it is closely related. If systematists conclude
that such mistake has occurred, the organism may be reclassified (that is placed in a different genus or family) to accurately reflect its
evolutionary history.

https://www.google.com/search?q=phylogenetic+tree+of+life

https://www.google.com/search?q=relationships+between+phylogeny

https://smile.oregonstate.edu/lesson/fossils-phylogenies-phylogenetic-tree-activity

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 The relationship between a taxonomic group and phylogenetic tree has three forms: monophyletic, paraphyletic, and
polyphyletic. Monophyletic group is a taxon that evolved from a single ancestor and includes all descendants of that ancestor.
Paraphyletic group descended from a common ancestor, but not including all descendants of that ancestor. Polyphyletic group
descended from two or more different ancestors.

https://www.google.com/search?q=systematics

To learn more please watch the video on youtube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=q5CiuB1oilU

How Much Have You Learned?

Self-check
Instructions: Choose the letter of the best answer .Write your answers on the answer sheet provided.
1. A cladogram or phylogenetic tree
a. is an hypothesis about the evolutionary relationships among a group of animal taxa
b. is a diagram in which the sequence of branching illustrates the historical chronology of evolutionary event
c. reflects the hierarchical classification of taxonomic groups nested within more inclusive groups.
d. All of the above
2. Among the following diagrams which taxon represented by the shaded region represents a monophyletic group?
a. Taxon A only b. Taxon C only c. Taxon A and B d. Taxon B and C

Taxon A Taxon B Taxon C

3. What sort of characters is useful in constructing phylogenetic trees?

a. homologous traits b. analogous traits c. shared derived traits d. A and C

How Do You Apply What You Have Learned?

It is not enough that you have learned concepts about Systematics. It is also important to have knowledge in constructing a
Phylogenetic Tree.

Constructing a Phylogenetic Tree

http://www.aurumscience.com
Objectives
1. To be able to construct a phylogenetic tree
Introduction
According to the theory of evolution, all organisms can be traced back to a common ancestor. Scientists can determine how
closely related two organisms are by studying:
1. Physical Characteristics – Bone structure, body shape, musculature.
2. Genetics – Number of similar DNA base pairs.
3 .Behavior – Social structure, personality traits.

The Tree of Life

One method commonly used to display evolutionary relationships is by constructing a phylogenetic tree. These diagrams are
meant to show how closely related different species are in comparison to teach other. The base or “trunk” of the tree begins to divide
into smaller and smaller branches. Each division separates the organisms into smaller groups based on observed physical
characteristics, genetics, or behavior. Take the leopard and domestic cat as an example. What specific characteristic might be used to
separate them?

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 Take a diverse group of animal species and attempt to make a phylogenetic tree showing their evolutionary relationships. This
tree should be primarily based on physical characteristics, such as:
-Presence of a backbone -Carnivore, herbivore, or omnivore
-Breath air or water -Presence of hair/fur
-Cold or warm blooded -Any other external structures such as horns

The Tree of Life

(file:///C:/Users/crist/Desktop/constructing-a-phylogenetic-tree.pdf)

Procedure

1. Detach the following page of animals below.

2. Individually cut out each animal, including the name.
3. Lay all the animals out on your desk and separate them into two groups by presence of a backbone.
4. On a separate sheet of paper, start drawing your phylogenetic tree like this:

5. Continue separating the animals into smaller and smaller groups. Draw each division into your tree.
6. When an animal occupies its own branch, glue it to the end of that branch on your tree.
7. Repeat for all the other animals in your collection.

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NOTE: Please attach your work to the activity sheets and DO NOT forget to write your name at the back. Thank you.

= END OF LESSON 1 =

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 Gen Bio 2 Individual Learning Worksheet 4
LESSON 2: CLASSIFICATION OF ORGANISMS

https://www.google.com/search?q=human%20taxonomy

CRISTINA CECILIA B. MANALO

Iloilo National High School
Luna St. La Paz Iloilo City

This lesson will describe the Linnaean system of classification, classify organisms into a hierarchy and construct and use
dichotomous keys for identification. Furthermore, this module contains the following: content, content standard, performance standard
and most essential learning competency set by the Department of Education. Laboratory activity, quiz and extension activities are also
included. This is to be achieved by the Senior High School Learners of Iloilo National High School in the specialized subject General
Biology 2.

