Gurumantra of Biology Final File Gurash

By Dr.
Kabir Pokhrel
PLANT ANATOMY
 Anatomy is study of gross internal structure.
 Father of plant Anatomy is N. grew.
 Tissue in which the cells are in continuous state of division or are preparing to divide
is called meristmatic tissue.
 Cells of meristmatic tissue are isodiametric and without intercellular spaces and
reserve food material.
 Plant embryo truely represent promeristem and therefore promeristem is also
known as embryonic meristem.
 The process of change of meristmatic tissue into permanent tissue is called
differentiation and the reverse process is called de-differentiation.
 Except intrafascicular cambium, all cambium undergoes de-differentiation.
 Promeristem give rise to primary meristem to primary permanent tissue to
secondary meristem.
 On the basis of position meristem can be apical, Intercalary and lateral.
 Apical meristem are found in apices of stem root and responsible for increasing
length. (Primary growth)
 Intercalary meristem is found in between two permanent tissue.
 Intercalary meristem is derived from apical meristem.
 Apical meristem is absent in grasses, so increase in length in grasses is due to
intercalary meristem.
 Lateral meristem is responsible for increase in girth or diameter.
 Cork cambium and vascular cambium are example of lateral meristem.
 Tunica-corpus concept of shoot apex organization was put forward by Schmidt.
 Root cap forming histogen in dicot is dermatogens and monocot is calyptrogens.
 Tissue which is made up of matured cells which have lost the power of division is
called permanent tissue.
 Parenchyma, collenchyma and sclerenchyma are type of simple permanent
tissue.
 Aerenchyma (parenchyma with air chamber) is present hydrophytes for buoyancy.
 Chlorenchyma is chloroplast associated with parenchyma eg. Palisade tissue.
 Idioblastic parenchyma is storing parenchyma that stores enzymes, resins etc.
 Collenchyma is living mechanical tissue.
 Collenchyma is not found in roots and monocot.
 Sclerenchyma is dead (due to deposition of lignin on the cell wall) and is
mechanical in function.
 Hardened sclerenchyma is called stone cells or sclereids.
 Hardness of seed coat is due to stone cells.
 Xylem and phloem are type of complex permanent tissue.
 Xylem is also known as Hadrome and helps in conduction (ascent of sap)
 Ascent of sap (water + mineral) is unidirectional.
Complete Botany 1
 Tracheids, Vessels, xylem parenchyma and xylem fibre are elements of xylem.
 Only living element of xylem is xylem parenchyma.
 Tracheids is most primitive and vessels is most advanced type of conducting
elements.
 Conduction in pteridophytes and gymnosperms is by tracheids only.
 Phloem (leptome) helps in translocation of food.
 Seive tube, companion cell, phloem fibre and phloem parenchyma are element of
phloem.
 Only dead element of phloem is phloem fibre.
 Sieve tube elements are without nuclei at maturity.
 Sieve tube in winter is plugged by callose.
 Companion cell is present only in phloem of angiosperm.
 Nucleus of companion cells serves the function of sieve tube.
 Secondary xylem is called wood and secondary phloem is called bast.
 Special tissues are responsible for secretion of different substances like resins,
tannins, gums, alkaloids, latex and nectar.
 Guard cells are the specialized epidermal cell containing chloroplasts.
 Bulli-form cells or motor cell are present on epidermis of grass leaves and helps in
rolling of leaves.
 Guard cell in monocot is dumb - bell and in dicot is kidney shaped.
 Monocot leaf is amphistomatic (stomata present on both surface).
 Sunken stomata (stomata that opens at night time) is present in xerophytes.
(Opuntia)
 Hairs of stem or root are also known trichomes and are exogenous in origin.
 Stem hairs are multicellular and root hairs are Unicellular.
 Hypodermis of monocot stem is sclerenchymatous and dicot stem is
collenchymatous.
 Endodermis is single layer that separates cortex from stele (stores starch protective
layer).
 Casparian stripes is present in endodermis.
 Wall of endodermis without casparian strips is called passage cell.
 Pericycle is single layered, paranchymatous (multilayered, sclerenchymatous in
smilax).
 Pith is well developed in dicot stem and monocot root.
 In roots, xylem is exarch i.e. protoxylem is towards periphery.
 In stem, xylem is endarch i.e. protoxylem is towards centre.
 Amphicribal V.B. or Hadrocentric → when xylem is surrounded by phloem on all
sides. eg. Fern.
 Amphivasal V.B or Leptocentric → when phloem is surrounded by xylem on all
sides. eg. yucca and draceana.
 In radial V. B. xylem and phloem lies on seperate radii alternately. eg. Root
(monocot and dicot).
 In conjoint V.B. xylem and phloem lies on same radii. e.g. Stem
 In dicot stem, V. B. is conjoint, collateral and open.
2 By Dr. Kabir Pokhrel

 In monocot stem V.B. is conjoint, collateral and closed.
 Bicollateral V.B. (xylem surrounded by phloem on both side and always open) is
present in cucurbitaceae, solanaceae.
 V.B. in monocot stem is conjoint, Collateral and Closed (No cambium is present
between xylem and phloem).
 Increase in diameter or girth of plant is called secondary growth.
 Cambium present between xylem and phloem in vascular bundles is called
intrafascicular cambium.
 Cambium present between vascular bundles is called interfascicular cambium.
 Secondary growth is absent in monocot and pteridophytes due to closed type of
V.B.
 Dendrochronology is technique to determine age of tree by counting Annual rings.
 Dendrology is study of wood or xylem.
 During sec. growth cork cambium (phellogen) secretes sec. cortex (phelloderm)
towards inside and cork (phellem) outside.
 Phellogen + Phelloderm + phellem = Periderm.
 Grafting is not possible in monocot due to scattered V.B.
 Spring wood (early wood) has wider lumen than Autumn wood (late wood).
 The central portion of stem is darker in colour constitutes heart wood or duramen
(mechanical in function).
 The peripheral portion of the trunk is lighter in colour constitutes sapwood or
alburnum (conduction in function).
 Tyloses are balloon like out growth of adjecent xylem parenchyma into the lumen of
xylem vessels.
 All the tissues outside vascular cambium is called bark.
 All the dead cells outside the innermost layer of cork cambium or phellogen
constitute rhytidome.
 Lateral roots/root branches are endogenous (arising from pericycle) in origin
while stem branches are exogenous in origin.
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Complete Botany 3
ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF
BACTERIA
 Bacteria was discovered by A.V. Leeuwenhoek and known as father of
bacteriology.
 Robert koch first of all cultured bacteria.
 Bacteria are unicellular and prokaryotic micro organisms.
 Most commonly studied bacterium is Escherichia coli.
 Nucleus of bacteria is also known as nucleoid or genophore or incipient nucleus.
 Two major cell division i.e. meiosis and mitosis are absent in bacteria.
 Ribosomes are 70s type (30s + 50s)
 Outermost layer of bacterial cell is called capsule or slime layer
 The main difference between gram +ve and gram - ve bacteria is of cell wall.
 Bacterial cell wall is made up of peptidoglycan (murin).
 In addition to peptidoglycan, teichoic acid forms the cell wall in gram +ve bacteria
and lipopolysaccharide in gm –ve bacteria.
 Bacterial respiration occurs in mesosomes. (Infolding of plasma membrane).
 Bacterial cell lack membrane bound cell organelles.
 Plasmids are extra-chromosomal genetic material which are capable of autonomous
replication.
 Two important sugar derivatives that are only present in cell wall of bacteria are N -
acetyl glucosamine (NAG) and N- acetyl muramic acid (NAM).
 Flagella are organ of motility in bacteria.
 Bacteria with tuft of flagella at only one end is called lophotrichous.
 Bacteria with flagella all over the body is called peritrichous.
 When single or group of flagella is present at both the ends is called
Amphitrichous eg. Nitrosomonas.
 In bacteria type I- pilli helps in infection and sex- pilli helps in entry of genetic
material during conjugation.
 E. coli is anaerobic bacteria present in human intestine.
 Fermentation bacteria are saprophytic
 Nitrogen fixing bacteria converts atmospheric N2 to biologically acceptable form.
eg. Rhizobium (symbiotic), Azotobacter (free living)
 Nitrifying bacteria oxides NH3 to NO3.
 Denitrifying bacteria convert nitrate to atmospheric N2 eg. Pseudomonas.
 Nitrosomonas and Nitrosococcus oxidise NH3 ammonia to nitrite.
 Nitrobacter and Nitrocystic oxidise nitrite to nitrate.
 Denitrifying bacteria convert nitrate to atmospheric N2 eg. Pseudomonas.
 Bacterial photosynthesis involves H2S instead of H2O.
 Instead of O2, sulphur, is evolved in bacterial photosynthesis.
 Bacterial photosynthesis involves only photo system I.
 Chemoautotrophic bacteria obtain food by oxidation of inorganic substance.

