General Biology 2 - 4QT - Week 1 4edited

Republic of the Philippines
Department of Education
REGION IV-A
SCHOOLS DIVISION OFFICE OF CAVITE PROVINCE
TANZA NATIONAL COMPREHENSIVE HIGH SCHOOL
SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL
DAANG AMAYA II, TANZA, CAVITE
General Biology 2
Learner’s Packet
Second Semester
4th Quarter, 2020-2021
TANZA NATIONAL COMPREHENSIVE HIGH SCHOOL

Address: Daang Amaya II, Tanza, Cavite 4108
Telephone No.: (046) 450-0253 / (046) 454-5532 (Senior High School)
E-mail: tnchstanza@gmail.com / tnchsshs@gmail.com
Learner’s Packet General Biology 2 Grade 11/12 Second Semester 4th
Quarter
Note to the Learners

This learner packet is designed for you to have a meaningful learning
opportunities and experiences for guided and independent learning at your own pace
and time. You will be enabled to process the contents of the learning resource while being an
active learner. The packet has the following parts and icon:
Introduction This part, the new lesson will be introduced to you in

various ways such as a story, a song, a poem, a
problem opener, an activity or a situation
Development This section provides a brief discussion of the lesson.

This aims to help you discover and understand new
concepts and skills.
Engagement This comprises activities for independent practice to

solidify your understanding and skills of the topic.
Assimilation This section provides an activity which will help you

transfer your new knowledge or skill into real life
situations or concerns.
Assessment This is a task which aims to evaluate your level of mastery

in achieving the learning competency.
The following are some reminders in using this learning packet:
1. Use the learning packet with care. Do not put unnecessary mark/s on any part of the
learning packet. Use a separate sheet of short bond paper in answering the exercises,
activities including the assimilation and assessment.
2. Do not forget to answer each part before moving on to the other activities included in the
learning packet.
3. Read the instructions carefully before doing each task.
4. Finish the task at hand before proceeding to the next
5. Observe honesty and integrity in doing the tasks and checking your answers.
6. Use the answer keys provided at the back of the learning packet in checking your activities
and exercises.
7. Return the answer sheet of exercises, activities, assimilation and assessment on the
submission date.
If you encounter any difficulty in answering the tasks in this module, do not hesitate to consult
your subject teacher or adviser. Always bear in mind that you are not alone.
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We hope that through this material, you will experience meaningful learning and gain deep
understanding of the relevant competencies. You can do it!
WEEK 1: Processes in Plants and Animals (Reproduction, Development and

Nutrition)
Here are the following learning competencies expected to be covered at the end of the
unit:
The learners demonstrate Plant and Animal Organ Systems

Content Standards
and their Functions
The learners should be able to Develop a presentation (e.g.
role-playing, dramatization and other forms of multimedia) to
Performance Standards
show how an organism maintains homeostasis through the
interaction of the various organ systems in the body.
The learners compare and contrast the following processes in

plants and animals: reproduction, development, nutrition, gas
Most Essential Learning
exchange, transport/ circulation, regulation of body fluids,
Competencies (MELC’s)
chemical and nervous control, immune systems, and sensory
and motor mechanisms. STEM_BIO11/12-IVa-h-1
The learners
1. differentiate asexual from sexual reproduction;
2. describe different modes of sexual and asexual
reproduction;
3. describe the different stages of animal development;
Specific Learning 4. describe human reproductive organ systems;
Outcomes 5. define nutrition and cite the nutritional requirements of
plants and animals;
6. enumerate and describe the main stages of digestion;
and
7. describe the organs involved in digestion
Processes in Plants and Animals (Reproduction,
Content
Development and Nutrition)
Learner’s Materials General Biology II Teacher’s Guide pp. 148-195
Pages
Textbook Pages
Learning Resources
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Lesson 1: Reproduction and Development
INTRODUCTION
In some way or another, all plants and animals around the world reproduce as a
way of bringing in new generations and slowly initiating changes in the species. Some ways of
copulation seem identical to the mating processes of mankind, such as most, but not all,
mammalian reproduction, whereas others seem foreign by contrast.
The fertilization process occurs both in plants and in animals. Of course, there are
variations in the details and mechanisms. Some of the similarities, on the other hand, are striking.
The moss plant, for instance, has both swimming sperm cells and eggs. Fertilization happens in
the moss plant by the sperm swimming to the egg. Reproduction is also carried out by vertebrate
animals via sperm and eggs.
Activity: Pick and Assign
Directions: Listed below are words that are related to plant reproduction and animal
reproduction. Determine which words are associated with plant reproduction, animal
reproduction or both. Write the words on the labeled table below.
Cuttings Double fertilization Male gamete
Female gamete Pollination Testes
Male and female parent Zygote Ovary
Both Plant and Animal

Plant Reproduction Animal Reproduction
Reproduction
Guide Questions:
1. What are the word related to plant and animal reproduction?
2. How will you differentiate the organ present in plant and animal reproduction?
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DEVELOPMENT
In living species, reproduction is a distinctive feature. Over the years, all living
species have survived and grown by way of reproduction. Living organisms reproduce and
give rise to similar organisms of the same species. Different species have different
reproduction methods and processes.
Modes of Reproduction
Asexual Reproduction
Reproduction is the biological mechanism by which the parents create new species
known as the offspring. It consists of two forms: sexual and asexual reproduction. The
distinction between the two forms lies in the required number of parents for both types.
Two parents are required for sexual reproduction to give birth to the offspring. One single
parent will give birth to the offspring in asexual reproduction. Asexual reproduction is
commonly seen in plants, but in the animal kingdom, it is less common.
Types of asexual reproduction
Binary Fission
Bacteria and amoeba typically use this method of reproduction. The DNA of the
parent bacteria replicates itself in this form of reproduction and then the cell divides into
two halves, each half having its own DNA. Therefore, the parent cell divides into two
identical daughter cells. These daughter cells are identical to the parent cell.
Source:
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Binary_Fission_2.svg
Budding
In this type of asexual reproduction process, the offspring grow on the parent
body from a bud-like structure. This is usually seen in Echinodermata and hydra. The
buds fall off the parent body once large enough, and begin their independent life.
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Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Hydra_Budding.svg
Fragmentation
The parent organism splits into several fragments or segments in this form of
asexual mode of reproduction, where each of the fragments evolves into a new organism.
Starfishes, which exhibit sexual reproduction, also exhibit this type of asexual reproduction
in which an entirely new organism may be produced by a part of its body, such as its arm.
Source: https://www.shutterstock.com/search/fragment+planaria
Parthenogenesis
The female organism of the species generates eggs without fertilization in this
process of asexual reproduction, and the offspring emerge from that. Lizards, few insects
and some fishes reproduce in this way. This reproductive form is not seen in mammals.
This kind of asexual reproduction is seen in both plants and animals.
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Types of asexual reproduction in plants

Vegetative propagation
This process of asexual reproduction takes place in the stems of certain plants
from certain buds that emerge on their leaves or stems, giving rise to new plants. Tuber
(potato), bulb (onion), stolon or runner (strawberry), rhizome(ginger), sucker (banana),
stem cutting (rose) and leaf (welcome plant) are used as an example of such propagation.
Sexual Reproduction
Sexual reproduction involves two separate parents that belong to the opposite sex. Both
plants and animals exhibit this kind of reproduction. Flowering plants undergo sexual
reproduction.
Flower
A flower is the sexual reproductive organ in plants. Flowers are often the most
attractive structures of a plant. The flower’s anatomy can be divided into following parts:
Calyx
These are green petal-like structures located right above the receptacle
called the base of the flower. Calyx is made up of sepals. Their primary task is to
safeguard the flower while it is still in the bud process.
Corolla
Corolla is the name given to the collective colorful petals of the flower. The
petals of various flowers are found in different colors and are often fragrant much
of the time. It is the petals that attract the pollinating agents. The corolla is found
above the calyx layer.
Androecium
The male reproductive section of a flower is the androecium. It is made up
of a series of stamens. Each stamen at the top of it consists of a filament and
anther. The anthers are lobed structures that produce the male gamete-containing
pollen.
Gynoecium
The gynoecium is the female reproductive organ of the flower. It is
composed of the ovary, style, and stigma. The style is a slender filament on top of
which lies the stigma that works to retain pollen grains that are transferred. Once
the pollen lands on the stigma, it is moved downward to the ovary via the style.
The ovary is lobed and composed of the female gamete-containing ovules.
Pollination and Fertilization
The pollen grains and ovules by themselves cannot travel from one place to
another. There are other factors such as wind, water, or animals that enable the pollen
grains to travel to reach the stigma of the same or another flower. In plants, fertilization,
which occurs after pollination and germination, is a sexual reproduction process.
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Fertilization can be defined as the fusion of the male gametes (pollen) to form a
diploid zygote with the female gametes (ovum). It is a physicochemical mechanism that
happens after the carpel is pollinated. In the zygote, the full sequence of this process takes
place to develop into a seed.
Flowers play an important role in the fertilization process, since they are
angiosperm reproductive structures (flowering plants). When gametes in haploid
conditions fuse to create a diploid zygote, the process of fertilization in plants occurs.
After the pollination of the carpel, the pollen grain germinates and evolves into the
style by forming the pathway to transfer the pollen grain down to the ovary.
Types of Fertilization
Fertilization process can be grouped into three types and are classified mainly
based on the entry of the pollen tube into the ovule.
Porogamy
It is the common type of fertilization carried out in all angiosperms or
flowering plants. In this type of fertilization, the pollen tube enters the ovule through
the micropyle.
Chalazogamy
This type of fertilization is carried out on all Casuarina species of plants. In
this condition, the pollen tube enters the ovule through the pollen tube.
Mesogamy
This type of fertilization is seen in all Cucurbit plants, such as pumpkin,
ridge gourds, bitter gourd and other gourd plants. In this type of fertilization, the
pollen tube enters the ovule through its middle part or through the integuments of
the ovule.
Double Fertilization
Double fertilization is a fertilization process characterized by the fusion of
two male gametes with a female gametophyte. One sperm cell in this process
fuses with the egg-producing zygote, and the other fuses to create the endosperm
with the two polar nuclei. Both angiosperm plants undergo a dual process of
fertilization.
Reproduction in Human Beings
In human beings, reproduction is by sexual reproduction in which both male and female
gametes fertilize to give birth to a zygote that develops into an embryo. Fertilization takes place
within the female's body thus, called internal fertilization.
The Male Reproductive System
The penis is the male organ for sexual intercourse and urination. Semen and urine leave
the penis through the urethra. The scrotum is a loose, pouch-like sack of skin that covers the
testicles and hangs behind the penis. The scrotum has a protective role, including maintaining
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optimum temperatures for the survival and function of the sperm. The tests must maintain a
temperature slightly cooler than natural body temperature in order to produce sperm. Special
muscles contract and relax in the wall of the scrotum to move the testicles close to the body.
Located at the back of the testis is the epididymis that binds to the vas deferens. Its function is to
store sperm and carry it. The testis is the site of testosterone production. Seminiferous tubules
are the coiled collection of tubes within the testicles. Spermatogenesis takes place within these
tubules.
The male reproductive system's internal organs are called accessory organs. They include
the vas deferens, prostate gland, seminal vesicles, and bulbourethral (Cowper's) glands.
The vas deferens transports mature sperm to the urethra during ejaculation. Seminal
vesicles are sac-like pouches that bind near the base of the bladder to the vas deferens. The
vesicles produce molecules which serve as energy sources for sperm, such as fructose. Much of
the amount of a man's ejaculate consists of the seminal vesicle fluid. The prostate gland is a
walnut sized organ in front of the rectum situated below the urinary bladder. It adds extra fluid to
the ejaculate, which acts as sperm nourishment. Bulbourethral (Cowper's) glands are pea-sized
structures situated just below the prostate gland on the sides of the urethra. These glands contain
a slick, clear fluid that empties into the urethra directly. The fluid produced by these glands
lubricates the urethra and neutralizes residual urine-related acidity.
Figure 5. The male reproductive system

Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Male_anatomy_en.svg
The Female Reproductive System
There are two main parts of the human female reproductive system: the uterus and the
ovaries, which contain egg cells for a woman.
The uterus hosts the fetus that is developing. It also produces vaginal and uterine
secretions. It also passes the anatomically male sperm through to the fallopian tubes.
The ovaries produce the anatomically female eggs. They also produce and secrete
progesterone and estrogen.
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These sections are internal; the vagina, which contains the labia, clitoris, and urethra,
enters the external organs at the vulva. The vagina is connected via the cervix to the uterus, while
the uterus, through the fallopian tubes, is attached to the ovaries.
The ovaries produce an ovum at certain times, which passes into the uterus through the
fallopian tube. If it meets sperm during this transit, the sperm penetrates and merges with the egg,
fertilizing it. Generally, fertilization occurs in the oviducts, but can occur in the uterus itself. Then
the zygote implants itself in the uterine wall, where the embryogenesis and morphogenesis
process starts.
Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Male_anatomy_en.svg
When sufficiently developed to survive outside the womb, the cervix dilates and uterine
contractions drive the fetus through the birth canal (vagina). The ova are larger than sperm and
they are formed by the time a female baby is born. In anticipation of fertilization, an oogenesis
process matures one ovum approximately every month to be sent down the fallopian tube
attached to its ovary. This egg is flushed out of the system by menstruation if not fertilized.
The vagina, uterus, fallopian tubes, cervix, and ovary are the anatomically female inner
reproductive organs.
Mons pubis, pudendal cleft, labia majora, labia minora, Bartholin's glands, and clitoris form
the external components.
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Fertilization and Early Embryonic Development in Humans

Fertilization and early embryonic development is a complex and well-regulated
mechanism in which an organism grows from a single-celled zygote into a multi-cellular organism.
For ensuring the health of the body, the early stages of embryonic development are also
important.
The process of gametes (an egg and sperm) fusing to form a zygote is fertilization. There
is one set of chromosomes each in the egg and sperm. Just one sperm must unite with one egg
to ensure that the child has only one full diploid set of chromosomes.
In mammals, a layer of extracellular matrix composed primarily of glycoproteins called
zona pellucida protects the egg. A series of biochemical processes, called acrosomal reactions,
take place when a sperm binds to the zona pellucida. The acrosome produces digestive enzymes
in placental mammals that initiate the degradation of the glycoprotein matrix that protects the egg
and enables the sperm plasma membrane to fuse with the egg plasma membrane. A variety of
biochemical processes, called acrosomal reactions, take place when a sperm binds to the zona
pellucida. The acrosome produces digestive enzymes in placental mammals that initiate the
degradation of the glycoprotein matrix that protects the egg and enables the plasma sperm
membrane to fuse with the plasma egg membrane (Figure 7). To ensure that no more than one
sperm fertilizes the egg, the egg releases proteins in other places until the acrosomal reactions
occur at one position of the egg membrane to prevent other sperm from fusing with the egg.
Multiple sperm can fuse with the egg if this mechanism fails, resulting in polyspermia. The embryo
that results is not genetically viable and dies within a couple of days.
Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:2901_Sperm_Fertilization.jpg
Cleavage and Blastula Stage
A single-celled zygote, which undergoes rapid cell division to form the blastula, starts the
growth of multi-cellular species. The rapid, multiple cell division rounds are called cleavage. After
over 100 cells have been formed by cleavage, the embryo is called a blastula.
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The blastula is usually a spherical layer of cells around a fluid-filled or yolk-filled cavity (the
blastoderm) (the blastocoel). At this point, mammals form a structure called the blastocyst,
distinguished by an inner cell mass that is different from the blastula surrounding it. Without an
increase in mass, the cells divide during cleavage; that is, one large single-celled zygote divides
into many smaller cells. Each cell is called a blastomere inside the blastula.
Gastrulation
A ball of cells is the typical blastula. Cells in the blastula are spatially rearranged to create
three layers of cells. This is called gastrulation. The blastula folds upon itself during gastrulation
to form the three cell layers. Each of these layers is referred to as a germ layer, and various organ
systems are distinguished by each germ layer. The endoderm, the ectoderm, and the mesoderm
are the three germ layers that are seen in Figure 4. The ectoderm gives rise to the epidermis and
the nervous system. The mesoderm produces the body's muscle cells and connective tissue. The
endoderm gives rise to columnar cells and several internal organs including the digestive system
(Figure 8).
Figure 8. The three germ layers that give rise to different cell types in the animal body.
Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Germ_layers.jpg
Organogenesis
Through the process of differentiation, organs form from the germ layers. Embryonic stem
cells express unique sets of genes during differentiation, which will decide their ultimate type of
cell. For example, genes unique to skin cells will be expressed by certain cells in the ectoderm.
As a result, epidermal cells would be divided into these cells.
In vertebrates, the development of the neural system is one of the key steps during
organogenesis. Epithelial cells and tissues, and neural tissues, form the ectoderm. Special
signaling molecules called growth factors during the development of the neural system signal
those cells at the edge of the ectoderm to become epidermis cells. The neural plate is created by
the remaining cells in the middle.
If growth factors were to block the signaling, then the entire ectoderm would differentiate
into neural tissue.
The neural plate undergoes a series of cell movements where it rolls up and forms a tube
called the neural tube. The neural tube will give rise to the brain and the spinal cord in further
development.
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The mesoderm lying on either side of the neural tube of the vertebrate will grow into the
animal body's various connective tissues. A gene expression spatial pattern reorganizes the
mesoderm into groups of cells with gaps between them, called somites. The somites, will grow
further into the muscles of the ribs, lungs, and segmental (spine).
ENGAGEMENT
It’s time to check your understanding! Answer the following activities in a separate
sheet of paper.
Direction: Make a flowchart to show early embryonic development in humans. Start with
the zygote.
Excellent (10points) Good (7 points) Needs Improvement

(4 points)
Content Correctness and Correctness and Correctness and
quantity of quantity of quantity of
information is very information is good information is poor
good
Symbols like arrows Symbols are present Symbols are present Symbols are absent
in the flowchart that in the flowchart but in the flowchart. If
indicate the incomplete present, these are
development flow. development flow. misplaced.
Organization The flowchart is The flowchart is The flowchart is neat,
neat, logically neat, organized, and however it is not
organized, and easily understood by logically organized,
understood by someone other than for someone to
someone other than the author. understand other
the author. than the author.
ASSIMILATION
At this point, you are now ready to apply the concepts of reproduction in food
production. Select from among the vegetative methods of plant propagation to reproduce a certain
plant. Grow at least 10 from the selected plant.
Rubric:
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ASSESSMENT
Multiple Choice. Choose the letter of the best answer. Write the chosen letter on a
separate sheet of paper.
1. How many parents are needed for sexual reproduction to take place?
A. 1 B. 2 C. more than 2 D. multiple
2. Which set of reproductive terms has an incorrect combination?

A. penis, sperm, sperm duct, testis
B. egg, oviduct, sperm, uterus
C. egg, menstruation, oviduct, uterus
D. egg, oviduct, ovulation, uterus
3. After fertilization, which will give rise to a new individual?

A. embryo B. fetus C. ovum D. zygote
4. In which organism does budding take place?

A. amoeba B. bacteria C. hydra D. paramecium
5. Which organism can undergo both sexual and asexual reproduction?

A. coral B. horseradish C. lizard D. human
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Lesson 2: Nutrition
INTRODUCTION
We engage in a lot of everyday tasks. A large amount of energy is needed to carry
out these activities. This energy comes from the food that we consume. Food is essential
as it provides the energy required for growth, repair, and other life processes. All of these
falls under the life process called nutrition.
Nutrients are the substances that provide the energy and biomolecules necessary
for the different functions of the body to be carried out. For proper functioning and
development, all living organisms need nutrients. But in how they satisfy this demand, they
show divergence. To satisfy their nutrient needs, some animals feed on basic inorganic
compounds, while others use complex compounds. The mode of nutrition varies according
to species.
Activity: Crackers in my Mouth
This activity shows how your saliva works in indigestion. (Before you start with step 1,
read the questions in the observations part first).
Procedure:
Step 1. Put a regular cracker into your mouth and chew. Write down your
observations. down your observations.
Step 2. Place anew cracker in your mouth and let it sit for 1.5 minutes before
chewing and answer the questions in the observations part.
Observations:
1. What does it feel like initially?
2. What does it feel like after 1 minute in your mouth?
3. What does it feel like after 1.5 minutes in your mouth?
4. What does it feel like when you chew it?
5. What was the main texture difference in your mouth between chewing right away
and waiting 1.5 minutes before chewing down?
DEVELOPMENT
Nutrition is the mechanism by which food is taken in and converted into energy
and other essential nutrients that are needed for life.
Types of Nutrition
Broadly, there are two types of nutrition among living organisms.
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Autotrophic Nutrition
In the autotrophic mode, species use simple inorganic materials such as water and carbon
dioxide to synthesize food on their own in the presence of light and chlorophyll. In other words, to
transform light energy into food, such as glucose, the photosynthesis mechanism is used. The
organisms are called autotrophs. Some examples of autotrophic feeding are plants, algae, and
bacteria (cyanobacteria).
Heterotrophic Nutrition
Each organism is unable to prepare food on its own. For their nutrition, such species rely
on others. Heterotrophs are species which cannot produce food on their own and rely on other
sources/organisms.
Heterotrophs include fungi and all animals, including humans. Depending on their climate
and adaptations, heterotrophs can be of several types. Some may eat plants (herbivores) and
others may eat animals (carnivores), although few eat both (omnivores).
Nutrition in Plants
To sustain life, plant cells need essential substances, collectively called nutrients. Plant
nutrients may be composed of organic or inorganic compounds. A chemical compound that
contains carbon, such as carbon dioxide derived from the atmosphere, is an organic compound.
Minerals are commonly referred to as inorganic substances which make up the majority of the
soil solution: those needed by plants include nitrogen (N) Phosphorus (P) and potassium (K) for
structure and regulation. Plants require only light, water and about 20 elements to support all their
biochemical needs: these 20 elements are called essential nutrients (Table 1.)
Deficiencies in any of these nutrients can adversely affect the growth of plants, particularly
macronutrients. Depending on the particular nutrient, a lack can cause stunted development, slow
growth or chlorosis (yellowing of the leaves).
Plants are special organisms that can absorb nutrients and water through their root system
as well as carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. Along with sunlight, the combination of soil
nutrients, water, and carbon dioxide enables plants to grow.
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The essential component of all vascular plants is the roots. It is primarily the function of
this section of the plant to anchor it down to the ground and absorb the necessary mineral
elements, nutrients and water from the soil. It is used to store food as well. Some plants have
roots that rise above the ground. These are called aerial roots.
Nutrition in Animals
To obtain nutrition and energy from food, a multi-step process is involved. Ingestion is the
first step which is the process of taking in food. Digestion, absorption, and elimination follow
ingestion.
Ingestion is the process of taking in food through the mouth. The teeth, saliva and tongue
play essential roles in chewing in vertebrates (preparing the food into bolus). While the food is
being broken down mechanically, the saliva enzymes also begin to process the food chemically.
These processes' combined action modifies the food from large particles to a soft mass that can
be swallowed and can travel the length of the esophagus.
The mechanical and chemical degradation of food into small organic fragments is
digestion. Macromolecules need to be broken down into smaller molecules that are ideal for
absorption in the digestive epithelium. Before they can be absorbed by the digestive system,
large, complex molecules of proteins, carbohydrates and lipids must be reduced to smaller
particles such as simple sugar. In the digestive phase, different organs perform unique roles. For
nutritional balance, the animal diet requires carbohydrates, protein, and fat, as well as vitamins
and inorganic components.
Figure 8. The Components of the Digestive System
Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Blausen_0316_DigestiveSystem.png
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Carbohydrate
Carbohydrate digestion begins in the mouth. The salivary enzyme amylase starts
the breakdown of maltose, a disaccharide, into food starches. No major digestion of
carbohydrates occurs as the food bolus passes through the esophagus to the stomach.
No digestive enzymes are produced by the esophagus, but mucus is produced for
lubrication. The acidic state of the stomach stops the action of the amylase enzyme.
The next stage of carbohydrate digestion takes place in the duodenum. Note that
the chyme enters the duodenum from the stomach and interacts with the pancreas, liver,
and gallbladder digestive secretion. Amylase, which starts the degradation of starch and
glycogen into maltose, a disaccharide, also contains pancreatic juices. The disaccharides
are broken down by maltases, sucrases, and lactases into monosaccharides. The maltose
breaks down into glucose with the enzyme maltase. Sucrase breaks down glucose and
fructose from sucrose (or 'table sugar'), and lactase breaks down glucose and galactose
from lactose (or 'milk sugar').
The monosaccharides (glucose) formed are absorbed and then can be used for
harnessing energy in metabolic pathways. The monosaccharides are transferred through
the intestinal epithelium into the bloodstream to be carried to the various cells in the body
(Figure 9).
Figure 9. Digestion of carbohydrates is performed by several enzymes. Starch and

