General Biology 2 o Fragmentation

 Fragmentation is a means
(4th Quarter) of asexual reproduction
whereby a single parent
Animal and Plant Reproduction breaks into parts that
regenerate into whole
Reproduction new individuals.
o A process by which organisms give rise  Ex: molds, lichens,
to young ones (offspring) similar to itself. sponges, and sea stars
o Two Types: o Plant cuttings / vegetative
 Asexual Reproduction propagation
 Requires only one parent  Vegetative reproduction is
 Offspring have 100% the same a type of asexual
chromosomes as the parent reproduction in plants that
 Most unicellular organisms relies on multi-cellular
reproduce this way structures formed by the
 Mitosis parent plant. It has long
 Examples: been exploited in
o Binary Fission horticulture and
 Binary fission is a form of agriculture, with various
asexual reproduction methods employed to
where every organelle is multiply stocks of plants.
copied and the organism  Ex: onion bulbs, tubers of
divides in two potato
 Ex: Bacteria, Protists  Examples of organisms that
o Budding reproduce asexually:
 Budding is a means of o Hydra
asexual reproduction o Sea Star
whereby a new individual o Strawberry
develops from an o Archaebacteria
outgrowth of a parent, o Eubacteria
splits off, and lives o Euglena
independently. o Paramecium
 Ex: Hydra o Yeast
o Sporulation  Sexual Reproduction
 Airborne cells that are  Requires two parents that each
released from the parent. share ½ of the genetic
They are enclosed and information.
developed when the  Offspring share the
environment is characteristics of each parent
appropriate  Meiosis
 Ex: found in fungi, algae,  Types:
and protozoa o Allogamy (cross fertilization
o Regeneration or cross pollination)
 Regeneration occurs o Autogamy (self-fertilization or
when a body part has self-pollination)
broken off and the
organism grows a new
one.
 Ex: Echinoderms (Sea
Star), many reptiles and
amphibians
 Advantage Disadvantage  Stamen - Whorl inner to the petals;
Asexual - Asexual - Same DNA the male reproductive structure of
Reproduction reproduction being passed the flower; bears the male sporangia
produces down→ NO (also known as microsporangia)
more GENETIC  Anther - Part of the stamen that
offspring VARIATION contains the microsporangia that
- Asexual IN THE develops into pollen grains
reproduction OFFSPRING
 Filament - Part of the stamen that
takes less - If parent has
serves as the stalk of the anther
time genetic
- Only one disease  Pistil or carpels - Innermost whorl
parent offspring will of the flower; the female
involved. No have it too reproductive structure of the flower;
searching for bears the female sporangia (also
mates known as the megasporangia)
- Requires  Stigma - Part of the pistil where the
less energy pollen grain derived from the
Sexual - Variation in -Requires two microsporangium attaches during
Reproduction offspring organisms. pollination
- Organism is Must find a  Style - Part of the pistil that serves
more mate as the stalk of the stigma; leads to
protected - Requires
the ovary
because of more cellular
 Ovary - Found at the base of the
genetic energy
variation - More time pistil; contains one or more ovules;
required for eventually becomes the fruit
offspring  Ovule - Contains the female
development sporangia or megasporangia;
Sexual Reproduction (Plant Kingdom) eventually becomes the seed
o Flowers are the reproductive organs of Sexual Reproduction (Animal Kingdom)
plants. o All members of the animal kingdom
o Some flowers have both male and  Fish
female reproductive organs on the same  Mammals
flower.  Amphibians
 Birds
 Reptiles
 Insects
 Crustaceans
o Examples of organisms that reproduce
sexually:
 Chickens
 Iguanas
 Lobsters
 Sharks
 Humans
 Butterflies
 Sunflowers
o Parts  Roses
 Sepals - The outermost whorls of a o Two-ways:
flower; collectively called the calyx  Internally (inside)
 Petals - Whorl inner to the sepals;  The egg is fertilized by sperm
may be brightly colored in some; inside the female.
collectively called the corolla  Ex: Mammals, birds, reptiles,
insects, spiders
  Externally (outside)
 The egg is fertilized by sperm
outside the female
 The female lays the eggs and
then the male fertilizes them.
 Germ Layers
 Ex: fish and some amphibians;
plants and fungi (pollen and  Ectoderm
spores) o Epidermis of the skin and its
Stages of Animal Development derivatives
o Fertilization o Cornea and eye lens
 is the process in which a single  Mesoderm
haploid sperm fuses with a single o Nervous system
haploid egg fuse to form a zygote. o Dermis of skin
o Cleavage o Skeletal system
 After fertilization successfully o Muscular system, including
activates the egg, the egg begins a the muscular linings of
series of rapid cell divisions digestive system
 During cleavage, the cells divide o Circulatory system
without an increase in size; that is, o Reproductive system
one large single-celled zygote  Endoderm
divides into multiple smaller cells o Inner lining of the digestive
called blastomeres. tract
 After the cleavage has produced o Inner lining of the respiratory
over 100 blastomeres, the embryo is tract
called a blastula. o Liver
o Pancreas
o Lining of the urinary and
reproductive system
o Spermatogonia, oogonia
and gametes
Human Development
o Fertilization
 Occurs in the fallopian tube; results
in a unicellular zygote
o Cleavage
 Successive cleavage divisions
result in a solid ball of cells called
morula
o Gastrulation o Implantation
 the dramatic rearrangement  Attachment of blastocyst to
(movement) of cells in the blastula to endometrium of uterus; start of
create the germ layers. pregnancy
 2 germ layer: ectoderm and o Gestation
endoderm (Diploblastic animal ex.  The time between conception and
Cnidarian) birth, during which the embryo or
 3 germ layer: Triploblastic animal fetus is developing in the uterus
o Organogenesis o Twins
 the process of organ and tissue  Monozygotic Twins
formation via cell division and  Develop from a single fertilized
differentiation. egg
 Primitive germ layers are induced to  One embryo, splits into two
differentiate into the distinct organs  Identical Twins
and organ systems of the animal
  Dizygotic Twins megaspores, producing
 From two different eggs which an embryo sac
are fertilized separately but  Pollination
simultaneously  Vital method of sexual
 Non-identical twins or fraternal reproduction in plants
Plant Reproduction and Development  Enables plants to bear fruits and
o Plant Reproduction seeds
 The life cycle of a plant involves the  The process involves transfer of
alternation of two generations: pollen (from male part of the
gametophyte and sporophyte plant to the female part of the
o Gametophyte (n) plant)
 Stage of the life cycle of a plant that  Pollination Process
is haploid o 1. Pollen grains land on the
 Stage that produces gametes via sticky stigma.
mitosis o 2. A pollen tube grows down
 These gametes fuse to form a the style, followed by male
zygote that develops into a sperm nuclei.
sporophyte o 3. The sperm nuclei fuse with
o Sporophyte (2n) the female ovules.