 Rhizobium symbiotic bacteria found in root nodule of legume.
 Commonly bacteria reproduce by binary fission during fabourable condition.
 If a bacteria cell divides in every 20 minutes. then after 2 hours 64 bacteria will be
formed
 Asexual reproduction in bacteria is by endospore formation.
 There is no sexual reproduction in bacteria.
 Genetic combination without body contact is called transformation.
 Transformation was first discovered by Griffith.
 Transfer of DNA ( genetic material) through bacteriophage is called transduction.
 Transduction was first of all reported in salmonella by Zinder and Lederberg.
 Transfer of genetic material by direct body contact is called conjugation.
 Conjugation in bacteria is discovered by Lederberg and Tatum.
 Milk is heated at 62.8ºC for 30 min or 71.7ºC for 15sec is called pasteurization.
 Most of the pathogenic bacteria are Gram -ve, rod shaped and non - spore
Forming (Bacteria causing anthrax and tetanus are spore forming)
VIRUS
 Viruses are acellular entities (particles).
 Size in nanometer so can easily pass through bacterial filter (bacterial size -
micrometer)
 Viruses are exception to the cell theory.
 Viruses are connecting link between living and non living sub stance.
 In latin, the word 'virus' represents "poison"
 Virus was discovered by Ivanowsky, first crystallized by m. stanly.
 First discovered virus is tobacco mosaic virus (TMV)
 On the basis of shape
Brick shaped → Smallpox virus
Spherical → Influenza virus
Rod shaped → TMV
Tadpole - Like → Bacteriophages
 Virus genome consists of either RNA or DNA surrounded by protein coat called
capsid.
 Virus is a obligatory parasite.
 Virus can reproduce only in living cells.
 Enzyme required for replication of virus is synthesized by host cell.
 Living character of virus is the presence of nucleic acid and non living character is
that it can be crystallized.
 Virus attacking - bacteria → Bacteriophage.
Algae → Phycophage
Blue green algal (BGA) → Cyanophage.
E. Coli → Coliophage.
 Foot and mouth virus is the smallest and pox virus is the largest animal virus.
Complete Botany 5
 Mostly animal virus have DNA as genetic material and plant virus have RNA as
genetic material.
 Cauliflower mosaic virus DNA is present
 Head of plant virus is consists of RNA.
 Virus with double stranded RNA are reovirus,
 Bacteriophage  × 174 contain single stranded DNA.
 AIDS (HIV) virus has single stranded RNA.
 HIV virus is example of Retrovirus.
 In lytic cycle, the virus is virulent and multiply in the host cell leading to its lysis.
 Virion is fully assembled mature particle of virus capable of infection.
 Virion contain both protein and nucleic acid.
 Viroid is infectious nucleic acid (RNA) without protein coat (smallest pathogens).
 Prion is infectious protein with nucleic acid.
 Antibiotic has no effect on virus as they don't have own metabolism.
 Diseases caused by viruses in plants
Tobacco mosaic disease
Leaf curl of papaya
Potato leaf roll
Bunchy top of banana
Tomato leaf curl
 Mumps, AIDS, Dengue fever, Hepatitis etc are the viral diseases.
 Interferon are antiviral substance produced by host cell to produce resistance
against virus.
LICHENS
 Lichens are symbiotic association between algae and fungi.
 Algal partner called phycobiot eg. Blue green algae, green algae.
 Fungal partner called mycobiont eg. Ascomycetes, Basidiomycetes.
 Most accepted association is known as Helotism
 Lichens show very slow growth
 On the basis of habitat
Saxicaulous lichens grow on rocks, corticaulous lichens grow on bark of trees and
Terricaulous lichens grow on earth crust.
 Lichens are indicator or air pollution sensitive to SO2 (do not grow near big cities)
 Fruticose lichens attached to substratum by a disc eg. usnea, cladonia.
 Foliose lichens attached to substratum by special structures called rhizinae eg.
parmelia, phsicia, peltigera
 Cyphellae are analogous to stomata helps in respiration in Lichens.
 Lichens reproduce vegetatively by fragmentation, Isidia and Soredia
 Sexual reproduction is a function of Fungal partner
 Litmus is acid - base indicator obtained from Roccella
 Crustose lichens are pioneers in xerosere

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Complete Botany 7
ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF
ALGAE
 Study of algae is called phycology.
 Vegetative body of algae is thallose (not differentiated into root, stem and leaves.)
 Sex organs in algae is unicellular and non jacketed.
 No embryo after fertilization, mostly aquatic
 Spirogyra is a freshwater algae.
 Blue green algae which is found in coralloid root of Cycas is Nostoc.
 Leaf of Azolla contain Anabaena and is good biofertilizer.
 Spiral shaped chloroplast is present in Spirogyra.
 Chlorophyll 'a' and carotene pigment is common for all algae.
 Chlorophyll 'b' is found in Chlorophyceae and chl/ 'c' in Phacophyceae.
 Spirogyra, Ulothrix and Chlamydomonas are memebers of chlorophyceae (Green
algae).
 Reserve food material of chlorophyceae is starch stored in pyrenoids.
 Pyrenoids are protein that collects starch.
 Spirogyra is also known as 'water silk', 'pond silk' or 'Pond scum'
 Cell wall of spirogyra is double layered i.e. outer pectic and inner cellulosic.
 Spirogyra has haplontic life cycle
 In spirogyra meiotic division occurs in zygospore
 In spirogyra sometimes the gametes behave directly as zygospore without fusion,
such reproductive bodies are called Azygospore
 Food is stored in spirogyra in pyrenoid
 Spirogyra differ from moss protonema in having pyrenoids
 Spirogyra is slippery to touch as it has sheath of pectose
 In spirogyra, vegetative reproduction by fragmentation
 In spirogyra, sexual reproduction by conjugation
- Sclariform: between two filament
- Lateral: Between two cell of same Filament
 Sexual reproduction is spirogyra is isogamous and takes place by conjugation.
 Isogamous: Fusion of morphologically similar and physiologically different
gametes.
 During germination of zygospore in Spirogyra, meiosis is followed by mitosis.
 No. of degenerating nuclei in spirogyra is 3.
 Batrachospermum (frog spawn) is member of red algae.
 Red color of red algal is due to special pigment r - phycoerythrin.
 Reserve food material of red algae is Floridian starch.
 All member of phaeophyceae (brown algae) are marine.
 Reserve food material in pheophyceae is "Laminarian starch or manitol".
 Macrocystis (largest alga) and sargassum are member of phaeophyceae.

 Blue green algae is also called cyanobacteria.
 All Blue Green are prokaryotic and therefore kept in Monera.
 Dominant pigment of Blue Green Algae is phycocyanin.
 Blue Green Algae reproduce only vegetatively and sexual reproduction is absent.
 Oscillatoria, a cyanobacterium acts as indicator of water pollution
 The structure present in cyanobacteria helping in N2 fixation is Heterocyst
 Hormogonia are the vegetatively reproducing structure of cyanobacteria.
 Reserve food materials of BGA are cyanophycean starch and proteinaceous
substance cyanophycin
 Red color of red sea is due to pigment trichodesmium erythrium.
 Nostoc and Anabaena are example of BGA.
 Nostoc can reproduce by fragmentation, harmogones, alkinetes and heterocyst.
 Most proteinaceous algae are Spirulina and Chlorella.
 Agar- agar is obtained from red algae (Gracilaria, Gelidium)
 Iodine is obtained from brown algae.
 'Water bloom' is caused by Blue green algae and green algae.
 Red rust of tea is due to Cephaleuros virescence.
 Red rust of coffee is due to C. Arabica.
FUNGI
 Study of fungi is called Mycology.
 Fungi are unicellular, non-jacketed, non - vascular and no- embryo formation
 Fungi are heterotrophic thallophyte.
 Plant body is represented by mycelium. Unit structure of mycelium is hyphae.
 Hyphae is coenocytic
 Fungal cell wall is made up of chitin.
 Reserve food material of fungi is glycogen and oil drops.
 Mode of reproduction in fungi may be parasitic, saprophytic or symbiotic.
 Mycorrhiza is the fungal association with root of higher plants like Pinus
(Pandanus sps.)
 Function of mycorrhiza is uptake of mineral.
 Vegetative reproduction in fungi is by budding, fission and oidia formation.
 Asexual reproduction in Aspergillus and Penicillium occurs by conidia/
conidiospores.
 Conidiospores are non motile, spores produced exogenously in structure called
conidiophores/sterigmata.
 Asexual reproduction in basidiomycetes (agaricus) is by basidiospore formation.
 Phytopthora infestans (phycomycetes/ algal fungi) causes late blight of potato.
 Members of ascomycetes are also called 'sac' fungi'
 Penicillium and Yeast belongs to ascomycetes.
 Commonly Yeast reproduce by budding.
 Mushroom belong to order agaricales
Complete Botany 9
 Vegetative mycelium is of two types primary (monokaryotic) and secondary
(dikaryotic).
 Fruiting body is commonly called mushroom is differenciated into a stalk or stipe
and a cap or pileus
 Sexual reproduction occur without sex organ and is somatogamous fusion.
 Fairy rings are formed by agaricus
 Basidomycetes is also called "club fungi/ Ray fungi"
 Dolipore formation occurs in basidomycetes.
 Fruiting body of Basidomycetes is Basidocarp eg. Mushroom.
 Agaricus camperstris (common mushroom), Amanita (poisonous mushroom)
belongs to basidiomycetes.
 Deuteromycetes is also called "fungi imperfecti" as there is no sexual reproduction.
 Rhizopus is commonly called "bread mould/ pin mould".
 Neurospora is commonly called drosphilla of plant kingdom.
 Claviceps is commonly called Ergot fungi.
 Sexual reproduction (conjugation) in Mucor occurs between two heterothallic
species i.e. morphologically similar and physiologically different thalli.
 Yeast (Schaacromyces) is smallest fungi that grows in sugary solution.
 Yeast can change sugar into alcohol so used in brewing industry.
 Meiosis in yeast occurs in ascus mother cell.
 Yeast is an important source of vit.B2 (Riboflavin)
 Mushroom (Agaricus) is also called gill fungi or club fungi or fairy ring.
 Asexual reproduction in fungi is by Chlamydia spore formation.
 First antibiotic penicillin (wonder drug) was obtained from penicillium notatum by
sir Alexander flemming.
 Commercially penicillin is obtained from penicillium chrysogenum.
 Fermentation property of yeast is due to zymase enzyme.
 Gibberellic acid is obtained from fungus Fusarium.
 Black rust of wheat is due to Puccinia.
 Mucor belongs to phycomycetes
 Mucor shows Isogamy
 Mycelium of mucor is coenocytic
 Torula condition is found in mucor
 Sporangiospores of mucor are haploid.
 Fungal spores produced asexually at the tips of hyphae are called conidia.
BRYOPHYTES
 First land inhabiting plant is bryophytes.
 Bryophytes are also called amphibian of plant kingdom as they need water for
reproduction.
 Plant body of bryophytes is gametophyte (n).
 Embryo is present in bryophytes
 Bryophyta have probably evolved from green algae