glycogen are broken down into glucose by amylase and maltase. Sucrose (table sugar)
and lactose (milk sugar) are broken down by sucrase and lactase, respectively.
Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Figure_34_03_01.jpg
Protein
In the stomach, a large part of the digestion of protein takes place. By breaking the
intact protein down into peptides, which are short chains of four to nine amino acids, the
enzyme pepsin plays an important role in the digestion of proteins. Many enzymes like
trypsin, elastase, and chymotrypsin act on the peptides in the duodenum, reducing them
to smaller peptides.
Enzymes called peptidases help further breakdown of peptides to single amino
acids (those that break down peptides). The amino acids are ingested into the tiny
intestines into the bloodstream.
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Lipids
With the assistance of lingual lipase and gastric lipase, lipid digestion starts in the
stomach. However, owing to pancreatic lipase, the majority of lipid digestion occurs in the
small intestine. The hormonal responses cause the release of bile, formed in the liver and
stored in the gallbladder, when chyme reaches the duodenum.
Bile helps to digest lipids, especially triglycerides. Emulsification is a mechanism
that breaks down large lipid globules into many small lipid globules. Bile contains
amphipathic bile salts, meaning they contain sections that are hydrophobic and
hydrophilic. The hydrophilic side of the bile salts will therefore interface with water on one
side, while the hydrophobic side interfaces with lipids on the other. Bile salts emulsify big
lipid globules into tiny lipid globules by doing this. Pancreatic lipases can then act more
effectively on the lipids and digest them. Lipases break the lipids down into glycerides and
fatty acids.
Vitamins
Vitamins can either be soluble in water or soluble in lipids. Vitamins soluble in fat
are absorbed in the same way as lipids. To help the absorption of lipid-soluble vitamins, it
is essential to consume some amount of dietary lipid. Water-soluble vitamins can be
absorbed from the intestine directly into the bloodstream.
Elimination
Eliminating the undigested food content and waste products is the final stage in digestion.
The undigested food content reaches the large intestine, where it reabsorbs much of the water.
The semi-solid waste is transferred by peristaltic muscle movements through the colon and is
deposited in the rectum. As the rectum expands in response to fecal matter storage, it activates
the neural signals needed to set up the desire to remove them. Using peristaltic motions of the
rectum, the solid waste is removed via the anus.
ENGAGEMENT
It’s time to check your understanding! Answer the following activities in a separate sheet
of paper.
Direction: Differentiate plant from animal nutrition. Supply the correct answer in the table.
Plants Animals
Type of nutrition
(autotrophic, heterotrophic)
Organs involved
Essential Nutrients
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ASSIMILATION
At this point, you are now ready to apply the concepts you learned on nutrition to
keeping a healthier life. Now more than ever, it's important for your immune system to
stay in tip-top shape during the COVID-19 pandemic. One of the best ways to stay
healthy is by maintaining a healthy diet. Hence, you are asked to prepare a 2-day menu.
ASSESSMENT
Direction: Read each question and choose the correct answer. Write your answers
on separate sheet of paper.
1. Which of the following when absent may cause calcium deficiency?
A. Vitamin B B. Vitamin C C. Vitamin D D. Vitamin E
2. Which of the following enzymes splits fat globules into glycerol and fatty acids?
A. amylase B. lipase C. sucrase D. trypsin
3. What plant part conveys water to the different parts of the plant?
A. leaf B. flower C. root D. stem
4. Which of the following is an example of an essential macronutrients inplants?
A. Carbon B. Cobalt C. Manganese D.Sodium
5. Which of the following parts of the digestive system has the most important role in
nutrient absorption?
A. esophagus B. large intestine C. liver D. small intestine
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WEEK 2: Processes in Plants and Animals (Gas Exchange and

Transport/Circulation)
Here are the following learning competencies expected to be covered at
the end of the unit:

Content Standards
and their Functions

The learners shall be able to compare and contrast the

following processes in plants and animals: reproduction,
development, nutrition, gas exchange, transport/ circulation,
regulation of body fluids, chemical and nervous control,
immune systems, and sensory and motor mechanisms
(STEM_BIO11/12-IVa-h-1)
At the end of the lesson, the learners will be able to:

1. state some basic principles in gas exchange;
2. describe the structures for gas exchange in plants and
animals;
3. describe the organs in the human respiratory system
and their roles;
4. discuss the coordination of gas exchange and
Specific Learning
circulation;
Outcomes
5. explain the functions of structures in animal
circulation;
6. trace the path of blood in the systemic and the
pulmonary circulation; and
7. describe the transport of substances in xylem and
phloem.
Processes in Plants and Animals (Gas Exchange and

Content
Transport/Circulation)
Learner’s Materials SHS General Biology II Teacher’s Guide pp
Pages
Textbook Pages
Learning Resources
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Lesson 1: Gas Exchange
INTRODUCTION
One of the most essential events in everyday life of a living organism is the
exchange of gases. This process is important as it keeps organism alive. Carbon dioxide,
as a waste product during this process is removed from most animal systems and
substituted by oxygen. Plants on the other hand uses carbon dioxide in photosynthesis to
produce oxygen which will be used by animals and plants for respiration. Gas exchange
is responsible for the presence of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the air.
Activity 1: Breathing and Exercise
Background and Information:
Normal breathing rates from 12-25 times per minute. In this activity, you will
compare you breathing rate at rest to your breathing rate after exercise.
Procedure:
1. Sit quietly and breathe for one minute. While you are doing this, count the
number of breaths (in and out is one count) you take.
2. Run in place for 30 seconds. Then sit down and again have your partner count
the number of breaths you take for 1 minute. Record this number in the data table.
3. Run in place for 1 minute. Sit down and have your partner count the number of
breaths in 1 minute. Record this number in the data table.
Observations:
Activity Rate
Resting
After 30 seconds of exercise
After 1 minute of exercise
Analysis:
1. How did exercise affect your breathing rate?
2. What other factor besides exercise might influence your normal breathing rate?
3. Did you notice any other way your breathing changed with exercise? Give a
possible reason for this change?
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DEVELOPMENT
Carbon dioxide may appear to be a waste product of respiration in plant cells, but
carbon dioxide may be a by-product because it is used in photosynthesis. Plant cells must have
carbon dioxide available in them while the oxygen gas must be eliminated. Gas exchange is an
important process in the metabolism of energy, and gas exchange is an essential prerequisite for
life.
Diffusion through a moist membrane is the fundamental process of gas exchange.
Diffusion is the movement of molecules in the direction following the concentration gradient, from
a region of greater concentration to a region of lower concentration. The molecules travel through
cell membranes in living systems, which are constantly moistened by fluid.
Plants
While plants are complex organisms, they exchange their gases with the atmosphere.
Water moves through the tissues of aquatic plants and provides the means for the exchange of
carbon. Air enters the tissues of terrestrial plants, and the gases diffuse through the moisture that
bathes the inner cells.
An abundant supply of carbon dioxide must be available in the leaves of the plant, and
oxygen from photosynthesis must be released. Gases do not pass through the leaf cuticle; they
pass through pores called stomata in the epidermis. On the lower surface of the leaf, stomata are
numerous and usually open during the day when the rate of photosynthesis is highest. The
opening and closure of stomata are due to physiological changes in the surrounding guard cells.
Figure 1. The Structure of a Stoma

Animals
Gas exchange follows the same general trend in animals as in plants. Oxygen and carbon
dioxide diffuses across moist membranes. The exchange happens directly with the environment
in simple animals. The exchange between the environment and the blood happens with complex
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organisms, such as mammals. The blood transports oxygen to deeply embedded cells and
transports carbon dioxide out of the body.
Oxygen and carbon dioxide are transferred by earthworms directly through their skin.
Oxygen diffuses into tiny blood vessels on the surface of the skin where it mixes with hemoglobin,
a red pigment. Hemoglobin loosely binds to oxygen and brings it across the bloodstream of the
animal. Hemoglobin transports carbon dioxide back to the blood.
Terrestrial arthropods have a set of openings on the surface of the body called spiracles.
Spiracles open into tiny air tubes called tracheae, which grow into fine branches that reach into
all areas of the body of the arthropod.
Figure 2. The Tracheal System in Arthropods
Fishes use external extensions of the surface of their body, called gas exchange
gills. Gills are tissue flaps which are richly supplied by blood vessels. This attracts water
into its mouth and through the gills as a fish swim. Oxygen spreads through the gill's blood
vessels from the water, while carbon dioxide exits the blood vessels and enters the water
flowing through the gills.
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Figure 3. The Tracheal System in Arthropods

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fish_gill
There are well-developed respiratory systems with lungs for terrestrial vertebrates
such as amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals. In their lungs, frogs swallow air, where
oxygen diffuses the blood to bind with hemoglobin in the red blood cells. By means of their
skin, amphibians can exchange gases as well. To provide increased surface space for
gas exchange, reptiles have folded lungs. Rib muscles aid the expansion of the lungs and
protect the lungs from damage.
Birds have in their lungs large air spaces called air sacs. The rib cage spreads
apart when a bird inhales, and a partial vacuum is created in the lungs. Air flows into the
lungs and then into the air sacs, where much of the exchange of gas takes place. This
method is the adaptation of birds to the rigors of flight and their enormous metabolic
requirements.
Mammalian lungs are classified into millions of microscopic air sacs called alveoli
(the singular is alveolus). A rich network of blood vessels for transporting gases surrounds
each alveolus. Furthermore, mammals have a dome-shaped diaphragm that separates
the thorax from the abdomen, providing a separate the chest cavity for breathing and blood
circulating. The diaphragm contracts and flattens to create a partial vacuum in the lungs
during inhalation. With air, the lungs fill, and gas exchange follows.
Figure 4. The Thoracic Cavity and Lungs

Source: https://open.oregonstate.education/aandp/chapter/22-2-the-lungs/
The Human Respiratory System
Gas exchange between the external atmosphere and the circulatory system of an
organism is the primary feature of the respiratory system. This exchange combines the
oxygenation of blood with the removal of carbon dioxide and other metabolic waste from
circulation in humans and other mammals.
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Gas exchange occurs at the molecular level in the alveoli-tiny sacs that are the essential
functional part of the lungs. The alveolar epithelial tissue is extremely thin and permeable,
facilitating the exchange of gas between the air inside the lungs and the blood stream capillaries.
Air moves due to variations in pressure, where air flows from high-pressure areas to low-pressure
areas.
The key respiratory system organs work primarily to provide oxygen for cellular respiration
to body tissues, extract carbon dioxide from the waste product, and help preserve acid-base
balance. Sections of the respiratory system are also used for non-vital purposes, such as odor
detection, voice generation, and stress, such as during childbirth or coughing.
In order to help you breathe, the respiratory system has several different parts that function
together. Your airways deliver your lungs with air. Your airways are a complex structure, like your:
• Mouth and nose: Openings that pull air from outside your body into your respiratory
system.
• Sinuses: Hollow areas between the bones in your head that help regulate the
temperature and humidity of the air you inhale.
• Pharynx (throat): Tube that delivers air from your mouth and nose to the
trachea (windpipe).
• Trachea: Passage connecting your throat and lungs.
• Bronchial tubes: Tubes at the bottom of your windpipe that connect into each lung.
• Lungs: Two organs that remove oxygen from the air and pass it into your blood.
From your lungs, your bloodstream delivers oxygen to all your organs and other tissues.
Muscles and bones help move the air you inhale into and out of your lungs. Some of the
bones and muscles in the respiratory system include your:
• Diaphragm: Muscle that helps your lungs pull in air and push it out
• Ribs: Bones that surround and protect your lungs and heart
When you breathe out, your blood carries carbon dioxide and other waste out of the body.
Other components that work with the lungs and blood vessels include:
• Alveoli: Tiny air sacs in the lungs where the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide
takes place.
• Bronchioles: Small branches of the bronchial tubes that lead to the alveoli.
• Capillaries: Blood vessels in the alveoli walls that move oxygen and carbon dioxide.
• Lung lobes: Sections of the lungs – three lobes in the right lung and two in the left lung.
• Pleura: Thin sacs that surround each lung lobe and separate your lungs from the chest
wall.
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Figure 4. The Respiratory System