 Stage of the life cycle of a plant that o 4. The ovules develop into
is diploid seed, and the ovary
 It is the most recognizable structure develops into fruit.
in most flowering plants
 It produces haploid spores by
meiosis in structures called
sporangia
o Plants have 2 choices for reproduction:
 Asexual (Vegetative growth)
 Sexual
o Processes involved in plant
development
 Gametogenesis
 Gamete formation
 Initiates after specialized cells in
the sporophyte undergo meiosis,
then mitotic divisions yield the
gametophytic phase of plant‘s
life cycle  Types of Pollination
 Types: o Biotic Pollination
o Micro gametogenesis  requires the help of other
 occurs in anthers that living, moving creatures
produces tricellular such as insects, birds,
pollen with two sperm etc. to transfer pollen
cells within a vegetative from one plant to another
cell o Abiotic Pollination
o Mega gametogenesis  pollination by wind
 megasporangium in the (anemophily)
ovule contains  pollination through water
megasporocytes. One movement (hydrophily)
megasporocyte will  Double Fertilization
undergo meiosis to  After pollination of the carpel,
produce four haploid there is germination of the pollen
 grain and a pollen tube grows  Seed Maturation
and travels to the ovary.  Accumulation of food reserves
 The pollen grain adheres to the  Hardening of seed coat and
stigma, a pollen tube grows and accumulation of antimicrobial
penetrates the ovule and the compounds
pollen tube burst into the embryo  Mechanisms of seed dispersal
sac.  Synthesis of protective
 Joining of a female gametophyte compounds that allow the seed
with two male gametes to withstand environmental
 Embryogenesis conditions
 production of plant embryo from
a zygote Animal vs Plant Growth and Development
 fertilized ovule undergoes Animal Growth Plant Growth
asymmetric cell division and the 1. Growing points or 1. Plants possess well
undifferentiated cells gets meristems are defined growing
absent. points or meristems.
differentiated into tissues and
2. Growth is diffused. 2. Growth is apical,
organs
intercalary or lateral.
 Covers development from the 3. Growth is definite 3. Growth is indefinite
time of fertilization until or limited. or unlimited.
dormancy occurs 4. Growth stops in 4. Plant growth
 Maturation of Ovary and Ovule animals as soon as continues throughout
o Ovary matures into fruit while they mature, long the life of a plant.
the ovule becomes the seed. before the
The seed may become appearance of
dormant for some time. senescence.
 Seed Germination 5. All organs are 5. New organs
 Transformation of seed to formed in the embryo. continue to be formed
Later on, no new throughout the life of a
seedling
organs are added. plant.
 Seed undergoes imbibition to
6. There is no such 6. Old organs are
break dormancy nutrients stored replacement. replaced by new
in the endosperm or cotyledons organs.
are digested and transferred to 7. Increases in 7. Increases in cell
the growing regions of the number of cells. size.
embryo to primary meristems 8. Cell division 8. Cell division
(protoderm, ground meristem, happens in most happens mainly at
procambium) develop to radicle tissues. meristems.
emerges to plumule breaks 9. Most cells lose the 9. Many cells can do
through the soil surface ability to differentiate cell differentiation.
 Dormancy: period in which the at an early stage
embryo is alive but not growing Human Reproductive System
 Factors Affecting Germination o Male Reproductive System
o Water- Rehydration of  The organ system that produces
tissues gametes (sperms) with paternal
o Oxygen- Aerobic respiration genes.
o Light/darkness- Enzyme  Mostly located outside of his body
controlled processes: some  Functions:
seeds may require exposure  To produce, maintain and
to light or high temperatures transport sperm (the male
o Seed coat reproductive cells) and protective
fluid (semen)
 To discharge sperm within the
female reproductive tract
  To produce and secrete male sex
hormones
 External Structures:
 Penis
 Scrotum
 Testicles
 Internal Structures:
 Epididymis
 Vas deferens
 Urethra
 Seminal vesicles (AG)
 Prostate gland (AG)
 Bulbourethral glands (AG)
o (AG) – Accessory Glands
 How does it function?
 The male reproductive system
consists of the testes, glands and
ducts. The testes are the
structures located within the
scrotum that produce sperm,
testosterone and other
androgens (male hormones).
When sperm are produce in the
seminiferous tubules of the
testes, they migrate to the
epididymis, a comma shaped
structure located in the scrotum,
for maturation and storage. Upon
ejaculation, the sperm move into
the vas deferens (ductus
deferens) to the urethra.
 The urethra passes into the penis
and the ejaculate then passes to
the outside world. As sperm is
ejaculated from the epididymis,
there are several glands that add
their secretions to the ejaculate
along with the sperm to form
semen. This alkaline fluid
provides the ideal environment
for the sperm by providing
nutrients, lubrication, etc.
o Female Reproductive System
 where males deposit their sperms for
fertilization to take place
 system is mainly composed of female
gonads known as ovaries and uterus
 it is important to notice that, except
for the vulva, none of the female
reproductive organs is located
outside the body.
 Parts:
 Fallopian Tubes
o a pair of muscular tubes that
extend from the left and right
superior corners of the uterus
to the edge of the ovaries
o end in a funnel-shaped
structure called the
infundibulum, which is
covered with small fingerlike
projections called fimbriae
 Uterus
o a hollow, muscular,
pearshaped organ
o also known as the womb, as it
surrounds and supports the
developing fetus during
pregnancy
o inner lining of the uterus,
known as the endometrium,
provides support to the
embryo during early
development
 Cervix
o lower most part of the uterus
and is made up of strong
muscles.
o allows flow of menstrual blood
from the uterus into the
vagina, and direct the sperms
into the uterus during
intercourse
o under the influence of the
body hormones and the
pressure from the fetal head,
this opening widens to about
4 inches (10 cm.) during
labor, to allow the birth of a
baby.
 Bartholin’s Gland
o secretes mucus to provide
vaginal lubrication
 o happens relatively a minute to
amounts of fluid when a
woman is sexually aroused
o homologous to bulbourethral
glands in males
o the fluid may slightly moisten
the labial opening of the
vagina, serving to make
contact with this sensitive
area more comfortable.