 Mosses are indicator of soil pollution
 Plant body may be thallose as in merchantia or foliose as in funaria (moss).
 Bryophytes lacks vascular tissue (xylem and phloem) so can be called as
Atracheata.
 Funaria is attached to substratum by rhizoids
 In funaria plant stomata are present in capsule.
 Funaria gametophyte is monoecious and autoecious.
 Bryophytes shows heteromorphic alternation of generation.
 Sex organ is multicellular and surrounded by single layered jacket of sterile cells.
 Male sex organ (Anthridium) is club shaped and female sex organ (Archegonium)
is flask shaped having neck and Venter.
 Male gamete is biflagellate and motile known as spermatozoids or anthrozoids.
 Number of neck cell in Bryophytes is 6.
 Number of neck cell in marchantia is 4 - 6 and funaria is 6 - 10.
 Sexual reproduction in bryophytes is oogamous type.
 Movement of male gamete to archeagonia is chemotactic (due to malic acid)
 Fertilization is water dependent.
 Operculum of capsule consists of two rows (16 + 16) of peristome teeth.
 Elaters are present in capsule of marchantia
 The largest archegonium of plant kingdom is present in funaria
 In funaria dispersal of spores is achieved with the help of Peristome
 Spore mother cell in bryophytes is Diploid
 The dehiscence of moss capsule takes place by the rupture of the Annulus
 The development of a sporophytes from moss gametophyte without gamete
formation is called Apogamy
 The central or middle part of theca of capsule of funaria is sterile and is known as
columella
 Spores on germination in funaria give rise to protonema.
 Protonema of moss is haploid
 Hygroscopic nature of peristome helps in spore dispersal.
 Juvenile stage during germination of gametophyte is called protonema.
 In funaria, the leaves surrounding the archegonial clusters are called perichaetial
leaves (perigonium in anthridium)
 In funaria calyptra arises from Archegonium
 Sporophyte of marchantia is fully and funaria is partially dependent on
gametophyte.
 Distinct alternation of generation is present in Bryophytes.
 Members of bryopsida are commonly called "mosses".
 Common name of funaria is green moss and sphagnum is called peat bog mass.
 Economically most important bryophyte is sphagnum.
 Marchantia belongs to class hepaticopsida.
 Plant body of merchantia is dioecious (male and female on different plant).
Complete Botany 11
PTERIDOPHYTA
 Pteridophytes are first vascular land plants, producing spores but lack of seeds.
 Pteridophytes also known as vascular cryptogams/Botanical snake.
 Dominant phase of life cycle is sporophytic (2n) with distinct heteromorphic
alternation of generation.
 Conduction in pteridophytes is only of Tracheids and Translocation by seive cells.
 Young leaves of Fern are called fronds.
 Xylem of pteridophytes lacks vessels and phloem lacks companion cell and sieve
tube.
 In ferns the xylem is mesarch
 Pteriodophytes containing vessels are Selaginella and Equisetum.
 Largest pteridophytes is Cyathea and smallest is Azolla (Boifertilizer)
 Development of sporangium:
• Eusporangiate type: Sporangium develops from many cells. eg. Selaginella,
Equisetum.
• Leptosporangiate type: Sporangium develops from single cell e.g. Ferns.
 Spore bearing leaves of fern is called sporophylls
 Sporophylls contain sori on dorsal surface covered by indusium.
 Number of spores in sporangium of fern are 64
 In ferns, meiosis occurs during spore formation
 Spermatozoids of fern is multiflagellated.
 Sporophyte and gametophyte of fern are independent of each other.
 Type of stele in fern is dictyostele.
 Stem of fern is underground called rhizome.
 Type of venation in fern is circinate.
 Stomium in fern helps in spores dispersal.
 Spores on germination gives short lived prothallus which represent gametophytic
phase.
 Prothallus of fern is monoecious and homothallic (both archegonia and antheridia
on same body)
 Fern prothallus is heart shaped and haploid
 Gametangia of fern are produced on prothallus
 Formation of sporophyte from a vegetative portion of prothallus without sexual
fusion is called Apogamy
 Pollentube is not involved in the fertilization in ferns
 Fern draws nourisment from prothallus through foot
 Archegonium of fern is slightly curved and contain single uninucleate neck canal
cell.
 Sporophyte is initially dependent but finally independent of gametophyte.
 Equisetum is commonly known as 'horse tail'.
 Structure present over the leaves of ferns is called Ramenta
 Azolla fixed N2.

GYMNOSPERMS
 Gymnosperms are first seed bearing plants.
 Gymnosperms bears naked seed as they lack ovary.
 Cycas and Ginkgo are also called living fossils.
 Two type of leaves are found. large photosynthetic leaves are foliage leaves and
small brown leaves are called cataphylls.
 Laterals translocation of food in leaves is by transfusion tissue.
 Stem of Pinus contains resin canal and Cycas contain mucilage canal.
 Xylem lacks vessels. Conduction is due to tracheids only.
 In cycas diploxylic VB are found in Rachis and leaflet.
 Phloem contains sieve tubes and lacks companion cell.
 Instead of companion cell, albuminous cell are present.
 Micosporophyll and megasporophyll respectively bears male and female cone or
strobilus.
 Heterospory i.e. two types of spores (microspore and megaspore) are found.
 Pinus is monoecious and Cycas is a dioecious plant.
 Ovule is orthrotopous and unitegmic but anatropous in pinus.
 Winged pollen grains are found in Pinus which develops from exine.
 Male gametes are non motile except Cycas and Ginkgo.
 Pollination in gymnosperms is by wind (anemophily)
 Fertilization in gymnosperms is siphonogamous (by pollen tube). so no water
mediums is required.
 Endosperm in gymnosperm is haploid as it develops before fertilization.
 Polyembryony is most common in pinus.
 Leaves of cycas shows circinate ptyxis.
 Neck canal cell (NCC) is absent in gymnosperm.
 Cycas revoluta is also called sago palm.
 Symbiotic association of algal with root forms the coralloid root of Cycas.
 Archegonium consists of 2-celled neck with an egg (neck canal cell absent)
 Ovule as well as egg of cycas is largest among plant kingdom.
 Antherozoids are top shaped and multiciliate in cycas.
 In gymnosperm 2 male gametes are produced by each pollen grains.
 Megasporophylls of gymnosperm are comparable to carpel of angiosperm
 The number of archegonia develop on one gametophyte of cycas is 3 - 6
 The number of prothallial cell in male gametophyte of pinus and cycas are 2 and 1
respectively
PINUS
 Common species of pinus in Nepal are:
(i) Pinus roxbergi (3 needle) → Chir pine/ Rani salla.
(ii) Pinus wallichian (5 needle) → Blue pine/ Gobre salla.
 Symbiotic association of fungi with roots of pinus forms mycorrhizal roots.
 Foliage leaves are present in only dwarf or short branch.
Complete Botany 13
 Scale leaves are present in both long and short branch.
 Foliage leaf contains thick cuticle and sunken stomata.
 Pinus is monoecious (male and female cone on same plant)
 Archegonium consists of 4 + 4 celled neck (Neck canal cell is absent).
 The male gametes of pinus species are non - cillated
 The number of archegonia in pinus ovule is 1 - 5
Characters Cycas Pinus
Wood type Polyxylic/ softwood Pycnoxylic/ Hard wood
Ovule Orthrotropous Anatropous
Plant body Dioecious Monoecious
Pollination At 3 celled stage At 4 celled stage (2 prothallial, 1
(1 prothalial, 1 generative, 1 generative and 1 tube cell)
tube cell)
Fertiligation Occurs after 5 - 6 month of Occurs after 11 - 15 month of
pollination pollination.
Germination Hypogeal Epigeal
No. of cotyledon Two Two to eighteen.
 Chilgoza are obtained from pinus gerardiana.
 Canada balsam is obtained from abies balsamea.
 Cedar wood oil is obtained from juniperous virginiana.
 Taxol, which is used in cancer treatment is obtained from bark of Taxus baccata
(khote salla)


MORPHOLOGY OF ANGIOSPERMS
ROOT
 Main root or tap root develops from radicle of an embryo.
 Modified tap root may be conical (carrot) fusiform (radish), tuberous (mirabilis
Jalapa) Napiform (turnip)
 Root branch or secondary roots are endogenous (arise from pericycle).
 Root hairs are exogenous (arise from epiblema or piliferous layer)
 Parts of root from apex to base are root cap, zone of cell division (meristmatic),
zone of cell elongation and zone of cell maturation.
 Root tip is sub terminal in position due to presence of root cap over it.
 Multiple root cap is found in Pandanus species (screw pine).
 In hydrophytes like Eichhornia, lemna and pistia root pocket are present in place of
root cap.
 Virus free plant can be grown by meristem culture.
 Root hairs are present in zone of cell maturation so maximum water absorbtion
occurs from this zone.
 Root that develops from any plant part other than radicle is called adventitious root.
 Pneumatophores or respiratory roots or breathing roots are found in mangrove
plants and are apogeotropic or negatively geotropic.
 Pneumathode is a pore for gaseous exchange in pheumatophores that represents
morphologically with lenticels.
 Symbiotic relationship of fungi with roots of higher plant is mycorrhizal root. eg.
pinus.
 Sweet potato is modified adventitious root called tuberous root.
 Prop root or supporting root is present in ficus (Banyan tree).
 Stilt root is found in maize and sugarcane and it develops from lower node.
 Climbing root is found in money plant (pothos), betel nut, Ivy etc. and helps in
climbing.
 Haustorial/Parasitic/Sucking root is found in Cuscuta.
 Photosynthetic/Assimilatory root is found in trapa, tinospora and taniophyllum.
 Clinging root or epiphytic root is found in some epiphytic orchid. The function of
epiphytic root is absorption of moisture with the help of velamen tissue.
 Raflessia and Balanophora are total root parasite
 Hygroscopic roots occurs in vanda
 Nodulated roots are associated with Nitrogen fixing bacteria
 Podostemon is a plant that is all root
 Reproductive roots is found in trichosanthes (parwal)
STEM
 It is positively phototropic and negatively geotropic
 In stem, branches are exogenous in origin
 Develops from plumule and bear node and internode.
Complete Botany 15
 Stem with distinct node and internode, generally without branching and may be
hollow or solid is called Culm. eg. Bamboo, sugarcane, Maize etc.
 Stem of some plant modified into tendril eg. passiflora, Vitis
 Thorns are actually modified axillary buds or terminal buds and possess vascular
supply.
 Cuscuta is total stem parasite
 A long and cylindrical stem having scars of fallen leaf bases with crown of leaves at
apex is called caudex. eg. coconut.
 Thick and woody climbers of tropical rain forests are called lianas.
 A sub aerial stem which is one internode long, thick (short runner) is stolon. eg.
pistia, eichhornia etc.
 Underground horizontal stem is called Rhizome eg. ginger, Turmeric etc.
 Aerial stem of banana is a pseudostem where as true stem is underground called
sucker.
 Highly reduced underground stem is called bulb eg. onion, garlic etc.
 Potato is a modified under ground stem called tuber.
 Potato is modified stem that is exogenous in origin and contains vascular bundles.
 Simple tunicated bulb is found in onion and compound tunicated bulb is found in
garlic.
 Ginger is a stem and not a root bacause it has nodes and internodes.
 Largest and edible bud is cabbage.
 Buds are modified into thorns eg. Citrus, Duranta
 Stem modified into flattened photosynthetic structure in phylloclade
 Vegetative reproduction in agava occurs through Bulbils.
 Aroids store food in swollen stem
 In amorphophallus vegetative reproduction occurs through corm.
 Corms is a spherical, branched, vertical growth thick underground stem with more
diameter than length eg. Gladiolus, Amorphophallus.
 Phylloclade is modification of stem (indefinite length) to carry out photosynthetic
function eg. Opuntia
 Cladode is modification of stem branch in which internode is long to carry out
photosynthetic function. of leaf. eg. Parkinsonia.
 Phylloclade, cladode and phyllode are for xerophytic adaptation.
LEAF
 Leaf is known as kitchen of the plant
 Leaf arising from the nodes of the stem and having a bud in its axil.
 Cotyledonary leaves may be fleshy due to accumulation of food eg. gram, ricinus
 Bract leaves contain flower or an inflorescence in their axil. They are protective in
function and coloured eg. Bougainvillea
 Cataphylls are non- green scale and perform the function of protection.
 Phyllotaxy means the arrangement of leaves on both main stem and branches
 Parallel venation is found in monocotyledon rarely in some dicotyledons leaves eg.
calophyllum.