Some of the other components of your respiratory system include:
• Cilia: Tiny hairs that move in a wave-like motion to filter dust and other irritants out of
your airways.
• Epiglottis: Tissue flap at the entrance to the trachea that closes when you swallow to
keep food and liquids out of your airway.
• Larynx (voice box): Hollow organ that allows you to talk and make sounds when air
moves in and out
ENGAGEMENT
It’s time to check your understanding! Answer the following activities in a separate
sheet of paper.
Activity: Sentence completion.
Directions: Answer the following questions. Use the word bank below to answer the
questions.
exhale muscles diaphragm air sacs
mouth cilia inhale brain
1. When we_____________ air enters the body through the nose and mouth.
2. Mucous and ____________ work to trap dirt and germs before we inhale.
3. The _______________ helps draw air into the lungs.
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4. The structure where the respiratory system and the circulatory system meet is the
________________.
5. The __________________ controls the rate of breathing.
ASSIMILATION
At this point, you are now ready to apply the concepts of gas exchange in our
current pandemic situation. Aware that viruses can enter the body through the
respiratory passages, you are tasked to create catchy reminders to protect ourselves
from transmitting the Covid-19 virus. You may include images to highlight what you want
to convey. Post your output in your facebook wall. Make a screenshot and send the
picture to your teacher. (20 points)
ASSESSMENT
Read each question carefully then select the correct answer from the given choices.
1. Which gas is released by plants during aerobic respiration?

A. Carbon dioxide B. Hydrogen C. Nitrogen D. Oxygen
2. Which structure in plants allow gas exchange?
A. Chloroplast B. Guard cells C. Stomata D. Epidermis
3. What organ in animals release carbon dioxide from the body?
A. Lung B. Intestine C. Kidney D. Throat
4. Which muscles contract to bring about respiration?
A. Cardiac B. Diaphragm C. Pulmonary D. Pelvic
5. When you breathe, what is taken in?
A. Air B. Carbon dioxide C. Oxygen D. Nitrogen
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Lesson 2: Transport/Circulation
INTRODUCTION
Multicellular organisms need to supply every cell with oxygen, water and nutrients
and to achieve this they need a transport mechanism otherwise diffusion will be too long.
The development of a transport system is thus directly related to an organism’s surface
area: volume ratio. Organisms which have a very large surface area: volume ratio e.g.
protozoans, may depend upon diffusion, but as an organism grows bigger, the surface
area to volume ratio reduces and this makes a specialized transport mechanism
necessary.
Activity 1: Heart Zone
This activity will help you note changes in heart beat with different physical
activities.
Procedure:
*After each physical activity below, let your heart recover for 1-2 minutes before starting
the next activity.
*Count your heart beat for after doing the physical activity. Use watch with second hand
or any stopwatch.
Questions:
1. What activity were you doing when your heart beat the fastest?
2. During the recovery time after an activity, what happened to your heart rate?
3. Describe how you felt physically when your heart rate was increasing?
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DEVELOPMENT
Transport in Plants
Plants need a transport system to supply raw materials for photosynthesis to the
leaves and to deliver the sugar made to other areas of the plant for use or storage.
The Xylem Transport System
Water and minerals are carried up through the stem in xylem vessels. Xylem is a tissue
composed of dead, hollowed-out cells that form a web of pipes. The walls of xylem cells are
lignified (strengthened with a material called lignin) (strengthened with a substance called lignin).
This allows the xylem to tolerate pressure changes as water flows through the plant. Transport in
the xylem is a physical process. It does not require energy.
Source: https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/z28g7p3/revision/1
The Phloem Transport System

Sugar formed by photosynthesis in the leaves is transferred up and down the plant to the
meristems and other tissues in living phloem cells. The transported sugar is needed in the
following processes: growing parts of the plant for immediate use; storage organs such as bulbs
and tubers; developing seeds; and respiration.
Transport in the phloem is both up and down the stem. Transport of substances in the
phloem is termed translocation.
Phloem consists of living cells. The cells that make up the phloem are adapted to their
function:
▪ Sieve tubes - specialized for transport and contain no nuclei. Each sieve tube
has a perforated end so the cytoplasm binds one cell to the next.
▪ Companion cells- supply the energy for the sieve cells. The end walls of the
sieve cells have pores from which sugar is transferred from cell to cell.
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Figure 5. Phloem Transport System

Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Phloem_cells.svg
The xylem and phloem are dispersed differently in roots and stems. In the root, the xylem
forms a central axis, forming a strong support. The phloem is in the middle, above the xylem.
In the stem, the transport tissues of the xylem and phloem are organized into vascular
bundles.
Figure 6. The Vascular (Xylem and Phloem) Bundle
Transporting Water
Each organism is unable to prepare food on its own. For their nutrition, such species rely
on others. Heterotrophs are species which cannot produce food on their own and rely on other
sources/organisms.
Plants require transport mechanisms to carry water, dissolved food and other substances
around their structures in order to remain alive. Plants require water for photosynthesis and for
the transport of minerals.
Water enters root hair cells: tiny hairs covering the ends of the smallest roots. They provide
a large surface area for the absorption of water by the process of osmosis. Water then moves
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from cell to cell through the root cortex by osmosis down a concentration gradient. This means
that each cell has a lower water content than the one before it. In the center of the root the water
enters the xylem vessels - vein-like tissues that transport water and minerals up a plant.
Water molecules move up the xylem vessels to the leaves where they exit and move from
cell to cell. Water moves from the xylem vessels into the mesophyll cells where it can be used for
photosynthesis.
Xylem to Leaf to Air

Some of the water evaporates into the surrounding air spaces inside the leaf and then
diffuses out through the stomata into the surrounding air. The opening and closing of the stomata
is controlled by guard cells in the epidermis. The loss of water from the leaves of a plant is called
transpiration, and the resulting flow of water through the plant is called the transpiration stream.
Transport System in Animals

Transport systems are crucial to survival. Unicellular organisms rely on simple diffusion
for transport of nutrients and removal of waste. Multicellular organisms have developed more
complex circulatory systems.
Parts of the Circulatory System

The average adult has 4.7 to 5.6 liters of blood composed of plasma (fluid part of
blood), red blood cells or erythrocytes (transports oxygen), white blood cells (defense of
the body) and platelets (blood clotting).
The heart is a four-chamber muscular organ. Located just behind and just to the
left of the breastbone, it pumps blood through a network of arteries and veins called the
cardiovascular system.
The network of arteries (carries oxygenated blood), and veins (carries
deoxygenated blood) or collectively called blood vessels brings oxygenated blood from
the heart, provides oxygen and nutrients to the cells of the body, and then returns
deoxygenated blood back to the heart.
Open Circulatory System

In an open circulatory system, the blood vessels carry all fluids to the cavity. When
the animal moves, the blood inside the cavity moves freely in both directions throughout
the body. Blood bathes the body immediately, delivering oxygen and eliminating waste
from the bloodstream.
Blood moves at a very slow pace due to the lack of smooth muscles, which, as you
have learned earlier, are responsible for the contraction of the blood vessels. The majority
of invertebrates (crabs, flies, snails etc.) have an open circulatory system.
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Figure 7. Open Circulatory System
Closed Circulatory System

Closed circulatory systems are distinct from open circulatory systems because
blood never leaves the blood vessels. Instead, it is continually moved from one blood
vessel to another without entering the cavity.
Blood is transported in one direction, supplying oxygen and nutrients to cells and
removing waste materials.
The blood circulatory system (cardiovascular system) provides nutrients and
oxygen to all cells of the body. It consists of the heart and the blood vessels that run
through the whole body. The arteries carries blood from the heart; the veins bring it back
to the heart.
The system of blood vessels resembles a tree: the trunk – the primary artery (aorta)
– branches through large arteries, leading to smaller and smaller vessels. The smallest
arteries wind up in a network of tiny vessels known as the capillary network.
The human circulatory system involves the pulmonary and systemic circulatory
systems. The pulmonary circulatory system consists of blood vessels that transport
deoxygenated blood from the heart to the lungs and return oxygenated blood from the
lungs to the heart.
Pulmonary circulation system

In the pulmonary circulation system, deoxygenated blood exits the heart from the
right ventricle and is transferred through the pulmonary artery to the lungs. The pulmonary
artery is the only artery to carry deoxygenated blood. It carries blood to the capillaries
where carbon dioxide diffuses from the blood to the alveoli (lung cells) and then to the
lungs where it is exhaled. Simultaneously, oxygen diffuses through the alveoli, and then
to the blood and returns to the left atrium of the heart through the pulmonary vein.
Systemic circulation
Systemic circulation refers to the portion of the circulation system that exits the
heart, takes oxygenated blood to the cells of the body, and returns deoxygenated blood
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to the heart. Blood exits from the left ventricle to the aorta, the body's largest artery. The
aorta connects to smaller arteries that supply all of the body's organs.
These arteries ultimately branch to the capillaries. In the capillaries, oxygen
diffuses from the blood to the cells, and the waste and carbon dioxide diffuses from the
cells and into the blood. Deoxygenated blood in the capillaries then travels to the veins
that converge into the veins, where the blood is transferred back to the heart. These veins
converge into two main veins, namely the upper vena cava and the lower vena cava
(figure: double circulation). Deoxygenated blood enters the right atrium from the upper
vena cava. Major arteries deliver blood to the brain, small intestine, liver, and kidneys.
Systemic circulation, however, also targets the other organs, including the muscles and
skin.
Figure 8a. Pulmonary and Systemic Circulation
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Figure 8b. Flow of Blood in the Body

Source: https://pixy.org/889066/
ENGAGEMENT
Directions: Illustrate and trace the flow of blood in a pulmonary circulation. Label
your illustration. Represent the flow of blood using colored arrows. Use red ink to represent
oxygenated blood and use blue ink for deoxygenated blood. Give a short explanation of
your illustration. (25 pts.)
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ASSIMILATION
Direction: Design a simple experiment to illustrate transport in plants.
ASSESSMENT
Directions: Read carefully each question and select the correct answer from the given
choices. Use separate sheet of paper for your answers. Write the letter only.
1. What structure in the leaf is the entry point of gases in plants?