 Vagina
o an elastic, muscular tube that
connects the cervix of the
uterus to the exterior of the
body
o functions as the receptacle for
the penis during sexual
intercourse and carries sperm
to the uterus and fallopian
tubes
o also serves as the birth canal
by stretching to allow delivery
of the fetus during childbirth
 Vulva
o collective name for the
external female genitalia
located in the pubic region of
the body
o surrounds the external ends
of the urethral opening and
the vagina and includes the
mons pubis, labia majora,
labia minora, and clitoris
o Difference between Male and Female
Reproductive System
 Male system is composed of penis
and scrotum with testes while female
system contains ovaries and uterus.
 Male system has been developed to
insert gametes while female system
has been evolved to receive the best
gamete for fertilization.
 Male system produces testosterone,
whereas female system produces
progesterone and estrogen.
 Male system is mostly located
outside the body, but the females
have it inside their body except for the
vulva.
 Sperm production takes place in a
cold environment, whereas ovum
production takes place in a warm
environment.
Immune System
network of cells, tissues and organs that
work together to protect the body
attacks organisms and substances that
invade body systems and cause disease
through a series of steps called immune
response
Pathogen vs Antigen
o Pathogen is an infectious agent that may
cause a disease. Virus, bacteria, fungus
and other microorganisms are often
pathogenic.
o Antigen is a molecule capable of causing
the immune system to produce
antibodies against it. Antigens are
usually polysaccharides, lipids or
peptides. Antigens are molecules found
on the surface of pathogens and are
specific to that pathogen. E.g.
hemagglutinin (influenza virus)
Our white blood cells are stored in different
places in the body, which are referred to as
lymphoid organs. These include the
following:
o Thymus — a gland between the lungs
and just below the neck.
o Spleen — an organ that filters the blood.
It sits in the upper left of the abdomen.
o Bone marrow — found in the center of
the bones, it also produces red blood
cells.
o Lymph nodes — small glands positioned This is sometimes referred to as
throughout the body, linked by lymphatic immunological memory because our
vessels. immune system remembers previous
The skin is the body’s first line of defense. enemies.
Without the skin, pathogens would have free  uses specific antigens to strategically
access. mount an immune response
A fever is the body’s way of fighting infection  is activated by exposure to
by creating an inhospitable environment for pathogens, and uses an
infectious agents. immunological memory to learn
Homeostasis is the bodies attempt to about the threat and enhance the
maintain a consistent internal environment. immune response accordingly
Inflammation  much slower to respond to threats
o Cardinal Signs and infections than the innate
 rubor (redness) immune response, which is primed
 calor (increased heat) and ready to fight at all times
 tumor (swelling)  Types of Adaptive Immunity:
 dolor (pain)  Humoral
 functio laesa (loss of function) o mediated by B lymphocytes and
Redness is caused by the dilation of small antibodies (also called
blood vessels in the area of injury. immunoglobulins, Ig) that
Heat results from increased blood flow protects against extracellular
through the area and is experienced only in microbes and their toxins.
peripheral parts of the body such as the skin. o “antibody‐mediated response”
Fever is brought about by chemical  Cellular
mediators of inflammation and contributes to o mediated by T lymphocytes and
the rise in temperature at the injury. is responsible for defense
Swelling (also called edema) is caused against intracellular microbes.
primarily by the accumulation of fluid outside
the blood vessels.
Pain associated with inflammation results in
part from the distortion of tissues caused by
edema, and it also is induced by certain
chemical mediators of inflammation.
Loss of function may result from pain that
inhibits mobility or from severe swelling that
prevents movement in the area.
Types of Immunity
o Innate Immunity
 includes the external barriers of our
body — the first line of defense
against pathogens
 is always general, or nonspecific,
meaning anything that is identified as
foreign or non-self is a target for the
innate immune response. The innate
immune system is activated by the
presence of antigens and their
chemical properties.
o Adaptive (Acquired) Immunity
 As we are exposed to diseases or get
vaccinated, we build up a library of
antibodies to different pathogens.
 o V. Finally, the secreted antibodies bind
the antigen and help destroy it.
Plasma Cells
o are activated B cells that secrete
antibodies.
Memory Cells
o Long-living plasma cells
o retain a “memory” of a specific pathogen
long after an infection is over thus
provides immunity to the pathogen.
Antibodies
o Y-shaped protein also know as
Immunoglobulin (Ig) that recognizes
Types of Lymphocyte foreign substance
o Lymphocytes begin their life in bone o Travel throughout the body in blood and
marrow. Some stay in the marrow and lymph
develop into B lymphocytes (B cells), o Function:
others head to the thymus and become T
lymphocytes (T cells).
o B lymphocytes — they produce
antibodies and help alert the T
lymphocytes.
o T lymphocytes — they destroy
compromised cells in the body and help
alert other leukocytes.
Terms
o MHC molecules- major histocompatibility
complex, group of genes that transport
molecules to the cell, where they present
the antigen to T lymphocytes.
 Class I MHC- present antigens to
cytotoxic T cells o Five Classes:
 Class II MHC- present antigens to
helper T cells
o Interleukins- stimulatory molecules which
is secreted by helper T cells after it was
divided
The response follows this chain of
events:
o I. Macrophages take up some of the
antigen and attach it to class II MHC
molecules, which then present the
antigen to T helper cells.
o II. The T helper cells bind the presented
antigen, which stimulates the T helper
cells to divide and secrete interleukins.
o III. The interleukins in turn activate any B
lymphocytes that have also bound the
antigen.
o IV. The activated B cells then divide and
secrete antibodies.

Gas Exchange
Plants represent a rich source of nutrients for
many organisms including bacteria, fungi,
protists, insects, and vertebrates.
Although lacking an immune system
comparable to animals, plants have
developed a stunning array of structural,
chemical, and protein-based defenses
designed to detect invading organisms and
stop them before they are able to cause
extensive damage.
Mechanical Defenses
o The first line of defense in plants is an
intact and impenetrable barrier
composed of bark and a waxy cuticle.
Chemical Defenses
o Secondary metabolites are compounds
that are not directly derived from
photosynthesis and are not necessary for
respiration or plant growth and
development.
o Many metabolites are toxic and can even
be lethal to animals that ingest them.
Gas Exchange
o is a process that occurs when oxygen
and carbon dioxide diffuse across a
surface or membrane in opposite
directions.
o is needed to provide cells with enough
oxygen for cellular respiration, and to
remove the carbon dioxide that the cells
produce.