 Reticulate venation is generally found in dicots and rarely in monocots eg. smilax.
 The arrangement of leaves in a bud condition is called vernation and the way in
which leaves are arranged in bud is called ptyxis.
 Sporophylls are modified leaves or floral leaves
 Sheathing leaf base is present in Gramineae.
 Swollen leaf base is called pulvinous eg. legume, mango.
 Stalk of leaf is called petiole.
 Leaf with petiole is petiolate and without petiole is sessile.
 Spongy or bulbous or floating petiole is present in Eichornia.
 Phyllode are modified petiole into leaf like structure eg. parkinsonia, Acasia
 Winged petiole is found in citrus
 Tendrilar petiole is found in Nepenthes.
 Leafy stipules or foliaceous stipule is found in pisum.
 Leaf stipule modified into tendril in Smilax.
 Stipule are modified into spine and perform the function of protection eg. zizyphus.
 Spine are actually leaf modification and they generally have bud in their axils eg.
Aloe, Argemone
 In pitcher like structure eg. Nepenthes
 Leaves modified to form bladder like structure which trap insect eg. Utricularia.
 Circinate ptyxis is present in cycas and fern
 Leaf of mango is unicostate or pinnate
 Spines of opuntia are modified leaves.
FLOWER
 Study of flower is Anthology.
 Stalk of flower is called pedicel.
 Largest flower is Rafflesia and smallest flower is wolffia.
 Most suitable flower for study for floral part is mustard.
 Monoclinous (Bisexual flower) - Both androecium, gynoecium are present on same
flower ge. mustard, Pisum etc.
 Diclinous (unisexual flower) - either androecium or gynoecium is present in a
flower. eg. Cucurbits, etc.
 Monoecious: Both male and female flower found in same plant. eg. maige,pinus,
Funaria etc.
 Dioecious: Male and female flower are found in different plant. eg. cycas, mulberry
etc.
 Flower which do not open at maturity is called (Cleistogamous flower) eg. Arachis
(Ground nut/ Bragil nut)
 Flower which opens at maturity is called chasmogamous flower.
 Comelina benghalensis has both cleistogamous and chasmogamous flower.
 Flower which can be divided into two equal haves by any line passing through centre
is Actinomorphic flower eg. Cruciferae, liliacea.
 Flower which can be divided into two halves by a single line passing through centre
is zygomorphic flower. eg. gramineae.
Complete Botany 17
 Calyx is outermost whorls of the flower parts and its unit is sepal.
 Corolla is second whorl of flowers and unit is petal
 Calyx and corolla are non essential whorl of flower.
 Fused calyx and corolla is called perianth (unit structure is tepal).
 Androecium is male reproductive part of flower and its unit is stamen.
 Sterile stamen is called staminode
 Gynaecium is the female reproductive part of the flower and its unit is Carpel.
 Sterile pistil or gynaecium is pistillode
 Internodal elongation between calyx and corolla is called anthophore.
 Internodal elongation between corolla and androecium is called androphore.
 Internodal elongation between androecium and gynaecium is called gynophore.
 When both anthers and filaments of different stamens are free is called polyandrous
 Usually anther is dithecous (2 lobe) and tetra sporangiate (4 chamber).
 Filaments of stamens are united in one group (monoadelphous) eg. malvaceae two
group (diadelphous), eg. papilionaceae and several groups (Polyadelphous) eg.
citrus.
 Condition in which stamens are attached to corolla or petals is called epipetalous eg.
solanaceae.
 Stamen united with carpals is called gynandroous eg. calotropis.
 Syngenesious stamens (anther fused and filaments free) are found in compositae.
 Synandrous (Both stamen and filament fused) are found in cucurbitaceae.
 Feathery/hairy out growth from cob of maize is modified style.
 Tetradynamous condition (out of 6 stamen, outer two are short and inner 4 are
long) of stamens is found in cruciferae.
 Hypogynous flower: Floral parts are below ovary i.e. ovary is superior eg.
cruciferae, solanaceae, Malvaceae (China rose)
 Epigynous flower: floral parts are above ovary i.e. ovary is inferior eg. compositae,
cucurbitaceae.
 Perigynous flower: ovary is partially superior and partially inferior. eg. Rose.
 Apocarpous → ovary with free carpals.
 Syncarpous → Ovary with fused carpals.
INFLORESCENCE/ANTHOTAXY
 Arrangement of flower in specialized shoot (peduncle) is called inflorescence.
 Arrangement of sepals and petals in bud condition is called aestivation.
 Inflorescence in which the growth of main axis is unlimited, older flower are at
base and younger at apex is called raceme.
 Inflorescence in which main axis is of limited growth, terminates in to flower and
older flowers are at apex and younger at base is cymose.
 Succession of flower in racemose is acropetal and cymose is basipetal.
 Whorl of bract is called involucre eg. capitulum, umbel and cythium.
 Solitary terminal inflorescence is found in china rose.
 Inflorescence consisting of unisexual sessile flowers is catkin.

 Inflorescence consisting of a number of flower arising from the same point with the
same level at the top is umbel eg. coriander.
 Unisexual and sessile flowers in maize is panicle.
 Inflorescence of banana and coconut is spadix.
 Male inflorescence in maize is panicle.
 Leafless old stem bearing flowers at apex is called scape. eg. onion.
 Edible part in cauliflower is inflorescence.
 Raceme inflorescence is found in radish, mustard.
 Cythium is a special inflorescence in which ratio of male flower is to female
flower is many: one eg. Euphorbia.
 Hypanthodium is a special inflorescence found in Ficus/ Fig/ Banyan.
 Hypanthodium, is a special inflorescence, develops into syconus (multiple) fruit.
 Three type of flowers of occurs in the inflorescence of hypanthodium.
 Verticellaster infloresance is found in Ocimum (Labiatae).
 A biparous cyme ending in uniparous cymes constitutes verticillaster.
 Zig - zag development of flowers is called scorpoid cyme and is found in cotton.
 Multiparous cyme is present in calotropis.
 Head or capitulum is (highly evolved) inflorescence of sunflower.
 Inflorescence of wheat is spike of spikelet.
FRUIT
 After fertilization, ovary changes into fruit.
 Study of fruit is pomology.
 Apple and pyrus are false fruit as they develops from thalamus.
 Fruit type of calotropis is follicle in which dehiscence occurs through one halves.
 Simple fruit develops from syncarpous ovary.
 Aggregate fruit develops from apocarpous ovary.
 All grains are fruit and the type is caryopsis.
 Winged fruit is found in Shorea.
 Cypsela is fruit of sunflower.
 Nut is simple fruit having leathery or hard pericarp.
 Litchi, oaknut (Quencus), cashew nut (Anacardium) are true nut.
 Edible part of litch is fleshy aril that develops from funicle.
 Fruit of coconut and mango is drupe.
 Ediple part in mango is fleshy mesocarp and coconut is endosperm.
 Fruit of pomegranate is balausta. parthenocarpy is undesirable in pomegranate as
edible part is seed testa.
 Fruit of citrus is hesperidium,edible part in hesperidium (orange) is endocarpic
juicy hairs.
 Multiple fruit/ composite fruit develops from inflorescence.
(i) Sorosis→ Develops from catkin, spike or spadix. eg. mulberry (morus), jack
fruit (Artocarpous), pineapple (Ananas)
(ii) Syconus → develops from hypanthodium. eg. Ficus/ Fig/ Banyan
Complete Botany 19
 Fruit, nectar and honey contains 'Fructose' sugar.
 Formation of fruit without fertilization is parthenocarpy.
 The fruit which developed from the ovary are known as true fruits (other than ovary
are known as false fruit).
 Ovary wall is changed into pericarp after ripening
 A dry indehiscent fruit are caryopsis cypsella, Nut and Achene.
 Schizocarpic fruits includes lomentum (Arachis hypogea) cremocarp. (coriander)
and Regma (castor)
 Aggregate fruits includes etaerio of follicles (calotropis), etaerio of berries (custard
apple) and etaerio of drupes (Raspberry).
 Fruits of apple and pear is pomo and cucumber and water melon is pepo
 Siliqua is characteristics fruit of family cruciferae
 The fruit of candytuft in silicula
 Fruits of tomato banana, brinjal, Betal, Gauva and grapes is Berry.
 The characteristic of drupe is stoney endocarp.
SEED
 Seed is mature mega sporangium (ovule)
 Study of seed is spermology
 A typical seed is made up of seed coat, embryo.
 Smallest seeds are found in orchids and largest seeds are of double coconut
 The protective covering of seed is made up of two layers. outer - testa and inner -
tegmen.
 Embryo is young plant enclosed in a seed coat has cotyledon and tigellum.
 Hypogeal germination mostly occurs in monocots (eg. wheat, maize, rice) and
some dicot (pea, gram, mango)
 Epigeal germination mostly occurs in dicots (eg. mustard, castor, bean)
 Endosperm is a food laden tissue. seed may be endospermic and non- endospermic
seed
 Endospermic seeds (Albuminous seeds)
Dicots, Castor, papaya, coconut,
Monocots, wheat, maize, coconut, rice

Non endospermic seeds (Ex albuminous seeds)
Dicots, pea, gram, bean
Monocots, pothos, vallisnaria

 A single shield shaped cotyledon of maize is called scutellum.
 The most important external factor for seed germination is water (other factor.
oxygen, temperature)

 The phenomenon of germination of seeds inside the fruit itself is called vivipary eg.
mangroove plants like Rhizophora.
 Mechanical injuring of seed coat to break dormancy is called sclarification
 Proteinoceous part of maize endosperm is Aleurone layer
 Aleurone layer occurs in the peripheral region of endosperm.
 Winged seeds occurs in moringa.
 Pappus helps in seed dispersal in compositae.
 Dispersal of coconut fruit occurs by water
 Censer mechanism of seed dispersal occurs in poppy
 In ground nut seeds are geocarpic
 The fruits of xanthium are dispersed by grazing animals such as goats and cows.
 Proper dispersal of seeds helps in reducing competition