A. Guard cells B. Mesophyll C. Palisade D. Stoma
2. Which of the following organisms exemplify gas exchange through the moist skin?
A. Earthworm B. Fish C. Human D. Snake
3. Which structures in an arthropod allows the entry of gases into its body?
A. Gills B. Lung C. Skin D. Spiracles
4. What would happen if the lower epidermis of the leaves of plants become too dusty?
A. Oxygen can readily exit from the plant.
B. Oxygen becomes abundant inside the plant.
C. Carbon dioxide is trapped in the leaves for respiration.
D. Carbon dioxide can hardly enter the plant resulting to reduced photosynthesis.
5. When you hold your breath, which of the following gas changes in the blood first leads to the
urge to breathe?
A. Rising oxygen
B. Falling oxygen
C. Rising carbon dioxide
D. Rising carbon dioxide and falling oxygen
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WEEK 3: Processes in Plants and Animals (Regulation of Fluids, Chemical

and Nervous Control)

Content Standards
and their Functions



1. define and explain osmoregulation;
2. describe different types of animals based on the
osmolarity of their body;
Specific Learning 3. describe movements of fluids in relation to the
Outcomes environment;
4. describe animal excretory systems;
5. characterize the mammalian urinary system and the
role of nephrons; and
6. analyze the role of the kidneys in the body’s acid-base
balance.
Processes in Plants and Animals (Regulation of Fluids,

Content
Chemical and Nervous Control)

Pages
Textbook Pages
Learning Resources Dela Peña, Renato Jr., Gracilla, Daniel and Pangilinan, Christian.
2016. General Biology. Pasay City: JFS Publishing Services
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Lesson 1: Regulation of Body Fluids
INTRODUCTION
All animals (and plants) need to regulate body fluids. Failure to do so leads to
hydration or dehydration of the tissue cells with fatal consequences. Body fluids are liquids
that originates from inside the bodies of organisms. They include fluids that are excreted
or secreted from the body.
Activity 1. Mystery of the Moisture
Directions: Perform this activity.
Procedure:
Get a potted plant then cover the plant entirely with a transparent plastic.
Leave the plant for an hour then observe the inner side of the plastic that you used
to cover the plant.
Observation/s
________________________________________________________________
Guide Question:
1. Where did the moisture come from?
DEVELOPMENT
Osmoregulation is control of the osmotic pressure of body fluids of an organism to
preserve the homeostasis of the body's water content; that is, it regulates the fluid
equilibrium and the concentration of electrolytes (salts in solution) to prevent the fluids
from being too diluted or too concentrated.
Types of Osmoregulation
Osmoconformers
Osmoconformers are species that attempt to balance the osmolarity of their bodies
with their surroundings. In other words, these species sustain the same osmotic pressure
within the body as outside the body. They adhere by active or passive means. Most
aquatic invertebrates, such as starfish, jellyfish and lobsters, are osmoconformers.
Osmoregulators
Osmoregulators are species that actively control their osmotic pressure,
regardless of the external environment. Many vertebrates, including humans, are
osmoregulatory. Many freshwater fish are also known to be osmoregulatory.
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Osmoregulation in Different Organisms

Osmoregulation in Plants
Plants use stomata on the lower side of their leaves to control water loss. Plants
developing in hydrated soils compensate for water depletion by transpiration by absorbing
more water from the soil. Plants that thrive in semi-arid areas retain water in the vacuoles
and have dense, fleshy cuticles to avoid lack of water.
Osmoregulation in Freshwater Fish
Freshwater fish are hypertonic to the surrounding environment, which means that
the concentration of salt in their blood is greater than that of the surrounding water. They
consume a regulated volume of water through the mouth and membranes of the gill.
Because of this ingestion of water, they create huge volumes of urine in which a lot of salt
is lost. Salt is supplemented by mitochondrial-rich cells in the gills. These cells absorb salt
from the surrounding water into the blood.
Osmoregulation in Marine Fish
Compared to freshwater fish, marine fish have the opposite problem. They have a
greater percentage of water in their blood than the environment. As a consequence, there
is a tendency to lose water and to absorb salt. To solve this problem, marine fish drink
vast volumes of water and limit urination. Other extra energy consumption often occurs
when these species constantly need to remove salt from the body (through the gills).
Osmoregulation in Bacteria
Bacteria use a transport system to capture electrolytes as the osmolarity
surrounding them increases. Osmotic stress stimulates certain genes in bacteria that
synthesize osmoprotectants.
Osmoregulation in Higher Forms of Animals
Animals have a well-developed excretory mechanism that helps to retain the water lost
from the body, while preserving osmotic pressure.
Osmoregulation in Humans
The kidneys are the primary organ responsible for osmoregulation in humans.
Water, amino acids and glucose are reabsorbed by the kidneys. When the body's
water content is high, a significant volume of hypotonic urine is released.
When the water level is low, it absorbs water and produces low levels of hypertonic
urine. Thus, the kidneys regulate the body's electrolytic equilibrium.
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Figure1.Osmoregulation in Human
Aldosterone, angiotensin II, and antidiuretic hormones control the process of
absorption. Any water and electrolytes are often lost by sweating. Osmoreceptors in the
brain hypothalamus regulate the thirst and secretion of ADH. ADH opens the water
channels of aquaporins that cause the water to flow. As a result, the kidneys begin to
absorb water until the pituitary gland begins producing ADH.
Nitrogen Waste
Nitrogen waste is the result of protein synthesis. Amino groups are separated from amino
acids prior to the conversion of the energy. NH2 (amino group) is mixed with hydrogen ion (proton)
to form ammonia (NH3). Ammonia is very harmful and is typically excreted directly from marine
organisms. Terrestrial animals usually need to conserve water. Ammonia is converted to urea, a
substance that the body can handle at higher concentrations than ammonia. Birds and insects
secrete uric acid that they waste a lot of energy but no water loss. Amphibians and rodents secrete
the urea they form in their liver. Amino groups are transformed into ammonia and, in turn, is turned
into urea, dumped into blood and concentrated in the kidneys.
Excretory Systems
The excretory system controls the chemical makeup of body fluids by eliminating
metabolic waste and maintaining sufficient quantities of water, salts and nutrients. Components
of the vertebrate organ include the kidneys, liver, lungs, and skin.
Functions of the Excretory system
1. Collect water and filter body fluids.
2. Remove and concentrate waste products from body fluids and return other substances
to body fluids as necessary for homeostasis.
3. Eliminate excretory products from the body.
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Invertebrate Excretory Organs

Many invertebrates, such as flatworms, use nephridium as an excretory organ (Figure 2).
At the end of each blind nephridium tube, there is a ciliated flame cell. If the fluid moves into the
tubule, the solutes are reabsorbed and transferred to the body fluids. For insects, body fluids are
drained into the Malphigian tubules by osmosis leading to high amounts of potassium within the
tubule. Body fluids flow back into the body, nitrogenous wastes empty into the insect's intestine.
Water is being reabsorbed and waste is being expelled from the insect (Figure 3).
Figure 2. Excretory Organ of Flatworms Figure 3. Excretory Organ of Ant

Source: Source:
https://www2.estrellamountain.edu/fa https://www2.estrellamountain.edu/fa
culty/farabee/biobk/BioBookEXCRET.html culty/farabee/biobk/BioBookEXCRET.
html
The Human Excretory System

The urinary system consists of the kidneys, ureters, bladder, and urethra. The nepron is
the functional unit of the kidney. Waste is filtered from the blood and stored as urine in each
kidney. Urine leaves the kidneys by ureters and stored in the bladder. The bladder can distend to
store urine that eventually leaves through the urethra.
The Nephron
The nephron consists of a cup-shaped capsule containing capillaries and
glomerulus and a long renal tube. Blood flows through the kidney through the renal artery,
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which flows through the capillaries associated with the glomerulus. Arterial pressure
allows water and blood solutes to filter into the capsule.
The nephron has three functions:
1.Glomerular filtration of water and solutes from the blood.
2.Tubular reabsorption of water and conserved molecules back into the blood.
3.Tubular secretion of ions and other waste products from surrounding capillaries
into the distal tubule.
Nephrons filter 125 ml of body fluid per minute; filtering the entire body fluid
component 16 times each day. In a 24 hour period nephrons produce 180 liters of filtrate,
of which 178.5 liters are reabsorbed. The remaining 1.5 liters forms urine.
Urine Production
1. Filtration in the glomerulus and nephron capsule.
2. Reabsorption in the proximal tubule.
3. Tubular secretion in the Loop of Henle.
Components of The Nephron
• Glomerulus: mechanically filters blood
• Bowman's Capsule: mechanically filters blood
• Proximal Convoluted Tubule: Reabsorbs 75% of the water, salts, glucose, and amino
acids
• Loop of Henle: Countercurrent exchange, which maintains the concentration gradient
• Distal Convoluted Tubule: Tubular secretion of H ions, potassium, and certain drugs.
Figure 2. The Kidney and the Nephron

Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:2612_Blood_Flow_in_the_Kidneys.jpg
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Kidneys perform a number of homeostatic functions:

1. Maintain volume of extracellular fluid
2. Maintain ionic balance in extracellular fluid
3. Maintain pH and osmotic concentration of the extracellular fluid.
4. Excrete toxic metabolic by-products such as urea, ammonia, and uric acid.
ENGAGEMENT
Complete the table below to distinguish regulation of body fluids in plants and animals.
Plant Fish Human
Main structure for excretion
Fluid waste excreted
ASSIMILATION
Direction: Apply the concepts of osmoregulation. Create a plant-planter setup

where there is a continuous supply of water to the plant. Select an appropriate plant
species for this. Take a picture of the setup and send this to your teacher.
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ASSESSMENT
Direction: Read each question carefully then select the correct answer from the
given choices.
1. Which of the following is regulated through osmosis?

A. food B. energy C. oxygen D.
water
2. From the urinary bladder, where will urine goes?
A. ureter B. urethra C. uterus D. vesicle
3. What waste product of the body is removed from the skin?
A. air B. carbon dioxide C. salt D. urea
4. What is the major osmoregulatory hormone of the human body?
A. kidney B. liver C. rectum D. skin
5. What control/s the amount of water vapor that comes out of plants?
A. chloroplast B. guard cells C.mesophyll D.palisade
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Lesson 2: Chemical and Nervous Control
INTRODUCTION
All living organisms respond and react to changes in the environment around them.
Changes in the environment to which organisms respond and react are called stimuli such
as light, heat, cold, sound, smell, touch, etc.
Activity: Muller Lyer Illusion
Directions: Try this optical illusion with items you can find around your home. Find
two sticks of identical length; you might use uncooked spaghetti pasta if you have some.
Otherwise, broom sticks, chopsticks and other sticks could work too.
If you’re working with spaghetti pasta, lay the two pieces down a few inches apart.
Take another piece and break it in half. Use it to create “arrows” on the ends of your long
piece of spaghetti. On one piece of spaghetti, add the arrow points so they lead inward,
and on the other, create the points so lead outward.
What do you notice? Do the lengths of the sticks still appear to be the same?
Probably not! Find out why in the video with this link: https://www.brainfacts.org/for
educators/for-the-classroom/2021/mullerlyer-illusion-010621
DEVELOPMENT
Along with the nervous system, the endocrine system coordinates the activities of
the body to maintain homeostasis during rest and exercise. Nervous and endocrine systems both
work together to initiate and regulate activity, and all physiological processes include movement.
Similarly, there are hormones in plants that respond and react to the changes in the environment.
Coordination in Plants
Coordination refers to orderly functioning of different but interrelated parts to carry out one
or more activities smoothly. Since the nervous system doesn’t exist in plants, they use a chemical
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system. Plants coordinate their behavior against environmental changes with the aid of hormones.
Plants have a number of hormones that allow them to coordinate growth and environmental
response. These are the chemical compounds which are released by stimulated cells. Hormones
are diffused around the cell.
The following hormones are present in plants:
• Auxins – synthesized at the tip of the stem and help in plant growth by elongating
the cell.
• Gibberellins- concerned with the growth of the stem, seed germination, and
flowering.
• Cytokinins – present in the areas of cell division as in fruits and seeds. Also helps
in the opening of stomata.
• Abscisic acid- inhibits the growth of many parts and responsive for the closure of
stomata.
The hormones in plants known as Phytohormones coordinate their
behavior by affecting their growth. The growth movements in plants are either
directional or nondirectional.
Directional Movements
Directional changes are called tropic movements. Tropic movements are the one
which occurs in the direction of the stimulus. Positive phototropism is responding by
bending towards the sunlight which can be seen in shoots. Roots exhibit negative
phototropism by bending away from the light and show positive geotropism by growing
towards the ground. Chemotropism is a movement of growth in plants in response to the
chemical stimulus like the growth of pollen tubes towards ovules.
Nondirectional Movements
Nondirectional movements are called nastic response and concerned to
movements of plant parts. Nastic movements are independent of growth, and plant cells
have to change their shape for this movement to occur. These changes take place in the
opposite direction to the stimulus.
Control and Coordination in Animals
Nervous system and the hormonal system are two important aspects of control and
coordination in animals.
The Nervous System
Neurons are the functional and structural unit of the nervous system. The main function of
these neurons is to receive the external stimuli and then send it to the brain, so that the brain in
turn can read those signals and direct them to the necessary parts of the body to take proper
action. The transfer of messages takes place through electrical impulses which move throughout
the body through nerve fibers.
The Neuron
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The unique structure of neurons makes them specialized for receiving and
transmitting electrical impulses throughout the body. Neurons are supported by glial cells,
which surround, protect, and insulate them.
All neurons have several features in common, including a cell body, dendrites, and an
axon. These structures are important for transmitting neural impulses, electrical signals that allow
neurons to communicate with one another. Synapse in between neurons contain
neurotransmitters that facilitate the transmission of an impulse.
Neurons are specialized, depending on their required functions:
• Sensory neurons carry impulses from sense organs, such as the eyes or ears.
• Motor neurons carry impulses to muscles and glands.
• Interneurons transfer signals between sensory and motor neurons, as well as in
between other interneurons.
Figure 2. The Neuron

Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Neuron.svg
Parts of the Nervous System

The nervous system is made up of two parts: the central nervous system (CNS) and the
peripheral nervous system (PNS). The CNS is made of the brain and spinal cord. Commands to
the body originate in the brain and the spinal cord connects the brain with the rest of the nerves
in the body.
The Brain
The brain is an organ that is made up of a large mass of nerve tissue that is protected
within the skull. It plays a role in just about every major body system.
Some of its main functions include:
• processing sensory information
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• regulating blood pressure and breathing

• releasing hormones
Figure 2. The Human Brain

Source https://pixy.org/4223695/
Cerebrum
The cerebrum is the largest part of the brain. It’s divided into two halves, called
hemispheres. The two hemispheres are separated by a groove called the interhemispheric
fissure. It’s also called the longitudinal fissure. Each hemisphere of the cerebrum is divided into
broad regions called lobes. Each lobe is associated with different functions:
• Frontal lobes. The frontal lobes are the largest of the lobes. As indicated by their name,
they’re located in the front part of the brain. They coordinate high level behaviors, such as
motor skills, problem solving, judgment, planning, and attention. The frontal lobes also
manage emotions and impulse control.
• Parietal lobes. The parietal lobes are located behind the frontal lobes. They’re involved
in organizing and interpreting sensory information from other parts of the brain.
• Temporal lobes. The temporal lobes are located on either side of the head on the same
level as the ears. They coordinate specific functions, including visualmemory (such as
facial recognition), verbal memory (such as understanding language), and interpreting the
emotions and reactions of others.
• Occipital lobes. The occipital lobes are located in the back of the brain. They’re heavily
involved in the ability to read and recognize printed words, along with other aspects of
vision.
Cerebellum
The cerebellum is located in the back of the brain, just below the occipital lobes. It’s
involved with fine motor skills, which refers to the coordination of smaller, or finer, movements,
especially those involving the hands and feet. It also helps the body maintain its posture,
equilibrium, and balance.
Diencephalon
The diencephalon is located at the base of the brain. It contains the:
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• thalamus
• epithalamus
• hypothalamus
The thalamus acts as a kind of relay station for signals coming into the brain. It’s also involved in
consciousness, sleep, and memory.
The epithalamus serves as a connection between the limbic system and other parts of the brain.
The limbic system is a part of the brain that’s involved with emotion, long-term memory, and
behavior.
The hypothalamus helps maintain homeostasis. This refers to the balance of all bodily functions.
It does this by:
• maintaining daily physiological cycles, such as the sleep-wake cycle
• controlling appetite
• regulating body temperature
• controlling the producing and release of hormones
Brain stem
The brain stem is located in front of the cerebellum and connects to the spinal cord.
It consists of three major parts:
• Midbrain. The midbrain helps control eye movement and processes visual and auditory
information.
• Pons. This is the largest part of the brain stem. It’s located below the midbrain. It’s a
group of nerves that help connect different parts of the brain. The pons also contains the
start of some of the cranial nerves. These nerves are involved in facial movements and
transmitting sensory information.
• Medulla oblongata. The medulla oblongata is the lowest part of the brain. It acts as the
control center for the function of the heart and lungs. It helps regulate many important
functions, including breathing, sneezing, and swallowing.
The PNS can be broken down into two parts:

• The somatic nervous system (SNS) regulates voluntary activities such as muscular
movement. It also controls reflexes, such as pulling your hand away from the hot surface
of a stove.
• The autonomic nervous system (ANS) regulates activities that are not under conscious
control and has two divisions that are opposite of one another: the sympathetic and
parasympathetic nervous systems. The sympathetic nervous system prepares the body
for “fight-or-flight” responses, while the parasympathetic nervous system is active during
restful periods.
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The Endocrine System (Hormone System)

All the actions of coordination and control cannot be performed by the nervous system alone. This
is because the electrical impulses which are used by the nervous system for transmitting
information cannot be accessed.
Like the nervous system, the endocrine system is a regulatory system. However, instead
of using electrical impulses for signaling, it produces and uses chemical signals called hormones,
which travel through the bloodstream and control the actions of cells and organs.
Figure 3. The Endocrine System

Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:1801_The_Endocrine_System.jpg
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The pituitary gland is a pea-sized gland that is housed in a bone structure (sella turcica)
at the base of the brain. The sella turcica protects the pituitary, but allows very little room for
expansion.
The pituitary gland controls the function of most other endocrine glands and is therefore
sometimes referred to as the master gland. In contrast, the pituitary is primarily regulated by the
hypothalamus, an area of the brain that lies just above the pituitary.
Although both the endocrine system and the nervous system are both regulatory, there
are a few fundamental differences. For one, the endocrine system uses chemical signaling
(hormones, produced by glands) while the nervous system uses electrical signaling (neural
impulses). The signal transmission of the nervous system is fast because neurons are
interconnected, but the functions are shorter lived. Signal transmission in the endocrine system
is slow, since hormones must travel through the bloodstream, but the responses tend to last
longer.
ENGAGEMENT
Directions: Create a concept map showing the structures of the nervous system.
ASSIMILATION
According to a 2019 global survey, there are over 400 million people worldwide
are diagnosed with diabetes. In the Philippines, 1 out of 14 Filipino adults lives with diabetes.
The International Diabetes Federation (IDF), as of May 2020, has reported that the total cases
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of diabetes in adults in the country are at 3.9 million.

Your task is to prepare a brochure that contains health tips for someone suffering from
diabetes.
ASSESSMENT
Direction: Read each question carefully then select the correct answer from the given
choices.
1. What system coordinates and controls the activities of the body?

A. organ B. endocrine C. muscular D. nervous
2. Which of these is part of the central nervous system?
A. effector B. receptor cells C. sensory neuron D. spinal cord
3. Which hormone is usually found in fruits?
A. abscisic acid B. auxin C. cytokinin D. gibberellin
4. What hormone is produced by the pancreas?
A. estrogen B. glucagon C. insulin D. melatonin
5. What is the main organ of the nervous system?
A. brain B. nerves C. sensory organ D. spinal cord
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WEEK 4: Processes in Plants and Animals (Immune System, Sensory and

Motor Mechanisms)

Content Standards
and their Functions



1. describe the immune system of organisms;
2. compare innate and adaptive immune responses;
Specific Learning 3. explain the function/s of the different antibodies produced
Outcomes by humans;
4. identify and describe the different T cells;
5. describe the functions of the T cells;
6. describe the sensory organs; and
7. explain sensory and motor mechanisms.
Processes in Plants and Animals (Immune System,

Content
Sensory and Motor Mechanisms)

Pages
Textbook Pages
Learning Resources Dela Peña, Renato Jr., Gracilla, Daniel and Pangilinan, Christian.
2016. General Biology. Pasay City: JFS Publishing Services
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Lesson 1: Immune System
INTRODUCTION
All living things are constantly exposed to chemicals capable of causing damage
to them. Most animals defend themselves from certain substances in more than one way
- with physical walls, for example, or with chemicals that repel or destroy invaders.
Vertebrates have these types of general defense systems, but they also have a more
specialized defensive system called the immune system. The immune system is a diverse
network of organs comprising cells that detect and kill foreign objects in the body. It
protects vertebrates from toxins or infectious agents such as viruses, bacteria, fungi and
other parasites.
While there are many potentially dangerous pathogens, no pathogen can infect or
attack all species because the ability of the pathogen to inflict damage involves a
vulnerable victim, and not all organisms are susceptible to the same pathogens. For
example, the virus that causes AIDS in humans does not infect animals such as dogs,
cats and mice. Likewise, humans are not prone to viruses that cause canine distemper,
feline leukemia, and mouse pox.
Activity 1. The Precious Vaccines
Directions: In your own words, answer the following questions:
1. What are vaccines?
2. Why are vaccines so important?
DEVELOPMENT
The immune system has an important role to play it protects the body from
infectious toxins, germs, and cell shifts that may make you sick. It is made up of several organs,
cells and proteins.
But do plants have an immune response similar to that in animals? One that can
"remember" susceptibility to particular pathogens?
How do plants protect themselves?
Plants can protect themselves from disease-causing organisms such as viruses, bacteria
and fungi. They achieve this by creating physical barriers (e.g. plant cell walls), certain antibiotic
compounds (e.g. phytoalexins) and even enzymes that disrupt pathogens. In a general sense,
they are both part of the immune response of a plant, that is, the biochemical mechanisms that
the body uses to protect itself from disease.
A more general, non-specific reaction to infection characterizes the immune system of a
plant. This type of response is called an innate immune system, in contrast to adaptive immune
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system (AIS). Plants do not have antibodies or special cells that seek and kill pathogens.
However, plants have cell-surface receptors that recognize those patterns typical of pathogens.
Such receptors, when triggered, stimulate the production of chemical signals, such as methyl
jasmonate (think jasmine perfume or jasmine tea), which can induce local and systemic defensive
reactions.
Local defense reactions included the so-called "hypersensitive response" characterized
by the self-destruction of plant cells in a localized region around the site of infection.
Plants also have inducible systemic defensive responses when locally contaminated with
pathogens. This means that a single, localized infection can cause defensive reactions across
the plant.
While plants have the capacity to protect themselves against disease causing organisms
(a kind of primitive immune system), plants have no immune system as complex as humans.
The Innate and Adaptive immune systems