Surface area to Volume Ratio
o surface area indicates how much oxygen
the organism can absorb through its
surface
o volume is an indication of how much
oxygen will be needed by the organism
Gas Exchange in Plants
o Plants obtain the gases they need
through their leaves.
o In order to carry on photosynthesis,
green plants need a supply of carbon
dioxide and a means of disposing of
oxygen. In order to carry on cellular
respiration, plant cells need oxygen and
a means of disposing of carbon dioxide
o Normally stomata open when the light
strikes the leaf in the morning and close
during the night.
o The immediate cause is a change in the
turgor of the guard cells
o When the osmotic pressure of the guard
cells became greater than that of the
surrounding cells, the stomata opened. In
the evening, when the osmotic pressure
of the guard cells dropped to nearly that
of the surrounding cells, the stomata
closed
Gas Exchange in Animals
o Gas exchange during respiration occurs
primarily through diffusion.
o Oxygen and carbon dioxide move by
diffusion across moist membranes
o In simple animals, the exchange occurs
directly with the environment. But with
complex animals, such as mammals, the
exchange occurs between the
environment and the blood.
o Earthworms exchange oxygen and
carbon dioxide directly through their skin.
o The oxygen diffuses into tiny blood
vessels in the skin surface, where it
combines with the red pigment
hemoglobin. Hemoglobin binds loosely to
oxygen and carries it through the
animal’s bloodstream. Carbon dioxide is
transported back to the skin by the
hemoglobin
o A branched network of tubes (tracheae)
makes up the gas exchange system.
o The openings of the tubes are called
spiracles and air passes through them
into the tracheoles (small tubes) that end
amongst the body tissues.
o Gases pass across the moist lining to the
body cells and back without blood
transport.
o Bony fish have specially adapted body
parts called gills which are protected by a
bony covering called an operculum.
o Each gill is made up of two rows of
filaments which are made up of thin, flat
plates called lamellae.
o Oxygen diffuses out of the water into the
blood vessels of the gill, while carbon
dioxide leaves the blood vessels and
enters the water passing by the gills
o Amphibians can also exchange gases
through their skin.
o Reptiles have folded lungs to provide
increased surface area for gas
exchange. Rib muscles assist lung
expansion and protect the lungs from
injury.
o Birds have large air spaces called air
sacs in their lungs. When a bird inhales,
its rib cage spreads apart and a partial
vacuum is created in the lungs. Air
rushes into the lungs and then into the air
sacs, where most of the gas exchange
occurs. This system is birds’ adaptation
to the rigors of flight and their extensive
metabolic demands
o The lungs of mammals are divided into
millions of microscopic air sacs called
alveoli (the singular is alveolus). Each
alveolus is surrounded by a rich network
of blood vessels for transporting gases.
o During inhalation, the diaphragm
contracts and flattens to create a partial
vacuum in the lungs. The lungs fill with
air, and gas exchange follows.
Gas Exchange in Humans
o Only in the alveoli does actual gas
exchange takes place.
Nutrient Procurement and Processing
Calorie
o is a unit of energy that indicates the
amount of energy contained in food
o it specifically refers to the amount of heat
energy required to raise the temperature
of 1 kg (2.2 lb.) of water by 1oC (1.8oF)
o the greater the number of in a quantity of
food, the greater energy it contains
(Johnson and Raven, 1996)
Nutritional Requirements
o Carbohydrates
 it is the major energy source of the
cells in the body and also important
for energy storage
 contain 4 Calories per gram
o Proteins
 provide structural support for tissues,
act as chemical messengers, and
move muscles
 contain 4 Calories per gram
o Fats
 also called triglycerides can be solid
or liquid at room temperature. Those
that are solid are classified as fats,
while those that are liquid are known
as oils.
 used to build cell membranes, steroid
hormones, and other cellular
structures
 contain 9 Calories per gram
o Essential Nutrients
 nutrient required for normal animal
body functioning that cannot be
synthesized by the body
  Types
 Essential Amino Acids
o needed for synthesis of proteins
and enzymes; among the 20
amino acids, eight could not be
synthesized by humans: lysine,
tryptophan, threonine,
methionine, phenylalanine,
leucine, isoleucine and valine
 Essential Fatty Acids
o used for making special
membrane lipids and the proper
development of brain. E.g.
Linoleic acid
 Vitamins
o organic molecules required
o in small amounts for normal
metabolism
 Minerals
o inorganic nutrients needed by
the body in minute amounts;
these form part of enzymes,
body tissues, and body fluids.
Food Uptake in Cells
o Endocytosis
 the process of capturing a substance
or particle from outside the cell by
engulfing it with the cell membrane,
and bringing it into the cell.
 Types:
 Phagocytosis
o ingestion of large particles such
as cell debris and whole
microorganisms by means of
large vesicles
 Pinocytosis
o internalization of extracellular
fluid and small macromolecules
by means of small vesicles
 Receptor-mediated
o when the uptake of substances
by the cell is targeted to a single
type of substance that binds to
the receptor on the external
surface of the cell membrane
Feeding Mechanisms
o Suspension / Filter Feeding
 Animals which draw in water and
strain small organisms and food
particles present in the medium
o Fluid Feeding
 organisms suck nutrient-rich fluid
from a living host
o Substrate Feeding
 animals live in or on their food source
o Bulk Feeding
 Animals eat relatively large pieces of
food
Digestion
o breakdown of large, complex
molecules/structures into smaller,
simpler ones
o can be mechanical or chemical
o occurs in specialized compartments
Main Stages of Food Processing
o A. Ingestion – the act of eating or feeding;
this is coupled with the mechanical
breakdown of food into smaller pieces
allowing for a greater surface area for
chemical digestion.
o B. Digestion – breakdown of food into
particles, then into nutrient molecules
small enough to be chemical digestion by
enzymes involves breaking of chemical
bonds through the addition of water, i.e.,
enzymatic hydrolysis.
o C. Absorption – passage of digested
nutrients and fluid across the tube wall
and into the body fluids; the cells take up
(absorb) small molecules such as amino
acids and simple sugars.
o D. Elimination –expulsion of undigested
and unabsorbed materials from the end
of the gut.
Organs of the Digestive System
o I. Oral Cavity – it is where food is initially
chewed into shreds by the teeth, and
 mixed with saliva by the tongue. Saliva is
secreted into the mouth by three pairs of
salivary glands located above the upper
jaw and below the lower jaw.
o II. Pharynx –the region in the back of the
throat that serves as the entrance to the
esophagus that connects to the stomach
and trachea (windpipe) that serves as
airway to the lungs. To block breathing as
food leaves the pharynx, a flap-like valve
(the epiglottis) and the vocal cords close
off the trachea.
o III. Esophagus – connects the pharynx
with the stomach. No digestion takes
place within the esophagus but the
contractions within its muscular wall
propel the food past a sphincter, into the
stomach. The rhythmic waves of
contraction of the smooth muscle wall of
the esophagus are called peristaltic
contractions or peristalsis. The
esophagus is about 25 cm (10 in.) long.
o IV. Stomach
 It is a muscular, stretchable sac
located just below the diaphragm.