Complete Botany 21
TAXONOMY OF ANGIOSPERMS
FAMILY CRUCIFERAE/BRASSICACEAE (MUSTARD FAMILY)
 All members of cruciferae are herbs.
 Tetradynamous condition of stamen is found (4 inner long and 2 outer short).
 Unilocular ovary becomes bilocular at maturity due to development of false septum
called 'replum'
 Fruit is siliqua or silicula (fruit in which dispersal occurs from base to apex)
 Oil secreting glands containing myrosin enzymes
 Cruciform corolla, hence named 'cruciferae'
 Inflorescence - Corymb
 Bicarpellary, Syncarpous gynaecium with parietal placentation
 Floral formula
♂
Ebr  + K2 + 2 C4 A2 + 4 G(2)
 Common memebers of cruciferae are.
 Brassica compestris (mustard)
B. Oleracea var. botrytis (cauliflower)
B. Oleracea var. capitata (cabbage)
Capsella bursa pastoris (shephard's purse)
Raphanus sativus, (Radish)
Iberis amara (candytuft)
FAMILY SOLANACEAE (POTATO FAMILY)

 Flowers are slightly zygomorphic due to oblique position of ovary.
 Persistant sepals (sepals still remaining after fruit formation) are present.
 Fruit type is berry (tomato) or capsule (Datura)
 Petiole of leaves attached to stem for some distance.
 Bicollateral vascular bundied in stem
 Ftoral formula
♂ 
Br  + K5 C(5) A(5) G(2)
 Common members of solanaceae are
Solanum tuberosum (potato)
Lycopersicum esculentum (Tomato)
Capsicum annum (Khursani)
Cestrum nocternum (Night jasmine/ Roat Ki Ranj)
Atropa belladona (Belladona)
Nicotina tobaccum (Tobacco)
Withania somnifera (Ashwagandha)
Datura stramonium (Datura)
 An alkaloid 'Atropine' is obtained from root of Atropa belladonna.

FAMILY: LILIACEAE (LILY FAMILY)
 Flower are trimerous, bisexual, hypogynous and pentacyclic.
 Perianth (undifferentiated calyx and corolla) is found.
 Gynoecium is tricarpellary, and placentation is Axile.
 Plants are generally perennial herbs
 Floral formula:
♂
Br  + P3 + 3 or (3 + 3) A3 + 3 G(3)
 Common members of liliaceae are:
Allium cepa (Onion)
Allium sativum (Garlic)
Yocca (Kettuke)
Aloe vera (Gheekumari)
Cholchicum autumnale
 An alkaloid 'Colchicine' is obtained from seed and corms of Cholchicum autumnale.
FAMILY GRAMINEAE/POACEAE:
 Commonly called grass family.
 Leaves with sheathing leaf base and ligulate.
 Flower is covered by spike of spikelet or panicle of spikelet.
 Flower empty and non flowering glume is called lemma (bract)
 Upper flowering glume is called palea (bracteole)
 Perianth in graminae is reduced into lodicules which are generally two in number.
 Versatile anther are founding grasses for anemophilly (Pollination by wind)
 Feathery stigma.
 Placentation in gramineae is basal.
 Fruit is caryopsis
 All grains are fruit (not seed)
♂
 Floral formula: (i) Br. Brl + + P2(lodicules) A3 or 3 +3 G(1)
Common members of Poaeceae are
Oryza sativa (Rice)
Zea mays (Maize)
Hordium vulgare (Barley)
Bambusa (Bans/Bamboo)
Avena sativa (Oat)
Saccharum officinarum (Sugarcane)
 Cynodon dactylon (Doob grass)
 Gramineae is also known as family of cereals.
OTHER FAMILIES
 Family malvaceae is also known as cotton family/ mallow family.
 Monoadelphus and monothecous anther in malvaceae.
 Epicalyx is common features of malvaceae.
Complete Botany 23
 Gossypium hirsutum (Cotton) and Althaea (Holly-hock), Ambelmoschus (lady's
finger) are important member of malvaceae.
 Leguminosae is known as family of legumes or pulses.
 Katha/catechu is obtained from heart wood of Acacia catachu
 Papilionaceous or butterfly shaped corolla
 Diadelphous condition of Stamens are found in Papilionaceae.
 Monocarpellary gynaecium with marginal placentation and legume or pod fruit are
found in leguminaceae.
 The largest Family is compositae.
 Some important features of compositae are epigynous flower, sepals are reduced to
pappus, syngenesious condition of stamen, bicarpellary syncarpous gynaecium with
basal placentation.
 Important member of family papilionaceae are
Arachis hypogea (Ground nut/ Badam)
Pisum Sativum (pea)
Butea monosperma (flame of forest/ palans)
Cajonus cajan (Pigeon pea/ Rahar)
Dalbergia sisoo (Sissoo)
Glycine max (Soyabean)
 Saraca indica (Ashok tree) and Delonix regia (gulmohar) belongs to family
caeselpiniaceae.
 Root nodule of papilionaceae contains Rhizobium in symbiotic association.


CELL BIOLOGY
CELL BIOLOGY
 Cell biology deals with study of structure and function of cell.
 Cytology is study of form and structure of cell.
 Father of cytology: Robert Hooke (Discovered cell)
 Leeuwenhoek was first to see a living cell under microscope.
Prokaryotic cell Eukaryotic cell
(i) Organised nucleus with histone, nuclear - Nucleus is true with histone.
membrane and nucleolus are absent.
(ii) Membrane bound cell organelles are absent. - Membrane bound cell organelles are present.
(iii) Nucleolus absent Nucleolus present

(iv) Exocytosis and endocytosis are absent Both are present
(v) Ribosomes are 70s types (30s + 50s) Ribosomes are 80s types (40s+60s)
(vi) Flagellum single stranded Flgellum 9 + 2 Pattern present
 Cell theory was proposed by Schleidin and Schwann.
 'Omnis cellula e cellula' i.e. all cell arises from pre existing cell is known as law of
cell linage and is the statement of R. Virchow.
 Viruses, bacteria and Cyanobacteria are exception of cell theory.
 DNA of prokaryotes is considerid as naked as they lack histone protein.
 Cell wall is non living, permeable and hydrophilic covering secreted by cytoplasm.
 The presence of cell wall in plant as the main difference between plant and animal
cell.
 Cell wall of plant, bacteria and fungi is made of cellulose, (NAM, NAG) and chitin
respectively.
 The ripened fruits become softened due to dissolution of middle lamella
 Cytoplasmic bridges present between adjecent cell are known as plasmodesmata.
 The main function of cell wall is to provide mechanical strength, provide the main
supporting framework in plants,
 Cementing layer that joins two adjacent plant cell is middle lamella.
 Middle lamella contains calcium pectate and magnesium pectate.
 Middle lamella is 1st layer of cell wall from outside.
 Primary cell wall is true and first formed cell wall found universally in all cell
having cell wall.
 Lignin is deposited on secondary wall of xylem vessels and tracheids.
 Cotton fibers are cellulosed.
 Unit membrane model of plasma membrane was given by Robertson, (thickness 75A°)
 Plasma membrane is selective permeable
 Fluid mosaic model of cell membrane was proposed by Singer and Nicolson and it
is latest and widely accepted model.
Complete Botany 25
 Pinocytosis (cell drinking) is bulk intake fluid and phagocytosis (cell eating) is bulk
intake of solid.
 Infolding of cell membrane in bacteria is called mesosome which is site of bacterial
respiration.
 Term protoplasm was first used by Purkinje and Huxley called it as living basis of
life.
 Protoplasm is colloidal in nature, the conversion of plasmasol into plasmagel is a
physio chemical phenomenon
 Hyaloplasm = Cytoplasm - All cytoplasmic structure (cell organelle and inclusions)
 Amount of water in cytoplasm is 80% of protoplasm.
 O2 is largest constituent element of protoplasm.
 Ratio of organic to inorganic substance in cell is 9:1
 When cytoplasm is treated with conc. acid or base at temperature above 60°, it get
coagulated.
 Smallest cell organelle is Ribosome and largest is mitochondria (animal) and
chloroplast (plant)
 Power house or ATP mills of cell is mitochondria.
 Functional unit of mitochondria is oxysomes
 70% of total enzymes of cell is found alone in mitochondria.
 Plastids and mitochondria are called semi - autonomous cell organelles as they
contain DNA.
 The number of grana per chloroplast is 40 - 60 and the number of thalakoids per
granum is 10 -100.
 Park and Biggins discovered quantasomes. each quantasome is having 230
chlorophyll molecules.
 Thalakoids are associated with photosynthesis.
 Amyloplast is starch storing leucoplast and aleuroplast is protein storing leucoplast.
 Chloroplast are green plastids which are considered as photosynthetic apparatus or
kitchen of cell.
 Ribosomes are also called palades granules/protein factories of cell.
 Ribosome are made up of protein and RNA in almost equal amount.
 Two sub units of ribosome are joined together by mg+2 ions.
 Ribosomes are smallest organelles in the cell and membraneless.
 Endoplasmic reticulum is consist of cisternae, vesicles and tubules.
 Vacuoles, lysosomes, golgibodies and exine of pollen grain are formed by ER.
 Smooth ER is responsible for lipid synthesis where as rough ER is responsible for
protein synthesis
 E.R. provides mechanical support and acts as endoskeleton of cell
 Membrane factory of cell is ER.
 Golgi complex are also called idiosome/ Dalton complex/ Baker's bodies and
dictyosomes (in plant).
 Golgi complex forms the acrosome of sperms, zymogen granules, lysosome,
secretion.
 Lysosomes were discovered by de Duve.