This module consists of the following:

Content: Basic Taxonomic Concepts and Principles, Description, Nomenclature, Identification, and Classification
Topics:
1. Early Systems of Classification
2. Hierarchical System of Classification
3. Species Diversity
4. Cladistics
5. Dichotomous Key

Content Standard
The learner will be able to understand the Basic Taxonomic Concepts and Principles, Description, Nomenclature,
Identification, and Classification
Most Essential Learning Competencies:
The learners shall be able to identify the unique/ distinctive characteristics of a specific taxon relative to other taxa
(STEM_BIO11/12IIIhj-15)
What to Accomplish?
At the end of this lesson the Grade 12 STEM learners of Iloilo National High School should be able to:
• describe the Linnaean system of classification;
• classify organisms into a hierarchy; and
• construct and use dichotomous keys for identification.
Time Allotment: 3 hours
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Definition of Terms: (https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary)
1. Classification - systematic arrangement in groups or categories according to established criteria
2. Hierarchy - the group to classify
3. Nomenclature - an international system of standardized New Latin names used in biology for kinds and groups of kinds of animals
and plants
4. Taxonomy - the study of the general principles of scientific classification
5. Domain - the highest taxonomic category in biological classification ranking above the kingdom
6. Species - a category of biological classification ranking immediately below the genus or subgenus, comprising related organisms or
populations potentially capable of interbreeding, and being designated by a binomial that consists of the name of a genus
followed by a Latin or latinized uncapitalized noun or adjective agreeing grammatically with the genus name
7. Linnaean Taxonomy - Linnaean system is based on similarities in obvious physical traits. It consists of a hierarchy of taxa, from the
kingdom to the species. (https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Introductory_and_General_Biology)
8. Dichotomous key - is a tool that allows the user to determine the identity of items in the natural world, such as trees, wildflowers,
mammals, reptiles, rocks, and fish. Keys consist of a series of choices that lead the user to the correct name of a given item.
(https://oregonstate.edu/trees/dichotomous_key)

Let’s begin the exploration!

1. Find 5 possible types of writing materials found in your house.
2. Write down the key features to be used in groupings. Place the features in a table

SAMPLE TABLE
Features Ball pen High lighter Notebook Pencil

Less than 6 inches - - + -

More than 6 + + - +

inches
With Ink + + - -

What Do You Need To Know?

Read the Information Sheet very well then find out how much you can remember and how much you learned by doing the Self- check.

Introduction:
Classification is the arrangement of living things into taxonomic groups. The most familiar classification scheme is the
taxonomic framework established about 250 years ago (1758) by Carolus Linnaeus. The Linnaean system involves the naming and
classification of organisms. It is a hierarchical system, that is, one category contains groups of lesser categories, which in turn contain
still more groups of lesser categories, and so on. Nomenclature is the formal naming of species and their taxonomic categories, which
is important in organizing information about biodiversity. It also serves as a language for communicating ideas and information about
the diversity of life.