 3 important functions:
 1. it mixes and stores ingested food
 2. it secretes gastric juice that helps
dissolve and degrade the food,
particularly proteins.
 3. it regulates the passage of food
into the small intestine.
 The gastric juice is a combination of
HCl and acid stable proteases.
 The churning action of the stomach
together with the potent acidity of the
gastric juice convert food into a thick,
liquid mixture called chyme.
o V. Small Intestine
 is approximately 6 meters long and is
composed of three regions: the
duodenum, jejunum, and ileum.
 It is where most enzymatic hydrolysis
of the macromolecules from food
occurs. The complete digestion of
carbohydrates, fats, and proteins
occurs in the duodenum, about the
first 25 cm. of the small intestine. The
rest of the small intestine is devoted
to absorbing water and the products
of digestion into the bloodstream.
Absorption of the end products of
digestion takes place in the ileum, the
surface area of which is increased by
villi and microvilli.
o VI. Large Intestine
 is much shorter than the small
intestine, about 1 meter. It
concentrates and stores undigested
matter by absorbing mineral ions and
water. A small amount of fluid,
sodium, and vitamin K are absorbed
through its walls.
 Unlike the small intestine, it does not
coil up and does not have villi and has
only one- thirtieth of the absorptive
surface area of the small intestine.
Many bacteria live and thrive within
the large intestine where they help
process undigested material into the
final excretory product, feces
o VII. Rectum and Anus
 The rectum is a short extension of the
large intestine and is the final
segment of the digestive tract. It is
where the compacted undigested
food from the colon are pushed via
peristaltic contractions. The
distension of the rectum triggers
expulsion of feces.
 The anus is the terminal opening of
the digestive system through which
feces are expelled.
o VIII. Accessory Digestive Organs
 Liver – secretes bile for emulsifying
fats
 Gallbladder – stores bile produced by
the liver
 Pancreas – secretes enzymes that
break down all major food molecules;
secretes buffers against HCl from the
stomach; secretes the hormone
insulin for control of glucose
metabolism
Mechanisms of Digestion and
Absorption:
o A. Carbohydrate digestion begins in the
mouth but could not continue in the
stomach due to the acidic pH that
destroys the amylase. It resumes in the
small intestine where the resulting
monosaccharides are absorbed.
o B. Proteins are digested in the stomach
and small intestine. Resulting amino
 acids are absorbed in the small intestine
where they leave the intestinal cell and
enter the blood through a facilitated
diffusion carrier in the plasma
membranes on the opposite side.
o C. Fat digestion occurs entirely in the
small intestine. Although fatty acids and
monoglycerides enter epithelial cells
from the intestinal lumen, it is
triglycerides that are released on the
other side of the cell and carried by blood
capillaries to be transported throughout
the body.
o D. Most water-soluble vitamins are
absorbed by diffusion or active transport.
Fat-soluble vitamins follow the pathway
for fat absorption.
Plant Nutrition
o Study of chemical elements and
compounds necessary for plant growth,
plant metabolism and external supply.
Nutrient
o A substance that provides nourishment
essential for growth and the maintenance
of life.
o A chemical or food that provides what is
needed for plants or animals to live and
grow
2 Types of Organisms (Based on Mode of
Nutrition)
o Autotroph
 an organism that produces complex
organic compounds from simple
inorganic molecules, using energy
from light or inorganic chemical
reactions
o Heterotroph
 an organism that obtains energy by
breaking down organic molecules;
cannot derive energy from
photosynthesis or inorganic
chemicals
2 Ways of Acquiring Nutrients
o Photosynthesis (through the leaves)
 process by which plants manufacture
carbohydrates from raw materials
using energy from light
 Takes Carbon through stomata
(Cellular Respiration)
o From the soil (through the roots)
 Soil is composed of minerals, organic
matter, water, air, and organisms
 Soil is full of microorganisms that
break down and recycle organic
debris
Nutritional Requirement of Plants
o Macronutrients- used by plants in large
quantities
 Macronutrients (derived from air)
 Carbon (C)- forms the backbone
of most plant biomolecules,
including proteins, starches and
cellulose
 Hydrogen (H)- necessary for
building sugars and building the
plant.
 Oxygen (O)- aerobic cellular
respiration and break down this
glucose to produce ATP.
 Macronutrients (primary)
 Nitrogen (N)
o needed for vegetative growth
and dark green color
o necessary for formation of
amino acids, the building
blocks of protein (in the form
of Ammonia and Nitrate)
o Deficiency signs- reduced
growth & yellowing (chlorosis)
of lower leaves.
 Phosphorus (P)
o Involved in sugar metabolism,
component of nucleic acids,
phospholipids, coenzymes
o Promotes early root formation
and growth
o Improves quality of fruits,
vegetables, and grains
o Vital to seed formation
o Deficiency signs- reduced
growth, poor root systems,
reduced flowering. Also thin
stems and browning or
purpling of foliage.
 Potassium (K)
o Enzyme activator, involved in
starch formation
o Regulates osmotic balance
and movement of guard cells
o Improves quality of seeds and
fruit
 o Increases disease resistance
o Deficiency signs- reduced
growth, shortened internodes
and some burn, scorched
marks (brown leaves). Too
Much (K ) can cause nitrogen
deficiency
 Macronutrients (secondary)
 Calcium (Ca)
o major component of cell wall
o involved in nitrogen
metabolism
o reduces plant respiration
o aids translocation of
photosynthesis from leaves to
fruiting organs (2nd
messenger)
 Magnesium (Mg) Nutritional Adaptation by Plants
o Key element of chlorophyll o Nitrogen Fixation: Root And Bacteria
production Interactions
o Improves utilization and  Soil bacteria, collectively called
mobility of phosphorus rhizobia, symbiotically interact
o Activator and component of with legume roots to form
many plant enzymes specialized structures called
o Directly related to grass nodules, in which nitrogen
tetany fixation takes place
 Sulfur (S)  rhizobia require a plant host as
o Integral part of amino acids they cannot fix nitrogen
o Helps develop enzymes and independently
vitamins o Mycorrhizae: The Symbiotic
o Promotes nodule formation Relationship Between Fungi And
on legumes Roots
o Aids in seed production  Through mycorrhization, the plant
o Micronutrients- used by plants in trace obtains mainly phosphate and
amounts other minerals, such as zinc and
copper, from the soil
Element Function  Mycorrhizae functions as a
Iron (Fe) Essential to chlorophyll production. Also physical barrier to pathogens.
contributes to the formation of some
 It also provides an induction of
enzymes and amino acids.