 Lysosomes contains hydrolytic enzymes, at acidic PH, helps in intracellular
digestion exhibits polymorphism
 Lysosomes are called suicidal bags /atom bombs/ scavanger of cell and covered by
single membrane.
 Vacuole is bounded by single membrane called tonoplasts.
 Fluid inside vacuole is called cell sap of vacuoles.
 Cell sap contains anthocyanin and most common element is K+.
 Nucleus is not considered as a cell organelle.
 Nucleus is largest extra cytoplasmic component of cell.
 Nucleolus is also called ribosomal factory of cell.
 Mitochondria and plastids are double membrane cell organelle.
 Enzyme of glycolysis are present in mitochondria.
 Genetic material of cell is nucleus.
 Control centre of cell is nucleus.
 Nucleotides of nucleic acid are joined by peptide bond.
 All proteins are amino acids.
 Lipids are soluble in non polar solvents, Lipids are both hydrophillic and
hydrophobic.
 Molecular formula of chitin is (C22 H54N4 O21)n
 Three dimensional structure of proteins are studied by X-ray crystallography.
 Pyrenoids are protein collecting particles found in chloroplasts.
 Kreb's cycle and ATP synthesis occurs in mitochondria.
 Fractionation is process by which cell organelles are separated from cell.
 Structure other than nucleus that contains DNA are plastids and mitochondria.
 Peroxisomes contains catalase enzymes and helps in photorespiration
 Spherosomes is associated with synthesis and storage of lipids.
 Inulin is present in the form of fanlike crystal in root of dahlia plant
 The crystal of calcium carbonate are present in leaves of banyan in the form of cystolith.
 The crystal of calcium oxalates are sometime present in group to form spherical or
star like structures which are called sphaeroraphides.
 Hing is commercially a resin
 Papain enzyme used in digestion of proteins is found in latex of papaya.
 Sucrose, glycogen and starch are non reducing sugar.
 Cane sugar in made of one glucose and one fructose molecule.
CELL DIVISION
 Cell division is controlled by karyoplasmic ratio.
 Cell cycle is divided into Interphase (I phase) and mitotic (M-phase)
 Inter phase is also known as metabolic phase/preparative phase/Resting
phase/growth phase.
 Inter-phase is metabolically most active and physiologically resting phase.
 Size of nucleus is maximum during interphase.
Complete Botany 27
 Synthesis of RNA, Ribosome and proteins occurs at G1 phase (decision of cell
division occurs during this phase)
 DNA and histone protein synthesis occurs at S-phase.
 Division of centriole and spindle fibre formation occurs at G2 phase (preparation phase).
 Sequence of cell cycle is G1 → S → G2 → M
 Content of DNA is double during interphase.
 Mitosis include karyokinesis (division of nucleus) and Cytokinesis (division of
cytoplasm)
 Mitosis can be best studied in root tip of plant (shortest of all phase).
 Among four phase of mitosis, prophase is the longest, most active stage.
 Spindle fibres are derived from microtubules.
 Anasteral mitosis is characteristics of higher plant.
 Orientation of chromosomes at the equatorial plane occurs at metaphase.
 Size and number of chromosome can be best studied during metaphase.
 Shape of chromosome can be best studied during Anaphase.
 Separation of chromatids occurs at anaphase (shortest).
 After mitosis number of DNA in each daughter cell nucleus will be same as in the parent.
 Mitosis is called equational division as number of chromosome in daughter cell is
constant i.e. equal to mother cell.
 Colchicine is mitotic poison as it arrest cell division at metaphase and induce
polyploidy.
 Cytokinin is hormone that induced cell division.
 Cytokinesis by two method, cell plate (plant) and furrow (animal).
 Term meiosis was coined by Farmer and Moore.
 Meiosis is also called reductional division as number of chromosome reduce to
half in daughter cell.
 Meiosis in angiosperm is seen in microspore mother cell (pollen mother cell) and
megaspore mother cell (Embryo sac)
 Meiosis in animal occurs in reproductive cells of gonads.
 Meiosis consists of two successive division first meiotic division (actual reduction
or heterotypic) and second meiotic division (Homotypic are equational division)
 Beaded appearance of chromosome is seen in leptotene.
 Pairing of homologous chromosomes (synapsis) occurs at zygotene of meiosis I.
(Bivalent stage)
 Synaptonemal complex is formed during zygotene of meiosis I.
 Crossing over (recombination of genes) occurs at pachytene of meiosis I. (Tetrad
stage)
 Chaismata (point at which cross over of chromatids occurs) formation is result of
crossing over.
 Chaisma formation occurs at diplotene.
 Terminalization of chromosome in meiosis occurs at diakinesis.
 Smallest unit of crossing over is recon.
 Number of chromatids in a chromosomes at metaphase is 2 in mitosis and 2 in meiosis.
 A cell has to divide mitotically n times to form 2n cells.

 Segregation of gene occurs during Anaphase I.
 Homologous chromosome separate during anaphase I and centromere divide
during anaphase II.

Complete Botany 29
ECOLOGY
ECOLOGY
 Term 'ecology' was given by Rieter.
 'Ecology' was derived from greek word 'Oikos' meaning house/ dwelling place.
 Ecology is study of interaction of organism with their environment.
 Interaction of individual of one species with the environment is autecology.
 Interaction of many species (communities) with the environment is synecology.
 Individuals of some species present on different geographical location is allopatry.
 Individuals of same species present on same geographical location is sympatry.
 Transition zone between two communities is called ecotone
 Habit and habitat of an organism in an ecosystem is called ecological niche.
 Biosphere is area occupied by plants and animals.
 Plant growing inhabitance of water are called hydrophytes.
 Presence of mucilage layer, development of aerenchyma and modification general
body surface for absorption are adaptive characters of hydrophytes.
 Transpiration is absent in hydrophytes.
 Plants growing in intermediate condition between desert and hydrophytes are called
mesophytes.
 Mesophytes can includes, shrubs or trees.
 Root system is well developed with abundant root hairs so, shoot: root ratio is nearly
unity in mesophytes.
 Plants intermediate to mesophytes and xerophytes are called tropophytes eg. mango.
 Plants growing in desert is called xerophyts.
 Roots of xerophytes are highly developed than that of mesophytes.
 Xerophytic plant maintain water level constant by absorbing water.
 Leaf of xerophytic plant contains sunken stomata (stomata opening during night and
remain close at day) or modified into spine to reduce transpiration.
 Stem of xerophytic is reduced to phylloclade (Opuntia) or cladode (Ruscus,
Asparagus)
 Hypodermis of xerophytes is sclerenchymatous.
 Physical xerophytes grow in physically dry soil eg opuntia.
 Physiological xerophytes grow in soil having sufficient water but not available due
to salinity eg. Mangrove plants.
 Ephemerals (Drought escapers or drought evader) are pseudo xerophytes that
complete their life cycle raining season eg. Cassia.
 Succulents (Drought avoiding or drought resistant) are true xerophytes that resists
the drought by storing water.
 Non succulents (drought tolerant) are true xerophytes that withstand long drought
periods. eg. capparis.
 Largest terrestrial community is called biome.
 Grassland with few frees (no forest) is called savannah biome.

 Acacia trees and psilophytes belongs to savannah Biome.
 Fertile place in desert biome is called oasis.
 Replacement of one type of plant community by other in same area due to change in
environmental condition is called plant succession.
COMPLETE RANGE OF PLANT SUCCESSION

 Succession starting on rock surface is lithosere.
 Succession starting on sandy habitat is psammosere.
 First community to inhabit in an area is pioneer community. eg. lichen in temperate
zone.
 Most causative factor of desertification is over grazing.
 Edaphology or pedology is study of soil.
 Physical and chemical properties of soil is called edaphic factors.
 Dark color of soil is due to high content of humus.
 Best pH Value of soil for mineral absorbtion is 6 - 7 (neutral/ slightly acidic).
 Topmost soil having maximum humus is horizon.
 Most least porous soil is 'clay soil'
 Loam soil contain sand and clay in equal quantity.
 Correct sequence according to increasing particle size is clay < silt < fine sand <
coarse sand < Gravel.
 Total amount of water in soil is holard (field capacity)
 Absorvable amount of water by roots of plant is called chesard.
 Water non available to plant is called echard eg. Hygroscopic, gravitational.
 Readily available water to plant is capillary water.
 Physically dry soil cant hold water eg. sandy soil.
 Physiologically dry soil cant supply water to plant though they contain water.
 Plants growing in rocks are lithophytes.
 Plants growing on cold soils are psychrophytes or cryophytes.
 Plants growing in humus or acidic soils are oxylophytes.
 Sun loving plant (Heliophytes) and shade loving plant (sciophytes).
 Plants growing in wasteland is chersophytes.
 Soil erosion refers to loss of outer most layer of soil.
 Mineral content of soil can be kept constant by crop rotation.
 Top soil contains humus and sub soil contains clay and sand.
 Soil carried out by gravity is called colluvial soil.
 Soil carried out by water is called alluvial soil (highly fertile)
 Soil carried out by wind is called eolian soil.
 Symbiosis/ mutalism is relationship between two organism where both interacting
species are completely dependent on each other. eg. Zoochlorella and hydra,
Rhizobium and legume plant (N2 fixing bacteria), E.coli and human intestine,
Nostoc and Anabaena etc.
 Commensalism is relationship between two organism where one species is benefited
and other species is almost unaffected.
eg. epiphytes (small plant growing on other plant in tropical rainforest)
Complete Botany 31
 Parasitism: Interaction between two species in which one is benefited and another is
harmed eg. Cuscuta (total stem parasite)
 Carnivorous plants digest insects to overcome N2 deficiency.
 Drosera (Sundew plant), Utricularia (Bladder wort), Dionea (Venus fly trap),
Nepenthes (pitcher) are common insectivorous plant.
 Insectivorous plants are both producers as well as consumers.
ECOSYSTEM
 Term 'Ecosystem' was coined by A.G. Tansley.
 Ecosystem is structural and functional unit of ecology (open system).
 The whole earth considered as a huge ecosystem is called biosphere.
 Driving force of ecosystem = Sunlight
 Flow on energy in an ecosystem is unidirectional
 Lindeman gave the law of 10% for energy flow.
 Food chain in an ecosystem starts with photosynthesis.
 Food web is more stable and complex than food chain.
 All living things of an ecosystem is called flora and fauna
 Producers are also called transducers or converters as they radiant energy of sun into
chemical energy.
 Among autotrophs, phytoplankton (floating plants) are the major.
 Bacteria and fungi are main decomposers of ecosystem.
 Biological squence in an ecosystem is producer → Consumer → reducer.
 Most stable ecosystem is marine (sea, ocean) and most unstable is artificial (man -
made) ecosystem.
 Total percentage of sunlight used plants during photosynthesis is 1%.
 Parameters of ecological pyramids are number, biomass and energy.
 First pyramids was made by Charles Elton and hence also called 'Eltonian
pyramids'
 Energy stored in an ecosystem is called biomass.
 Pyramid of biomass is inverted in pond ecosystem and up right in grass and forest
ecosystem.
 Pyramid of energy is always upright for all ecosystem.
FOREST TYPES OF NEPAL

Tropical zone (up to 1000m)
 Shorea robusta (saal) and Dalbergia sisso are timber yeilding vegetation.
 Highest biodiversity of living species is seen in Tropical rain forest. (Lianas and
Epiphytes).
 Temperate zone (2000 - 3000m)
 Common vegetation are Quercus (Oak), Rhododendron arborium (Gurans)
Alpine zone (above 4000m)
 No forest and small plants like lichen, mosses grows.
 Timberline is zone in altitude and latitude above which tree's can't grow.
 Pheromones (Bio - insecticides) are meant for communication.