The immune system is made up of two parts: the innate, (general) immune system and
the adaptive (specialized) immune system. These two systems work closely together and take on
different tasks.
The body's first line of defense against germs invading the body is the innate immune
system. It reacts in the same way to both germs and foreign objects, which is why it is often
referred to as the "nonspecific" immune system. It acts very quickly: For example, it means that
bacteria that have penetrated the skin from a minor wound are detected and killed on the spot
within a few hours. However, the innate immune system has little ability to stop germs from
spreading.
The innate immune system consists of
▪ Protection offered by the skin and mucous membranes
▪ Protection offered by the immune system cells (defense cells) and proteins
Protection by the skin and mucous membranes
Both the outer and inner surfaces of the human body form a vital part of the innate immune
system. The closed surface of the skin and of all mucous membranes already provides a physical
shield against germs, which stops them from entering. In addition, organic compounds such as
ammonia, enzymes or mucus prevents bacteria and viruses from getting a foothold. Movements
made, for example, by hair-like structures in the bronchi (cilia) or intestinal muscles stop germs
from settling in the body. Tear fluid, sweat and urine (which flushes the urinary tract organs) have
a similar effect.
Protection by the immune system cells (defense cells) and proteins
The innate immune system stimulates special immune system cells and proteins as germs
migrate through the skin and mucous membranes and enter the bloodstream.
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If part of the skin is infected, the immune system cells transfer to the region that are already
activated. Relevant immune system cells release compounds to the surrounding region that make
the blood vessels larger and more permeable. Specific immune system cells release compounds
to the surrounding region that make the blood vessels larger and more permeable. This causes
the region surrounding the infection to swell, become warm and turns red that results to
inflammation. Fever can even develop. Then the blood vessels increase in size and more cells of
the immune system arrive. Certain proteins (enzymes) are also activated to assist with the
immune response.
Scavenger cells: Neutralizing germs
Bacteria or viruses invading the body may be avoided by scavenger cells right away
(phagocytes). Scavenger cells are special forms of white blood cells (leukocytes). These cells
enclose germs and "digest" them. The traces of these germs transfer to the surface of the
scavenger cells to be identified by the adaptive immune system. There are also other groups of
immune system cells that release chemicals that destroy bacteria and other germs. Both germs
and body tissue and immune system cells die and decay in response to the immune system. Their
remains produce pus, a yellowish substance.
The Role of Proteins
Several proteins (enzymes) support cells of the innate immune system. A total of nine
different enzymes activate each other in a process similar to a chain reaction: one enzyme in the
first stage warns several second stage enzymes, one of which activates several third stage
enzymes, and so on. This causes the reaction of the immune system to intensify very rapidly.
The tasks of these enzymes shall include:
▪ marking germs as targets for scavenger cells;
▪ attracting other cells of the immune system from the bloodstream;
▪ destroying the cell walls of bacteria to destroy them,
▪ battle viruses by removing the viral envelope (the outer layer of the virus) or cells that
have been infected with viruses.
Natural Killer Cells: Quest for modified cells in the body
Natural killer cells make up the third big component of the innate immune system.
They excel in the detection of cells that are infected with a virus or have become tumorous.
To do this, they look for cells that have surface modifications, and then kill the cell surface
by using cell toxins.
Adaptive immune system: battle against germs directly
The adaptive immune system takes over if the innate immune system is unable to kill the
germs. It precisely targets the type of germ that triggers the infection. But to do so, the germ has
to be identified first. This means that the reaction is slower than the innate immune system, but
when it does, it is more precise.
This memory is also the reason that there are certain viruses that can only be encountered
once in your life, and then the body becomes "immune." It can take a few days for the adaptive
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immune system to respond the first time it comes into contact with the germ, but the next time the
body can react automatically. The second infection is typically not detected or at least milder.
The adaptive immune system is made up of:
• T lymphocytes in the tissue between the body's cells
• B lymphocytes, also found in the tissue between the body's cells
• Antibodies in the blood and other bodily fluids
T Lymphocytes
T lymphocytes (also called T cells) are produced in the bone marrow and
then transferred to the thymus via the bloodstream where they mature. The "T" in
their name comes from the word "thymus."
T cells have three main tasks:
• Chemical messengers are used to activate other cells of the immune
system in order to start the adaptive immune system (T helper cells).
• They detect and destroy virus-infected cells or tumor cells (cytotoxic T
cells).
• Some T helper cells become memory T cells after the infection has been
defeated. They can "remember" which germs have been defeated and are
ready to activate the adaptive immune system quickly if there is another
infection.
T cells have features on their surfaces that can be attached to germs – like a lock
that fits a particular key. Within a few days, the immune system can produce a matching
T cell type for each germ in an infection.
Then, if the germ attaches to the corresponding T cell, the T cell begins to multiply
– creating more T cells specializing in that germ. Because only cells that match the germ
are multiplying, the immune response is customized.
B Lymphocytes
B lymphocytes (B cells) are formed in the bone marrow and then mature into
specialized immune system cells. They take their name from "B" in "bone marrow." Like T
cells, there are many different types of B cells that match specific germs.
B cells are activated by T helper cells: T helper cells are in contact with B cells that
match the same germs as they do. This enables the B cells to multiply and transform into
plasma cells. These plasma cells rapidly produce very large amounts of antibodies and
release them into the blood. Because only the B cells that match the attacking germs are
activated, only the exact antibodies needed is activated.
Some activated B cells transform into memory cells and become part of the
"memory" of the adaptive immune system. The various cells of the adaptive immune
system interact either directly or by soluble chemical messengers, such as cytokines
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(small proteins). These chemical messengers are mainly proteins formed by various cells
in the body.
Antibodies
Antibodies are protein and sugar molecules that accumulate in the bloodstream.
They are produced by the immune system to destroy germs and foreign substances.
Antibodies can easily detect and bind to germs and other potentially harmful substances.
This neutralizes the "intruders" and attracts the aid of other immune system cells.
Antibodies are formed by lymphocytes B. Germs and other compounds that may induce
the production of antibodies are often referred to as antigens.
The antibody only binds to the antigen if it fits perfectly, like the key in the antibody
lock. This is how antibodies detect matching germs to activate rapid reaction from the
adaptive immune system.
Antibodies have the following three primary functions:
• They neutralize germs, e.g. by binding viruses or bacteria directly to the
cell surface or by adding to their toxins. This stops germs from latching and
infecting the body's normal cells.
• They activate other cells of the immune system by binding to their
surfaces. Scavenger cells are also best able to fight off germs that are
loaded with antibodies.
• They activate proteins that help to react to the immune system.
Adaptive immune system antibodies also assist the adaptive immune
system.
Human antibodies are classified into five isotypes (IgM, IgD, IgG, IgA, and IgE)
according to their H chains, which provide each isotype with distinct characteristics and
roles.
IgG
IgG is the most abundant antibody isotype in the blood (plasma),
accounting for 70-75% of human immunoglobulins (antibodies). IgG detoxifies
harmful substances and is important in the recognition of antigen-antibody
complexes by leukocytes and macrophages. IgG is transferred to the fetus through
the placenta and protects the infant until its own immune system is functional.
IgM
IgM usually circulates in the blood, accounting for about 10% of human
immunoglobulins. IgM has a pentameric structure in which five basic Y-shaped
molecules are linked together. B cells produce IgM first in response to microbial
infection/antigen invasion. Although IgM has a lower affinity for antigens than IgG,
it has higher avidity for antigens because of its pentameric/hexameric structure.
IgM, by binding to the cell surface receptor, also activates cell signaling pathways.
IgA
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IgA is abundant in serum, nasal mucus, saliva, breast milk, and intestinal
fluid, accounting for 10-15% of human immunoglobulins. IgA forms dimers (i.e.,
two IgA monomers joined together). IgA in breast milk protects the gastrointestinal
tract of neonates from pathogens.
IgE
IgE is present in minute amounts, accounting for no more than 0.001% of
human immunoglobulins. Its original role is to protect against parasites. In regions
where parasitic infection is rare, IgE is primarily involved in allergy.
IgD
IgD accounts for less than 1% of human immunoglobulins. IgD may be
involved in the induction of antibody production in B cells, but its exact function
remains unknown.
ENGAGEMENT
Differentiate the immune system of plants and animals.
ASSIMILATION
At this point, you are now ready to apply the concepts you learned about immune
system.
The following factors can depress the immune system of the body. For each factor,
write helpful tips to be practiced by everyone. Write/print those tips on a sheet of paper,
mount it on a cardboard. Hang or post it as wall décor in a strategic place in your house
for family members to be reminded to safeguard their health. Take a picture and send a
copy to your teacher.
• Excess weight: Obesity is associated with low-grade chronic inflammation. Fat tissue
produces adipocytokines that can promote inflammatory processes. Research is early, but
obesity has also been identified as an independent risk factor for the influenza virus,
possibly due to the impaired function of T-cells, a type of white blood cell.
• Environmental toxins (smoke and other particles contributing to air pollution, excessive
alcohol): These substances can impair or suppress the normal activity of immune cells.
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• Poor diet: Malnutrition or a diet lacking in one or more nutrients can impair the production
and activity of immune cells and antibodies.
• Chronic mental stress: Stress releases hormones like cortisol that suppresses
inflammation (inflammation is initially needed to activate immune cells) and the action of
white blood cells.
• Lack of sleep and rest: Sleep is a time of restoration for the body, during which a type of
cytokine is released that fights infection; too little sleep lowers the amount of these cytokines and
other immune cells.
ASSESSMENT
Direction: Read each question carefully then select the correct answer from the
given choices.
1. What do you call a “nonself” substance that can provoke an immune response?
A. antibody B. antigen C. interferon D. immunoglobulin
2. What physical structure is the first line of defense for plants ?
A. cell wall B. chloroplast C. cytoskeleton D. vascular bundle
3. What are the two parts of the innate immune system of animals?
A. skin and defense cells C. B and T lymphocytes
B. skin and B lymphocytes D. lymphocytes and antibodies
4. Where do T cells mature?
A. bone marrow B. kidney C. liver D. thymus
5. Where do B cells developed?
A. blood B. bone marrow C. heart D. thymus
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Lesson 2: Sensory and Motor Mechanism
INTRODUCTION
Sensory processing involves all central actions of information processing which connect
the initial stages of sensory reception with the development of subjective sensory perception.
Animals typically respond only to stimuli that they choose; they filter out those stimuli that
surround them and react to those that they chose to embrace.
Activity 1. The “Sensitive” Plant
Directions: Perform this activity.
Procedure:
Look for a Mimosa pudica (makahiya plant). Touch the leaves of the plant gently. Observe
what happens then write your observations. Allow the leaves to open after some minutes or you
may look for another makahiya plant. Apply more pressure as you touch the leaves. Observe the
movements of leaves.
Observation/s
________________________________________________________________
Check explanation for your observations at
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OCMIdB-qUBQ
Guide Questions:
1. What happen to makahiya plant?
2. Why the makahiya leaves closed when it touched?
DEVELOPMENT
Animals can respond to environmental factors by moving to a new location. Plants,
however, are rooted in location and must adapt to environmental conditions. Plants have
specialized mechanisms for sensing and responding to light, gravity, temperature, and physical
contact. Receptors sense environmental factors and relay information to effector systems—often
by intermediate chemical messengers—to provide plant reactions.
Plant Responses to Light
Plants have a range of advanced light applications that go way beyond their ability to
photosynthesize low-molecular-weight sugars by using only carbon dioxide, light and water. In
reaction to light, photomorphogenesis is the growth and development of plants. It enables plants
to maximize their use of light and space. Photoperiodism is the tendency to use light to maintain
track of time. Plants can tell the time of day and time of year by detecting and using different
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wavelengths of sunlight. Phototropism is a directional reaction that encourages plants to grow