Boron (B) Essential to overall plant health and generalized host defense
tissue growth. Promotes the formation of mechanisms, and sometimes
fruit and the absorption of water. involves production of antibiotic
Manganese (Mn) Activator of enzymes; involved in compounds by the fungi.
electron transfer, chlorophyll synthesis, o Plant Parasites
and the photosynthetic evolution of O2
 A parasitic plant depends on its
Molybdenum (Mo) Involved in nitrogen reduction
Chlorine (Cl) Stimulates photosynthesis. host for survival. Some parasitic
Copper (Cu) Activates various enzymes. Also plays a plants have no leaves.
role in chlorophyll production.  Hemiparasite- are fully
Zinc (Zn) Activates many enzymes; involved in the photosynthetic and only use the
formation of pollen. host for water and minerals.
 Holoparasite- is completely
dependent on its host
  Obligate parasite – a parasite that
cannot complete its life cycle
without a host.
 Facultative parasite – a parasite
that can complete its life cycle
independent of a host.
o Saprophytes
 plants that do not have
chlorophyll and get their food
from dead matter, similar to
bacteria and fungi
o Symbionts
 a plant in a symbiotic relationship,
with special adaptations such as
mycorrhizae or nodule formation.
Fungi also form symbiotic
associations with cyanobacteria
and green algae (called lichens).
o Epiphytes
 An epiphyte is a plant that grows
on other plants, but is not
dependent upon the other plant
for nutrition.
 Epiphytes have two types of
roots: clinging aerial roots, which
absorb nutrients from humus that
accumulates in the crevices of
trees; and aerial roots, which
absorb moisture from the
atmosphere.
o Insectivorous Plants
 An insectivorous plant has
specialized leaves to attract and
digest insects. The Venus flytrap
is popularly known for its
insectivorous mode of nutrition,
and has leaves that work as traps
Circulation
o is the process by which food and oxygen
are carried to the tissues and wastes are
carried away.
o 3 Main Features:
 Fluid (blood or hemolymph) that
transports materials (both wastes &
nutrients).
 System of blood vessels
 A heart to pump the fluid through the
vessels
o closed circulatory system- found in all
vertebrates and some invertebrates,
circulates blood unidirectionally from the
heart, around the body, and back to the
heart.
o open circulatory system- found in
arthropods, pumps blood into a cavity
called a hemocoel where it surrounds the
organs and then returns to the heart(s)
through ostia (openings).
o The blood found in arthropods, a mix of
blood and interstitial fluid, is called
hemolymph.

Transport and Circulation

Plant Transport
o Xylem moves water and solutes from the
roots to the leaves
o Phloem moves food substances from
leaves to the rest of the plant
o Translocation is the movement of
materials from leaves to other tissues
throughout the plant. Phloem transports
sucrose and amino acids up and down
the plant.
o Transpiration is the movement of water
from the soil to the leaves occurs in
xylem vessels
Types of Circulation
o Pulmonary circulation is the circuit by
which blood flows from the heart to the
lungs, then back to the heart.
o Systemic circulation is the circuit by
which blood leaves the left ventricle (LV)
of the heart via the aorta, passes through
the organs and tissues of the body then
returns to the heart
Components of the Circulatory System
o Blood is the fluid that moves through the
blood system.
 Plasma- consisting mainly of water
containing solutes such as
electrolytes, plasma proteins and
hormones.
 Red Blood Cells - responsible for
transporting oxygen to tissues
around the body
 White Blood Cells - have important
immune function roles and
production of antibodies
 Platelets - functions to stop bleeding
by clumping and clotting blood vessel
injuries
o Blood vessels are the biological "tubes"
through which blood flows. They contain
the blood within the blood system and
ensure that it only flows in one direction
through the blood system.
 Arteries and arterioles- carry blood
away from the heart.
 Veins and venules- carry blood back
to the heart.
 Capillaries- allow exchange of
nutrients, wastes and gases.
o Heart is the pump that sends blood
through the blood system at an
appropriate rate for the blood to replenish
the tissues of the body as needed and to
perform all the other functions of blood.
Closed Circulatory System
o 2 chambered heart- single atrium
receives blood from the body cells. A
ventricle sends blood to the gills to collect
oxygen
o 3 chambered heart- Separated atria
allow some separation of oxygenated
and deoxygenated blood
o 4 chambered heart- allows complete
separation of oxygenated and
deoxygenated blood
Regulation of Body Fluids
o Internal environment – the fluid
environment that bathes the cells
(extracellular fluid) composed of the
interstitial fluid and blood.
o Osmolarity – solute concentration
expressed in milliosmoles per liter of
solution (mOsm/L)
o Osmosis – the movement of water from a
region of higher osmolarity to a region of
lower osmolarity across a selectively
permeable membrane.
o Osmoregulation – the regulation of water
and ion balance.
o Excretion – the elimination of metabolic
wastes including nitrogenous wastes
produced from the breakdown of proteins
Two types of Osmoregulation
o Osmoconformers – allow the osmolarity
of their body fluids to match that of the
environment which include most marine
invertebrates with body fluids that are
generally hyperosmotic to their
surroundings. Their bodies are isosmotic
to seawater, they consume little or no
energy in maintaining water balance
o Osmoregulators – keep the osmolarity of
body fluids different from that of the
 environment which include most marine
vertebrates, birds, mammals either they
discharge water in hypotonic
environment or they take in water in a
hypertonic environment
Types of Nitrogenous Wastes
o Ammonia – the primary nitrogenous
waste for aquatic invertebrates, teleosts,
and larval amphibians. It is readily
soluble in water but is also highly toxic. It
can be excreted from the body only in
dilute solutions.
o Urea – produced by mammals, most
amphibians, some reptiles, some marine
fishes, and some terrestrial
invertebrates. It is formed by combining
ammonia with bicarbonate ion (HCO3 ̄)
and converting the product into urea
o Uric acid – excreted by birds, insects,
and terrestrial reptiles. It is largely
insoluble in water and it is excreted as a
semisolid paste or precipitate with very
little water loss
Mammalian Urinary System
o Kidneys- specialized organs for
osmoregulation and excretion
o Ureter- a tube leading to a urinary
bladder
o Urinary bladder - storage
o Urethra - an open channel
Composition of Kidney
o Renal capsule – the outer coat of
connective tissue
o Cortex – the zone near the capsule
consisting of blood vessels and nephrons
o Medulla – inner zone also consisting of
blood vessels and nephrons
o Nephrons – the functional units of the
kidney where urine is formed
o Renal pelvis – central cavity in the kidney
where urine coming from the nephrons is
channeled before going to the ureter
Components of Nephron
o Bowman’s capsule – an infolded region
that encloses a ball of blood capillaries
called glomerulus where initial filtration of
the blood plasma occurs.
o Renal tubules – receive and modify the
glomerular filtrate; consist of a proximal
convoluted tubule, followed by a U-
shaped loop of Henle, and a distal
convoluted tubule
o Peritubular capillaries – bring substances
to and take substances away from the
renal tubules.
o Collecting duct – receives the urine from
the renal tubule leading to the renal
pelvis.