Early Systems of Classification

The earliest known system of classifying organisms comes from the Greek philosopher Aristotle. He classified living
organisms known at the time as either a plant or an animal. He further classified animals based on their means of habitat. He also
wrote a book titled, Historia Animalium, in which the animals are grouped according to their similarities. Furthermore, he assumed that
animals could be grouped in order from lowest to highest, with the human species being the highest. Aristotle's influence was profound
and long lasting, When Aristotle died, his student, Theophrastus wrote two books, Enquiry into Plants and On the Causes of
Plants, which constitute the first systematization of the botanical world and were major sources for botanical knowledge from antiquity
to the Middle Ages. His contributions to the field of plant biology earned him the distinction of being called, "Father of Botany."
Aristotle's system of classification had many limitations but its use prevailed for many years. The development of the Binomial
System of Nomenclature began when scientists saw the need for a universally recognized naming system to describe organisms. In
the eighteenth century, Swedish naturalist Carolus Linnaeus (1707-1778) published a two-volume work titled Species Plantarum,
which was later to become at the time the most important work on plant nomenclature and classification.
In this work, he listed a single word, which, when combined with the generic name, formed a convenient abbreviated
designation for the species. For example, the abbreviated name for sugar maple was Acer saccharum and for red maple, Acer rubrum.
He also published Systema Naturae, which used morphology for arranging specimens into a collection. Today, all species of organisms
are named using the Binomial System of Nomenclature, which also includes the authority for the name, either abbreviated in form or in
full, in Latin.
In 1981, a category higher than a kingdom, called domain, was proposed by Carl Woese. The data below illustrates how
species are classified using the present classification system. (Note that it is standard practice to italicize the genus and species
names).
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DOMAIN EUKARYA FEATURES

KINGDOM Animalia Organisms that are able to move on their own

PHYLUM Chordata Animals with a backbone
CLASS Mammalia Chordates with fur or hair and milk glands
ORDER Primates Mammals with grasping fingers
FAMILY Hominidae Primates with relatively flat faces and three- dimensional vision
GENUS Homo Hominids with upright position and large brain
specific epithet sapiens Members if the genus Homo with a high forehead and notably thin skull bones

SPECIES Homo sapiens

COMMON NAME human

DOMAIN EUKARYA FEATURES

KINGDOM Animalia
PHYLUM Chordata
CLASS Mammalia
ORDER Primates
FAMILY Hominidae
GENUS Homo
specific epithet sapiens

SPECIES Homo sapiens

COMMON NAME human

Hierarchical System of Classification

Over time, Linneaus's classification system expanded into increasingly inclusive categories. The nested levels in classification
of organisms are usually not only named but also ranked. The major categories or taxa into which organisms are grouped are given
one of several standard taxonomic ranks to indicate the general inclusiveness of each group. The hierarchy includes domain, kingdom,
phylum, class, order, family, genus, and species. Domain is the highest level of classification. The taxonomic category to which all
phyla belonged is called kingdom. Related classes are grouped in a phylum. Orders are grouped into classes. Related families make
up an order. Groups of genera are called family. Groups of closely related species make up a genus and the smallest taxon is the
species.

Please watch the Videos:

For more Information about system of classification

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DVouQRAKxYo
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FoZUNdOUj9g

Species Diversity
Species diversity is the total number of different species in an ecological community. Biologists have certain criteria for
recognizing species. The first criterion is common descent. Members of a species must trace their ancestry to a common ancestral
population, although not necessarily to a single pair of parents. Second, is that species must be the smallest distinct groupings of
organisms sharing patterns of ancestry and descent. Third is reproductive community, which pertains to a group of sexually
reproducing organisms which respond as a unit to evolutionary processes such as natural selection and genetic drift.
The most widely accepted concept of species is the biological species concept formulated by Ernst Mayr and Theodosius
Dobzhansky. These species concepts state that a species is an interbreeding population of individuals having a common descent.

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Organisms may appear to be alike and be different species. For example, Western meadowlarks and Eastern meadowlarks look
almost identical to one another, yet do not interbreed with each other.
The evolutionary species which concept was proposed by George Gaylord Simpson, posits that a species is a single lineage
of ancestor-descendant populations which maintains its identity from other such lineages and that has its own evolutionary tendencies
and historical fate.
The last concept is the phylogenetic species concept, which is an irreducible grouping of organisms diagnostically distinct from
other such groupings and within which there is a parental pattern of ancestry and descent.

Cladistics
Cladistics is a method in biological classification by which organisms are categorized based on the branching of descendant
lineages from a common ancestor. It is also known as phylogenetic systematics. The outcome of cladistics analysis is a cladogram.
The branches on a cladogram are only a formal device for indicating a nested hierarchy of clades within a group of organisms that
includes the most recent common ancestor of all its members and all descendants of that ancestor.