 Best helotism (association as master and slave between two organism) is shown by
lichens. (Master - Fungi, Slave - algal)
 Dancing of honey bee is for communication.
SOME IMPORTANT POINT

 Most important gaseous air pollution is SO2.
 Automobiles account for 60% of air pollution main gases are CO,NO etc.
 Besides CO2(50%) other gases associated with green house effect are CFC, CH4 etc.
 The primary chemicals responsible for ozone depletion are a groups of chlorine
containing compounds called chlorofluorocarbon (CFCS)
 The main precursors of acid rain are SO2 and NO2 in atmosphere
 Strength of sewage or degree of water pollution is measured in terms of BOD if
BOD is more, it indicates strong sewage or high pollution.
 Sound above 80dB is termed as noise
 Those species whose survival is unlikely if the causal factors continue to act or
species facing extinction are called endangered species.
 Those species which are likely to fall into category of endangered in near future if
causal factors continue to act, are called vulnerable species.
 The species with small world population which are at risk of becoming endangered
or vulnerable, are called rare species.

Complete Botany 33
GENETICS
GENETICS
 Father of Genetics: G.J. Mendel.
 W.L. Johannsen coined the term gene.
 Neurospora is regarded as Drosophila of plant kingdom.
 Bateson coined the term genetics.
 'One gene one enzyme' hypothesis was given by Beadle and Tatum.
 Total genes of an organism constitute its genotype.
 Phenotype or physiological changes in an individual due to environment or genetic
reason is called variation.
 Factors responsible for variation are crossing over, mutation, environmental factors,
activity of different glands etc.
 Mendel performed hybridization experiments on garden pea plant (Pisum sativum).
 Mendel choose 7 pairs of contrasting characters.
 He was successful in formulating the laws of inheritance whereas his predecessors
were not because the characters he considered were present on separate
chromosomes and showed no linkage.
 Alternating forms of a gene which are present on identical focus of chromosomes are
called alleles.
Mendel's laws
1. Law of dominance: When two homozygous parents with certain contrasting
characters are crossed, only one of them is expressed in the progeny in F1 generation.
Exceptions:
a) Incomplete dominance/blending Inheritance (1:2:1)
 Intermediate character of both parents are expressed.
 E.g. Pea plant, snap dragon and Mirabilis jalapa.
b) Co-dominance
 Expression of both the alleles is observed in F1 heterozygous condition. eg. Skin
colour, blood group.
2. Law of segregation or purity of gametes or Law of splitting of Hybrid
 First law of Mendel.
 Dominant and recessive factor which stay together in hybrid offspring of F 1
generation gets segregated from each other during anaphase-I of meiosis.
 Conclusion of monohybrid cross.
3. Law of Independent Assortment.
 Second law of Mendel.
 Conclusion of dihybrid cross.
 When two pairs of contrasting characters are consider in hybridization, all
characters assort in an independent manner.
Exception: Linkage
 The ability of a gene to have many effects is called pleiotropy.

 Chromosome Theory of Inheritance was proposed by Sutton and Boveri.
 Punnet square is a checker board used to show the result of a cross between two
organisms.
 Genome: A complete set of chromosomes where every gene/ chromosome is
represented singly as in a gamete.
 Gene pool: Aggregate of all the genes and their alleles present in interbreeding
population.
 Reciprocal cross: Two crosses in which one dominant character is taken from
female parent and recessive character is taken from male parent and second cross is
vice versa.
 Back cross: Cross between F1 hybrid and parent (either dominant or recessive).
 Test cross: Cross between F1 hybrid and recessive parent.
 Out cross: Cross between F1 hybrid and dominant parent.
 Monohybrid ratio is usually 3:1 (phenotypic ratio) or 1:2:1 (genotypic ratio).
 Dihybrid ratio is 9:3:3:1 (phenotypic ratio) or 1:2:2:4:1:2:1:2:1 (genotypic)
 Cistron is a functional segment of DNA which codes for polypeptides, tRNA or
rRNA.
 Muton: smallest segment of gene that undergoes mutation. [@ M = m]
 Recon: Smallest segment of gene hat undergoes recombination. [@ R = r]
 The segment of DNA that can jump or move from one place in the genome to
another are Transposons (Jumping genes).
 The phenomenon of masking or suppressing the expression of a gene by another
non-allelic gene is called Epistasis.
 A record of inheritance of certain genetic trails for two or more generations
presented in the form of a diagram or family tree is called pedigree Genetics.
CHROMOSOMES
 Chromosomes are filamentous structures which carry hereditary units (genes) and
hence called vehicle/bearer of genes.
 It is the physical basis of inheritance.
 DNA is the chemical basis of inheritance.
 Chromosome theory of inheritance was proposed by Sutton and Boveri
independently.
 The different parts of an eukaryotic chromosome are
1. Pellicle: It is the outer sheath or covering [IOM 2004]
2. Matrix: Ground substance
3. Chromonemata: Coiled threads which form the bulk of chromosomes.
4. Primary constriction/centromere: Narrow non stainable area where 2
chromatids are attached.
5. Secondary construction: Narrow area where NOR (Nucleolar Organizer
Region) originate.
6. Satellite/Trabant: Knob like part distal to NOR.
7. Telomeres: Terminal/seal ends of chromosomes.
 Depending upon the position of centrome, a chromosome can be:
 Telocentric: Centromere terminal; Anaphasic stage, i shaped
Complete Botany 35
 Acrocentric: Centromere subterminal; Anaphasic stage, J shaped
 Metacentric: Centromere in middle; anaphasic chromosome is V shaped.
 Sub-metacentric: Centromere sub-median; Anaphasic stage, L shaped.
 Acentric: Centromere absent
 Holocentric/Polycentric/diffused centric: Whole surface functions as
centromere. E.g. Spirogyra, Lujula
 The ratio of lengths of two arms of chromosome is called centromeric index.
 The chromosome bearing satellite is called SAT chromosome.
 There are at least 2 SAT chromosomes per diploid nucleus.
 Nucleolus arises from NOR in telophase.
 All such features by which a particular set of chromosome can be identified is
called karyotype of a species.
 Idiogram is the diagrammatic representation of karyotype of a species showing
morphological characteristics of the chromosome.
Nucleic Acids
 Macromolecules and polymer of nucleotides.
 They consist of 3 components.
1. Nitrogenous Base:
a) Purine: Double ring and heterocyclic.
Adenine
Common between DNA and RNA
Guanine
b) Pyrimidine: Single ring and heterocyclic
Cytosine Common in DNA and RNA
Thymine found only in DNA
Uracil found only in RNA
Note: Thiamine is Vit. B2

2. Pentose sugar: also called genetic sugar
3. Inorganic phosphate: Responsible for acidic nature of DNA and RNA.
 Phosphate is attached to the no. 5 carbon atom of sugar while nitrogen base to
no. 1 carbon.
 Nitrogen base + sugar = Nucleoside
 Nucleoside + Phosphate = Nucleotide.
 The two types of Nucleic acids are
1. Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA):
 Helically twisted double chain polydeoxyribonucleotide macromolecule which
consists of genetic material of all organisms except RNA viruses.
 It is found in nucleoid and plasmids in prokaryotes whereas in nucleus, mitochondria
and plastids in Eukaryotes.
 DNA is the largest macromolecule.
 The interrelationship between the amount of nitrogen bases is explained by
Equivalence rule of Chargaff. According to this law.
a) A + G = T + C, i.e. purines and pyrimidine base pairs are in equal amount.

b) A = T, G = C
c) The ratio (A + T): (G + C) is constant for all the cells of an organism.
 The structure of DNA molecules was conveniently explained by Watson and Crick.
According to this model.
 The two right handed helical poly-nucleotide are anti-parallel.
 The sugar phosphate backbone faces outward.
 Base pairing is very much specific: Adenine pairs with Thymine by 2 hydrogen
bonds and Guanine with cytosine by 3 hydrogen bonds.
 The two strands of DNA are complementary i.e. the sequence of one chain is
completed determined by that of another.
 The distance between two successive nucleotides is 3.4 A˚.
 There are altogether 10 nucleotides in a complete turn of the helix. So length of a
complete turn is about 34 A˚.
 The diameter of double helix is about 20 A˚.
 Each nucleotide turns 36˚ from successive nucleotide.
 The successive nucleotides are linked by phosphodiester bond. This bond is
between phosphate of one nucleotide and 3rd carbon of sugar of another nucleotide.
 According to Crick, DNA replication is semi-conservative method.
 It is bidirectional.
2. Ribonucleic Acid (RNA)

 RNA is formed of a single strand which may be coiled over itself.
 It is not a genetic material except in RNA virus.
 Non-genetic RNA is synthesized in nucleus but is found in nucleolus, cytoplasm and
ribosomes.
 It does not follow Chargaff's rules.
 In RNA, Thymine is replaced by Uracil.
There are 3 types of non-genetic RNA:
a) Messenger RNA (mRNA)
 Discovered by Jacob and Monad.
 Least abundant RNA and is produced in nucleus.
 Carries the information for the synthesis of protein.
b) Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
 Largest and most abundant.
 Found in ribosomes where proteins synthesis takes place.
c) Transfer RNA [tRNA/soluble RNA (sRNA)/Adoptive RNA]
 It is the smallest type of RNA.
 It transfers amino acids to the site of protein synthesis.
It 1965, Holley et al proposed the clover leaf model of t-RNA, according to which,
single polynucleotide chain of RNA is folded 3 dimensionally upon itself to form 5
arms or stem.
 The amino acid stem gets attached with amino acid.
 T - loop helps for the attachment of tRNA with ribosome.
Complete Botany 37
 D - loop helps in binding of aminoacyl synthetase.
 Anticodon loop forms temporary complementary base pairing with 3 bases of
mRNA.
 The 3' end always terminates with base sequence CCA and 5' end always terminates
with G.
 Genetic code may be defined as sequence of N-bases or nucleotides in
polynucleotide chain.
 Triplet code is also called codon.
 Total no. of codons = 64
 Out of 64 codons, 3 codons are not specific for any amino acid and are called Non
sense codon or stop signals or termination codon. They are UAA, UAG, UGA.
 Initiation codon are usually AUG (is specific for methionine) and sometimes GUG
(is specific for valine)
 Transcription: Formation of m-RNA from DNA.
 -Amanitin is the inhibitor of transcription in Eukaryotes whereas Rifamicin is the
inhibitor of transcription of prokaryotes.
 Translation: Formation of protein from m-RNA.
 Central Dogma: DNA → mRNA → protein
 Reverse Transcription: RNA → DNA → m-RNA
MUTATION
 Mutation is sudden change in genetic material.
 Hugo de vries discovered mutation in Oenothera lamarckiana (Evening primose)
 Root cause of variation is mutation.
Types of Mutation
1. Gene Mutation
 Change in Nucleotide (N base of a gene).
 Also called point mutation.
 It is usually of two types.
a) Frame shift mutation
Maximum or all codons of a gene are changed.
 It occurs when Deletion or Insertion occurs at initial point of gene or in internal
position of gene.
b) Substitution Mutation
 Due to replacement of nucleotide.
(i) Transition: Replacement of purine by purine or pyrimidine by pyrimidine.
(ii) Transversion: Purine replaced by pyrimidine and vice versa.
2. Chromosomal mutation
It is due to
a) Structural change in chromosome: deletion, duplication, Inversion Translocation.
b) Numerical change in chromosome
(i) Aneuploidy: Change in a particular set i.e. in individual no. of chromosome.
E.g. Monosomic (2n - 1), Trisomy (2n + 1), Tetrasomy (2n + 2)
(ii) Euploidy