Nephrons
o Nephrons filter and retain water and
solutes, leaving concentrated urine to be
collected in the central renal pelvis.
o The glomerulus serve as initial site for
filtration and the glomerular filtrate
produced is directed into the Bowman’s
capsule.
o The Bowman’s capsule collects the
filtrate and directs it though the
continuous renal tubules: proximal tubule
→ loop of Henle → distal tubule→
collecting duct → renal pelvis.
o The peritubular capillaries exit the
glomerulus, converge, then branch again
around the nephron tubules where they
participate in reclaiming water and
essential solutes
Mechanism of Urine Formation
o Filtration- blood pressure forces filtrate
(water and small solutes) out of the
glomerular capillaries. Blood cells,
proteins, and other large solutes cannot
pass the capillary wall and they remain in
the blood. Filtrate is collected by the
Bowman’s capsule and funneled into the
proximal tubule.
o Reabsorption- useful materials such as
salts, water, glucose, and amino acids
move out from the renal tubules and into
adjacent peritubular capillaries.
o Secretion- results in movement of
surplus hydrogen and potassium ions,
uric acid, toxins and other drugs from the
blood into the renal tubules.
Chemical and Nervous Control
Nervous System
o is the one responsible for coordinating
the functions of the other body systems
o gathers information, processes the
information and elicits a corresponding
response or reaction to the stimulus.
o The basic structural and functional unit of
the nervous system is the neuron.
o A neuron transmits electrical signals
called action potential or an impulse
across the system and lets a body part
respond accordingly.
o An impulse is the sudden change in the
electrical potential of the cell membrane.
Neuron Anatomy
o Dendron and Dendrites: Nerve fibres that
transmit nerve impulse towards cell body.
End branches of dendrons are dendrites.
Dendrites receive nerve impulses from
other neurons.
o Cell body (Soma): cell body of motor
neuron is irregular in shape. It contains
the nucleus and controls cell activities
o Axon: nerve fiber that transmit nerve
impulses away from cell body. Axons are
usually long.
o Myelin sheath: layer of fatty substances
enclosing nerve fibers. Insulates axon
like a rubber sheath.
o Nodes of Ranvier: regions where myelin
sheath is absent. Allows nerve impulses
to jump, speeding up transmission of
impulses
o Axon terminal/synaptic terminal: release
chemicals which transfer the message to
the next neuron.
Synapse
o The point at which nervous impulse
passes from one neuron to another.
o The synapse consists of:
 a presynaptic ending that contains
neurotransmitters, mitochondria and
other cell organelles
 a postsynaptic ending that contains
receptor sites for neurotransmitters
 a synaptic cleft or space between the
presynaptic and postsynaptic
endings.
o Chemicals called neurotransmitters are
released which facilitate the transmission
of an impulse across a synapse
Structural Classification of Neuron
o Unipolar
 Most common in invertebrates
 Characterized by one primary
projection that serves as both the
axon and dendrites
o Bipolar
 Usually found in sensory organs
(eyes, nose, ears)
 Axons transmit signals from the body
going to the brain and spinal cord
 Dendrites send signals from body
organs to the cell body
o Pseudo-unipolar
 Resemble unipolar neurons because
of the axon but no true dendrites
 Are responsible for the sense of
touch, pain, and pressure.
o Multipolar
 Dominating neurons in vertebrates in
terms of number
 Each of them has a cell body, long
axon, and short dendrites.
Functional Classification of Neuron
o Sensory Neurons
 Nerve cells within the nervous
system
 Responsible for converting external
stimuli into internal electrical
impulses
o Interneurons
 Found in the Central NS in the brain
 Responsible for processing
information that goes to the brain
o Motor Neurons
 Are neurons that originate in the
spinal cord
 Responsible for receiving impulse
from the brain then send the
message throughout your body to
perform the action needed
2 Main Division of Nervous System
o Central Nervous System
 Is composed of the brain and spinal
cord. The brain is the control center
while the spinal cord connects the
brain to other nerves of the body
o Peripheral Nervous System
 Is composed of nerves that branch
out from the brain and spinal cord to
specific body parts and divided
further into somatic and autonomic
nervous system. The somatic
nervous system controls voluntary
body movements while the
autonomic control involuntary
actions.
Brain Cerebellum
o Three main sections: o Muscle coordination is developed
 Cerebrum here as well as the memory of
 2 hemispheres physical skills.
 Controls memory, intelligence, o If the cerebellum is injured, your
muscles movements become jerky.
 Cerebellum Brainstem
 Controls balance, posture and o Medulla oblongata controls our
coordination digestive, respiratory and circulatory
 Brainstem systems
 Controls involuntary activities o Pons act as pathways connecting
such as breathing various part of the brain with each
other. helps regular breathing. It also
plays a key role in sleep and
dreaming.
o Midbrain also called mesencephalon,
functions in motor movement,
particularly movements of the eye,
and in auditory and visual
processing.