towards, or even away from, light.
Phototropism—the directional bending of a plant to or from a light source—is a reaction to
the blue wavelength of light. Positive phototropism is growth towards a light source, while negative
phototropism (also known as skototropism) is growth away from light.
Appropriately called phototropins are protein-based receptors responsible for mediating
the phototropic reaction. As all plant photoreceptors, phototropins are made up of a protein
component and a light-absorbing portion called chromophore. In phototropins, the chromophore
is a covalently bound flavin molecule; thus, phototropins belong to a family of proteins called
flavoproteins.
Plant Responses to Gravity
Whether or not they germinate in the sun or in complete darkness, shoots typically sprout
from the ground, and roots grow back to the ground. A plant put on its side in the dark sends
shoots upward when enough time is given. Gravitropism means that the roots expand into the soil
and that the shoots grow into sunshine.
Growing of the apical tip upward is called negative gravitropism, while development of the
roots downward is called positive gravitropism.
Plant Responses to Wind and Touch
The shoot of the pea plant winds along the trellis, while the tree rises at an angle in
response to powerful prevailing winds. There are examples of how plants respond to contact or
wind.
The movement of a plant under continuous lateral pressure is called thigmotropism, the
Greek term thigma means "contact" and the tropism means "direction." Tendrils are but one
example of this. The meristematic area of the tendrilsis very sensitive to the touch; the light touch
evokes a rapid coiling reaction. The cells in contact with the support surface contract, while the
cells on the opposite side of the support extend. The application of jasmonic acid is necessary to
activate a tendril coil without a mechanical stimulus.
A thigmonastic response is a tactile response that is independent of the stimulus path. In
the Venus flytrap, two modified leaves are tied to the hinge and lined with thin fork-like tines along
the outer edges. Within the pit are tiny hairs. When the insect brushes against these trigger
feathers, hitting two or three of them in succession, the leaves close soon, trapping the prey.
Glands on the surface of the leaf secrete enzymes that slowly digest the bee. The released
nutrients are absorbed by the leaves, which are re-opened for the next meal.
Thigmomorphogenesis is a gradual evolutionary shift in the form of a plant subject to
constant mechanical stress. For example, as trees bend in the wind, growth is typically stunted
and the trunk thickens. Strengthening tissue, particularly xylene, is created to add stiffness to the
power of the wind.
Sensory and Motor Mechanisms in Animals
Sensory processing involves all central actions of information processing which connect
the initial stages of sensory reception with the development of subjective sensory perception.
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Animals typically respond only to stimuli that they choose; they filter out those stimuli that surround
them and react to those that they chose to embrace.
The detection and processing and processing of sensory information and the generation
of motor output provide the physiological basis for all animal behavior.
The brain’s processing of sensory input and motor output is cyclical rather than linear.
The Basic Neuron Type
Neurons come in a variety of shapes. For example, a single sensory neuron in your
fingertip has an axon that stretches the length of your arm, whereas the neuron in your brain can
only stretch a few millimeters.
They also have different shapes based on their purpose. Motor neurons that regulate
muscle contractions have a cell body on one end, a long axon in the center and dendrites on the
other. Sensory neurons have dendrites on both sides, connected by a long axon with a cell body
in the enter. Interneurons, or associative neurons, hold information between motor neurons and
sensory neurons.
This core members of the nervous system often differ in functions.
Sensory nerves bear impulses from the outer areas of the body (periphery) to the central
nervous system.
Motor nerves (motor neurons) carry impulses from the central nervous system to the
outer parts of the body (muscles, skin, glands).
Interneurons connect separate neurons within the brain and spinal cord.
The simplest form of neural pathway is a monosynaptic (single-connection) reflex
pathway, like a knee-jerk reflex. When the doctor taps the right spot on the knee with a
rubber hammer, the nerves give a signal to the spinal cord from a sensory nerve. The
sensory neuron sends a warning to the motor neuron that regulates the muscles of your
body.
Nerve impulses pass down the motor neuron and stimulate the muscle of the leg
to contract. The reaction is a muscular irritation that happens instantly and doesn't affect
the brain. Humans have a lot of hardwired reflexes like this, but as tasks become more
difficult, the pathway circuitry becomes more complicated and the brain gets involved.
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Figure 1. Neural
Pathway in a Reflex
Types of Stimuli
Stimuli can be of many types:
• Visual - what the animal sees
• Auditory -what the animal hears
• Tactile - what the animal feels
• Chemical - what the animal smells or tastes.
Sensory receptor cells can be:
▪ specialized neurons (the receptor cell is also a neuron)
▪ specialized sensory cells which synapse with a neuron (the receptor cell secretes
neurotransmitters to stimulate changes in membrane potential in the synapsed neuron)
Different sensory receptor cells are specialized for different types of stimuli, and are
categorized by the type of stimulus they detect. Sensory receptor cells include (but are not limited
to!)
▪ Mechanoreceptors: respond to physical deformation of the cell membrane from
mechanical energy or pressure, including touch, stretch, motion, or sound
▪ Chemoreceptors: respond to specific molecules, often dissolved in a specific medium
(such as saliva or mucus), or airborne molecules
▪ Photorecetpors: respond to radiant energy (visible light in most vertebrates; visible as
well as UV light in many insects)
▪ Nociceptors: respond to “noxious” stimuli, or essentially anything that causes tissue
damage
▪ Thermoreceptors: respond to heat or cold
Humans and many other vertebrates have at least five special senses: olfaction (smell),
gustation (taste), equilibrium (balance and body position), vision, and hearing. Additionally, we
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possess general senses, also called somatosensation, which respond to stimuli like temperature,
pain, pressure, and vibration.
How the Human Body Receives Sensory Information
The nervous system must receive and process information about the outside world in
order to respond, interact and keep the body stable and safe. Most of this input comes from the
sensory organs: the eyes, ears, nose, mouth, and skin. Specialized cells and tissues inside these
organs receive raw inputs and convert them into signals that the nervous system can use. Nerves
send impulses to the brain, which interprets them as sight (vision), sound (hearing), scent
(olfaction), taste (tasting), and touch (tactile perception).
The Eye
The eyes are in the orbits of the brain, protected by bone and fat. The sclera is the white portion
of the skin. It preserves internal structures and surrounds a circular portal shaped by cornea, iris
and pupil. The cornea is translucent enough that the light can reach the eye, and curved so that
it can be focused into the pupil behind it. Currently, the pupil is a hole in the colored disc of the
iris. The iris dilates or constricts, changing how much light travels through the pupil and through
the lens. The bent lens then focuses the vision on the retina, the inner layer of the body. The
retina is a delicate membrane of nervous tissue that includes photoreceptor cells. These cells,
rods and cones, convert light into nervous signals. The optic nerve takes messages from the eye
to the brain.
The extraocular muscles execute eye movements and are innervated by three cranial
nerves. The muscles are attached to the sclera of the eye at one end and are anchored to the
bony orbit of the eye at their opposite ends. Contraction of the muscles produce movement of the
eyes within the orbit. The cranial lower motor neurons innervate these muscles and thereby
control their contractions.
Figure 1. The Eye

Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Three_Main_Layers_of_the_Eye.png
The Ear
Music, laughter, car horns—all hit the ears like sound waves in the air. The outer ear sends
vibrations down the ear canal (the outer acoustic meatus) to the tympanic membrane (the "ear
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drum"). The sound waves beat the tympanic membrane, producing mechanical vibrations in the
membrane. The tympanic membrane passes these impulses to three small bones, known as the
auditory ossicles, which are located in the air-filled middle ear cavity. These bones – the malleus,
the incus, and the stapes – bear the vibrations and knock into the opening of the inner ear. The
inner ear consists of fluidfilled tubes, with a spiralshaped cochlea. Specialized hair cells in the
cochlea sense shock waves in the fluid as the ossicles pound forward. They stimulate nervous
receptors, transmitting signals to the brain via the cochlear nerve, which interprets signals as
sound.
Figure 2. The Ear
The Skin
The skin is made up of three main tissue layers: the outer epidermis, the middle dermis,
and the inner hypodermis. Specialized receptor cells within these layers sense touch stimuli and
send signals through peripheral nerves to the brain. The presence and placement of various forms
of receptors makes some areas of the body more sensitive. Merkel cells, for example, are located
in the lower epidermis of the lips, shoulders, and external genitals. Meissner corpuscles are
located in the upper dermis of hairless skin—fingertips, nipples, soles of the feet. All of these
receptors are detected by touch, pressure, and vibration.
Figure 3. The Skin
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The Nose
The sense of smell is called olfaction. It begins with specialized nerve receptors found on
hairlike cilia in the epithelium at the top of the nasal cavity. When we sniff or inhale from the nose,
some of the molecules in the air bind to these receptors. This activates a signal that passes up
the nerve fiber, through the epithelium and the skull bone above, to the olfactory bulbs. The
olfactory bulbs contain neuron cell bodies and transmit information along the cranial nerves, which
are extensions of the olfactory bulbs. They transmit a signal down the olfactory nerves to the
olfactory region of the cerebral cortex.
Sneezing is a synchronized respiratory defense reflex that occurs as a result of stimulation
of the upper respiratory tract, specifically the nasal cavity.
Figure 4. The Nose
The Tongue
What are all the little bumps on the top of the tongue? It's called the papillae. Many of
them, including circumvallate papillae and fungi-shaped papillae, contain taste buds. When we
eat, food additives penetrate the papillae and hit the taste buds. These chemicals (or tastings)
activate specialized taste cells within taste buds, stimulating nerve receptors. The receptors
transmit signals to the nasal, glossopharyngeal, and vagus nerve fibers. The nerves carry the
impulses to the medulla oblongata, which transmits them to the thalamus and brain cortex of the
brain.
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Figure 5. The Tongue
ENGAGEMENT
Matching type. Match the terms in column A with the terms in column B.
A B
____1. Optic nerve A. Ear
____2. Olfactory nerve B. Eye
____3. Hypoglossal nerve C. Nose
____4. Auditory nerve D. Skin
____5. Sensory nerve E. Tongue
ASSIMILATION
The sense organs allow us to perceive the world. Hence, caring for the sense
organs is important. Your task is to list down caring tips for the eyes, nose, ears, tongue,
and skin. Make a brochure about caring tips for the sense organs.
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ASSESSMENT
Direction: Read each question carefully then select the correct answer from the given
choices.
1. What type of neuron carry impulses from the central nervous system to the
outer parts of the body
A. interneuron B. motor C. receptor D. sensory
2. What is referred to as an involuntary or automatic action that the body does in
response to something?
A. kick B. jerk C. response D. reflex
3. What is the directional bending of a plant to or from a light source?
A. chemotropism B. geotropism C. phototaxis D. phototropism
4. What sensory receptor responds to heat or cold?
A. chemoreceptor B. photoreceptor
C. mechanoreceptor D. thermoreceptor
5. What part of the body are Meissner corpuscles found?
A. eyebrow B. lips C. nipples D. shoulder
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Republic of the Philippines

TANZA NATIONAL COMPREHENSIVE HIGH SCHOOL

Note to the Learners

Introduction This part, the new lesson will be introduced to you in

Development This section provides a brief discussion of the lesson.

Engagement This comprises activities for independent practice to

Assimilation This section provides an activity which will help you

Assessment This is a task which aims to evaluate your level of mastery

3. Read the instructions carefully before doing each task.

4. Finish the task at hand before proceeding to the next

WEEK 1: Processes in Plants and Animals (Reproduction, Development and

The learners demonstrate Plant and Animal Organ Systems

The learners compare and contrast the following processes in

Lesson 1: Reproduction and Development

Both Plant and Animal

Types of asexual reproduction

Types of asexual reproduction in plants

Figure 5. The male reproductive system

Fertilization and Early Embryonic Development in Humans

Excellent (10points) Good (7 points) Needs Improvement

2. Which set of reproductive terms has an incorrect combination?

3. After fertilization, which will give rise to a new individual?

4. In which organism does budding take place?

5. Which organism can undergo both sexual and asexual reproduction?

Figure 8. The Components of the Digestive System

Figure 9. Digestion of carbohydrates is performed by several enzymes. Starch and

WEEK 2: Processes in Plants and Animals (Gas Exchange and

The learners demonstrate Plant and Animal Organ Systems

The learners should be able to Develop a presentation (e.g.

The learners shall be able to compare and contrast the

At the end of the lesson, the learners will be able to:

Processes in Plants and Animals (Gas Exchange and

Lesson 1: Gas Exchange

After 30 seconds of exercise

After 1 minute of exercise

Figure 1. The Structure of a Stoma

Figure 2. The Tracheal System in Arthropods

Figure 3. The Tracheal System in Arthropods

Figure 4. The Thoracic Cavity and Lungs

Figure 4. The Respiratory System

1. Which gas is released by plants during aerobic respiration?

The Phloem Transport System

Figure 5. Phloem Transport System

Figure 6. The Vascular (Xylem and Phloem) Bundle

Xylem to Leaf to Air

Transport System in Animals

Parts of the Circulatory System

Open Circulatory System

Figure 7. Open Circulatory System

Closed Circulatory System

Pulmonary circulation system

Figure 8a. Pulmonary and Systemic Circulation

Figure 8b. Flow of Blood in the Body

Direction: Design a simple experiment to illustrate transport in plants.

1. What structure in the leaf is the entry point of gases in plants?

WEEK 3: Processes in Plants and Animals (Regulation of Fluids, Chemical

The learners demonstrate Plant and Animal Organ Systems

The learners should be able to Develop a presentation (e.g.

The learners shall be able to compare and contrast the

At the end of the lesson, the learners will be able to:

Processes in Plants and Animals (Regulation of Fluids,

Learner’s Materials SHS General Biology II Teacher’s Guide pp

Lesson 1: Regulation of Body Fluids