Cladistics analysis requires the following steps. First, choose the taxa whose evolutionary relationships can range from the
specific to general. Second, determine the characters and examine each taxon to determine the character states. You must select
characters that seem to be homologies. Third, determine the polarity of characters where you can figure out the order of evolution for
each character. Fourth, group the taxa by synapomorphies, which is a derived or changed character states shared by two taxa. Fifth,
work out conflicts that arise by some clearly stated method, usually parsimony, a principle stating that, in the absence of other
evidence, one should always accept the least complex scenario. Lastly, build your cladogram following these rules: All taxa go on the
end points of the tree, never at nodes. All nodes must have a list of synapomorphies, which are common to all taxa above the node
(unless the character is later modified). All synapomorphies appear on the tree only once unless the character state was derived
separately by evolutionary parallelism. The strength of cladistics is that the comparisons are objective, relying on morphological and
molecular homologies. On the other hand, the molecular differences are analyzed on the basis of probabilities.

Dichotomous Key
One of the activities of taxonomists is the construction of keys to help others identify organisms with which they may not be
familiar. Most such keys are dichotomous, that is, divided into two parts. A dichotomous key is a tool that allows the user to determine
the identity of certain organisms in the natural world. Keys consist of a series of choices that lead the user to the correct name of a
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given item. It covers only general features and does not indicate various details or occasional exceptions that would appear in keys for
lesser groups. All organisms in any given group are presumed to be closely related to each other than to organisms in another group.
There are some rules for using dichotomous keys, for example, work with more than one sample if all possible. This will allow you to
tell whether the one you are looking at is a typical or atypical. This is especially true with plants. You can examine more than one leaf,
branch, or flower, Find a type of specimen and compare your unknown to the type of specimen. If a type of specimen is unavailable
find a good description of the indicated taxonomic group and see if your unknown reflects this description. Find a good description of
the indicated taxonomic group and see if your unknown reflects this description. When reading a couplet, make sure you understand all
the terms used. The best keys will have a glossary of technical terms used in the key. If a glossary is unavailable, find a good reference
work for the field to help you understand the term.

How Much Have You Learned?

Self-check
Instructions: Choose the letter of the best answer .Write your answers on the answer sheet provided.

1. Which domain contains organisms having a membrane bound nucleus?

a. Domain Archaea c. Domain Eubacteria
b. Domain Bacteria d. Domain Eukarya
2. Which term refers to the sorting of biological organisms?
a. Cladistics c. Phylogeny
b. Classification d. Taxonomy
3. Which kingdom includes plant-like organisms incapable of photosynthesis?
a. Archaea c. Fungi
b. Eukarya d. Protist

How Do You Apply What You Have Learned?

Activity 1: Classification and Dichotomous Key

PLEASE USE THE ATTACHED ACTIVITY SHEET AT THE LAST PAGE

= END OF LESSON 2 =

References:
General Biology 2 SHS teaching Guide
General Biology 2 for Senior High School by Luisito T. Evangelista pages 244-254
https://mrsancheta.weebly.com/uploads/1/6/1/6/16166098/_dichotomouskey.pdf
https://www.google.com/search?q=phylogenetic+tree+of+life
(https://www.britannica.com/science/homology-evolution)
(https://languages.oup.com/google-dictionary-en/)
https://biologydictionary.net/phylogeny/)
(https://languages.oup.com/google-dictionary-en/)
https://www.google.com/search?q=relationships+between+phylogeny
https://smile.oregonstate.edu/lesson/fossils-phylogenies-phylogenetic-tree-activity
https://www.google.com/search?q=systematics
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=q5CiuB1oilU
http://www.aurumscience.com
(file:///C:/Users/crist/Desktop/constructing-a-phylogenetic-tree.pdf)
https://www.google.com/search?q=human%20taxonomy
(https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary)
(https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Introductory_and_General_Biology)
https://oregonstate.edu/trees/dichotomous_key)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DVouQRAKxYo
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FoZUNdOUj9g
https://mrsancheta.weebly.com/uploads/1/6/1/6/16166098/_dichotomouskey.pdf

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