Cerebrum
o Controls conscious activities,
intelligence, memory, language,
muscles.
o Wrinkled with countless folds and
grooves and covered with an outer layer
of gray matter called the cerebral cortex.
o Divided into 4 lobes
Peripheral Nervous System
o Somatic Nervous System
 Relay information between
skin, skeletal muscles and
central nervous system
 You consciously control this
pathway by deciding whether
or not to move muscles
(except reflexes)
 Reflexes: Automatic
response to stimulus
o Autonomic Nervous System
 Relay information from
central nervous system to
organs
 Involuntary: You do not
consciously control these
 Sympathetic Nervous
System: controls in times of
stress, such as the flight or
fight response
 Parasympathetic Nervous
System: controls body in
times of rest
Neutrotransmitters
o Adrenaline, also known as epinephrine,
is a hormone produced in high stress or
exciting situations. It stimulates
increased heart rate, contracts blood
vessels, and dilates airways, to increase
blood flow to the muscles & oxygen to the
lungs. This leads to a physical boost, and
heightened awareness.
o Noradrenaline, also known as
norepinephrine, is a neurotransmitter
that affects attention and responding
actions in the brain. Alongside
adrenaline, it is also involved in the ‘fight
or flight’ response. Its effect in the body
is to contract blood vessels to increase
blood flow. Patients diagnosed with
ADHD will often be prescribed drugs
designed to help increase levels of
noradrenaline in the brain. They are
responsible for concentration, attention,
mood and both physical and mental
arousal.
o Acetylcholine is a neurotransmitter in
both the peripheral nervous system,
where it activates the muscles, and the
central nervous system, where it acts as
a neuromodulator upon plasticity,
arousal and reward. It is one of many
neurotransmitters in the autonomic
nervous system and the only
neurotransmitter used in the motor
division of the somatic nervous system.
o Dopamine is produced in quite a few
areas of the brain, including the
substantia nigra and the ventral
tegmental area. Dopamine is also a
neurohormone released by the
hypothalamus. Its principle hormonal role
is to inhibit the release of prolactin from
the anterior lobe of the pituitary.
Dopamine has important roles in
behavior and cognition, voluntary
movement, motivation, punishment and
reward, sleep, mood, attention, working
memory and learning.
o Serotonin is thought to be a contributor to
feelings of well-being and happiness. It
regulates the sleep cycle along with
melatonin, and also regulates intestinal
movements. Low levels of serotonin have
been linked to depression, anxiety, and
some mental disorders. Antidepressants
work by increasing serotonin levels.
Exercise and light levels can also both
have positive effects on the levels of
serotonin.
o Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) is the
major inhibitory neurotransmitter of the
brain; its role is to calm firing nerves in
the central nervous system. Increased
levels improve mental focus and
relaxation, whilst low levels can cause
anxiety, and have also been linked with
epilepsy. GABA also contributes to motor
control and vision. Drugs to treat epilepsy
often act by increasing levels of GABA in
the brain.
o Glutamate is the most common
neurotransmitter in the brain, and is
involved in cognitive functions, such as
learning and memory. It also regulates
brain development and creation of nerve
contacts. Glutamate is actually toxic to
neurons in larger quantities, and if too
much is present it can kill them; brain
damage or strokes can lead to the
creation of a harmful excess, killing brain
cells.
o Endorphins formed from long chains of
multiple amino acids. They are released
in the brain during exercise, excitement,
pain, and sexual activity, and produce a
feeling of well-being or even euphoria.
Certain foods, such as chocolate & spicy
foods, can also stimulate the release of
endorphins.
Stimulus
o anything in the environment (light, water,
heat, pressure, wind, touch, etc) that
triggers a physiological change in an
organism
Response
o the corresponding reaction to an
environmental stimulus. In the long run, a
series of responses will enable an
organism to adapt and survive.
Hormones
o are chemical messengers in plants. They
regulate various biochemical and
physiological responses that include
seed germination, flowering,
photosynthesis, fruit ripening and shoot
and root development.
Regulation of Growth
o External Environmental Factors
 Light- through photosynthesis the
plant makes its energy carrying
molecules.
 Day Length- causes the plants to
flower. Many other roles of day length
are being studied such as fruit and
seed germination, dormancy, and
leaf loss.
 Gravity- causes roots to grow down
toward the soil and roots to grow up
away from the source of gravity.
 Temperature- Temperature affects
the rate of enzyme reaction. Higher
temperature, to a point, is best for
plant growth while low temperatures
are needed for some plants to flower.
Tropism
o A biological phenomenon, indicating
growth or turning movement of a
biological organism, usually a plant, in
response to an environmental stimulus.
o The word tropism comes from the Greek
trope (“to turn” or “to change”). Tropisms
are usually named for the stimulus
involved and may be either positive
(towards the stimulus) or negative (away
from the stimulus).
o Phototropism is the growth response of a
plant in response to light direction.
Different parts of a plant exhibit different
reactions to light. Stems exhibit positive
phototropism while most roots exhibit
negative phototropism.
o Geotropism is the growth response of
plant in response to gravity. Roots exhibit
positive geotropism while stems and
leaves exhibit negative geotropism.
o Thigmotropism is the growth response of
a plant to physical contact (touch). Plants
that cling to physical structures such as
walls exhibit positive thigmotropism.
o Hydrotropism is the growth response of a
plant to water. Roots exhibit positive
hydrotropism.
Plant Hormones
o Plant hormones, also known as
phytohormones are chemicals that
regulate plant growth. In plants, these
are produced by cells in one area of
the plant, such as leaves, stems or
roots and then transported to a
different area of the plant in order for
them to have a response.
o Hormones are transported within the
plant using localized movement and
cytoplasmic streaming within cells
and slow diffusion. Phloem and
Xylem are vascular tissues that also
help in the transportation of
hormones from one part of the plant
to another
o Types:
 Auxins
 They affect cell elongation by
altering cell wall plasticity.
They are responsible for
stimulating the development
of xylem (water transporting
tissues throughout the plant)
and inhibit growth of buds
lower down the stems,
ensuring the plant grows with
the leading tip (apical
dominance). They promote
root growth and branching. In
high doses, it however inhibits
root growth and expansion.
 Cytokinins
 or CKs are a group of
chemicals that influence cell
division and shoot formation.
They also delay senescence
of tissues and are responsible
for ensuring proper transport
of the hormone auxin to
where it is required in the
plant’s body. Cytokinins, in
conjunction with ethylene
promote abscission (fall or
drop) of leaves and fruit.
 Gibberellins
 include a large range of
chemicals that are produced
by plants and fungus. They
are important for seed
germination, initiating
mobilization of nutrients
stored within the seed.
Gibberellins help in
increasing the number of
fruits, the size of a fruit and
also delay the ripening of
fruits in citrus plants.
 Ethylene
 is also known as the ripening
hormone. It is a gas that forms
through the breakdown of
methionine, which is in all
cells. Its production increases
when the seeds are mature,
ensuring the fruit is released
only when the seeds are ripe
for germination.
 Abscisic acid or Dormin
 It inhibits growth/germination
of seeds. It helps in promoting
bud dormancy and
senescence of leaves during
cold season.
 In plants, during water stress,
Abscisic acid, helps to close
the stomata, to conserving
water.