 Change occurs in entire set of chromosomes.
Notes:
 Trisomy of 21st chromosome: Down's syndrome or Mongolism.
 Trisomy of 13th chromosome: Patau's syndrome
 Trisomy of 18th chromosome: Edwards syndrome
 Loss of X-chromosome in female result turners syndrome [45 (XO) or 44 + XO]
 Klinefelter's syndrome (47 (XXXY) in which there is presence of one extra X-
chromosome in male.

Complete Botany 39
PLANT PHYSIOLOGY
 Father of Plant Physiology – Stephen Hales.
DIFFUSION
 Diffusion is a passive process.
 Movement of particles, ions, or molecules of gas or liquid or solid substance from
their
 high conc. region to lower conc. region.
 higher to lower diffusion pressure.
 higher to lower free energy level.
 Movement is along conc. gradient and is due to KE.
 Diffusion pressure is the pressure exerted by diffusing particles [DP  conc. of
diffusing particles].
 Movement of minerals through semipermeable membrane is also diffusion (not
osmosis).
 Movement of water molecules from higher conc. to lower conc. without spm is also
diffusion.
 Selectively permeable nature of cell membrane can be detected by Diffusion.
Semi permeable nature of cell membrane can be detected by Osmosis.
Permeable nature & semi permeable nature of cell wall is detected by Plasmolysis.
 Facilitated diffusion-movement of minerals with the help of carrier molecules
present on cell membrane.
 Independent diffusion-independent movement of each component of a system.
Ex. independent movement of CO2, O2, H2O vapour during opening of stomata.
 Rate of diffusion  temperature
 diffusion pressure gradient
1

square root of density of diffusing particles
1
 density of medium in which diffusion occurs
1
 distance between diffusing particles
1

Humidity
 Diffusion is involved in
 Absorption of water and minerals.
 Passive uptake of minerals.
 Movement of particles in protoplasm.
 Aroma of flowers.
 Translocation of food.
 Loss of water vapour in transpiration.

 Gaseous exchange in respiration & photosynthesis.
 Movement of dissolved substance through Spm.
 Osmosis is a special type of diffusion, that takes place through semi permeable
membrane.
 Permeable membrane-allow all solutes and solvents through of cellulosic or liquified
cell wall.
Impermeable membrane- do not allow any solute or solvent to pass.
Semi permeable membrane- all solvent but not solute to pass. Eg. copper
ferrocyanide membrane, cellophane, perchment membrane.
Selective permeable membrane- all solvent and few selected solute to pass
through. eg. all biological membrane, plasma membrane, tonoplast.
OSMOSIS
 Diffusion of water molecules from the region of their higher conc. to a region of
their lower conc. through a semi permeable membrane.
 Osmosis continues till hydrostatic pressure becomes equal to osmotic pressure.
 Osmosis requires conc. difference of solution & semi permeable membrane.
 Osmosis takes place only in living tissue, not in dead cells or isotonic solution.
 Osmosis takes place from
 Dilute solution to concentrated solution.
 Higher water potential to lower water potential.
 Hypotonic solution to hypertonic solution (against conc gradient)
 Lower to higher DPD or suction pressure (SP).
 Low osmotic pressure to high osmotic pressure.
 Turgid cell to flaccid cell.
 Osmotically inactive solution to osmotically active solution.
 Types of Osmosis:
Exosmosis: movement of solvent from cell to surrounding solution (hypertonic);
results in flaccidity.
Endosmosis: movement of solvent from surrounding solution to cell (hypotonic);
results in turgidity.
 Osmotic pressure (OP) - pressure exerted by solute particles.
 OP  conc. of solution
 OP of pure water = 0, OP of solution = +ve (in atm)
 Diffusion Pressure Deficit (DPD)- it is the ability to absorb water.
 The amount by which diffusion pressure of a solution is lower than that of its
pure solvent is called DPD.
 DPD can never be negative.
DPD = OP – TP where TP = WP and TP = Turgor pressure.

= WP = wall pressure.
 In normal cell, DPD = +ve (OP > TP)
In fully turgid cell, DPD = 0 (OP = TP)  it cannot absorb any more water.
In fully plasmolysed cell, DPD = OP (TP = O)
Complete Botany 41
 Turgidity of cell is maintained by conc of cell.
 Wall pressure (WP) is present only in plant cell.
 Turgor pressure (Hydrostatic pressure) keep leaves floral parts in stretched
condition, is the cause for stomatal opening.
 Osmosis is involved in
 Absorption of water.
 Cell to cell movement of water.
 Opening and closing of stomata.
 Maintaining form and structure of organ.
 Growth of plumule and radicle during seed germination.
 Movement of leaves of Mimosa pudica (Touch-me-not)
 Instruments:
Osmometer → rate of osmosis / OP
Cryoscopic osmometer → measuring OP below freezing point.
Osmoscope → vessel demonstrating osmosis.
Potometer → Rate of transpiration.
Porometer → size of stomatal pore.
Manometer → Root pressure.
Hygrometer → Relative humidity.
Psychrometer → relative humidity with transpiration.
Auxanometer → plant growth.
Clinostat → Geotropism
Conductivity meter → soil salinity.
Respirometer → respiration or RQ.
Respiroscope → instrument to demonstrate respiration.
Crescograph → growth per second.
PLASMOLYSIS
 Plasmolysis is the shrinking of protoplast due to exosmosis when cell is placed in
hypertonic solution.
 Incipient plasmolysis → protoplast separates from cell wall.
 Full plasmolysis → complete shrinkage of protoplast.
 Space between cell wall and cell membrane is filled with hypertonic solution.
 Plasmolysis is not possible in dead cell.
 It also helps to determine OP of cell, permeable nature of cell wall, spm nature of
cell membrane.
 Due to plasmolysis:
 Bacteria cannot survive in salted pickle.
 Plants cannot survive in excessive inorganic fertilizer/salt.
 Deplasmolysis: A plasmolysed cell regains normal condition if placed in hypotonic
solution it is called deplasmolysis.

IMBIBITIONS
 Adsorption of solvent on the surface of particle without forming a solution.
 Imbibition is movement of water (imbibate) into substance (imbibant) through
diffusion as well as capillary action.
 During imbibition, volume of imbibant is increased, pressure is exerted, heat is
released.
 Cell wall, wood, velamen tissue, seed coat can adsorb water because they contain
'hydrophilic colloids'.
 Due to imbibition
 Seeds swells when kept in water.
 Opening and closing of wooden doors in rainy season become difficult.
 Imbibition does not occur in waxy substance like cutin and suberin.
 First step in imbibition is adsorption i.e. attachment of liquid on surface.
 Adsorption is properly of colloids and hence materials which have high proportion
of colloids are good imbibants.
ABSORPTION OF WATER
 Movement of water from soil to xylem of root.
 Involves Imbibition (on cell wall), osmosis (cell membrane & cytoplasm), Diffusion
(protoplasm) and capillary water (intercellular spaces).
 Water absorption mainly occurs through Root hair zone.
 Root hairs are unicellular, exogenous arise epiblema.
 Lateral roots are multicellular, endogenous, arise from pericycle.
 Water will be absorbed by plants when external medium is hypotonic.
 Main source of soil H2O → Rain water.
 Most easily available soil water → Capillary water.
 Hardly available water → Gravitational water.
 Not available soil water → Hygroscope water.
 Mechanism of water absorption:
(a) Active absorption
 root and shoot play active role
 transpiration is not responsible
 ATP is utilized
 involves symplast movement (Protoplasm + Plasmodesmata)
 living system.
(b) Passive absorption
 root plays passive role and shoot plays active role.
 ATP is not utilized.
 Transpiration is responsible for passive absorption.
 It involves apoplast and symplast movement.
 Soil becomes physiologically dry when conc of root cells is less than conc of soil
water or when soil is poorly aerated or water logged.
 Saline soil → Physiologically dry soil.
Complete Botany 43
Sandy soil → Physically dry soil.
ABSORPTION OF MINERALS
 Mineral absorption is independent of water absorption.
 Mostly occurs through zone of cell elongation (not by Root hair zone).
 Mineral salt absorption occurs directly by cells of epiblema and not by root hair.
 Absorption of minerals occurs in the form of ions (cations or anions) present in soil
solution.
 First step in mineral absorption is ion exchange.
 Absorption → movement of water from soil to xylem of root.
Ascent of sap → xylem of root to other parts of plants.
 Two methods of mineral absorption
(i) Active – occurs against conc gradient by using ATP, not a spontaneous process.
(ii) Passive – occurs according to conc gradient without using ATP, proceed towards
equilibrium.
 Factors affecting mineral salt absorption:
 Increase in temperature leads to increase in mineral salt absorption.
 Decrease in pH leads to increase in anions absorption.
 Increase in pH leads to increase in cations absorption.
* Salt absorption is decreased by increase in age of roots due to suberization.
ASCENT OF SAP
 Upward movement of H2O and dissolved minerals through lumen of xylem vessels
against force of gravity is called ascent of Sap.
 Path of ascent of Sap → tracheids and vessels (tracheary elements)
 Path of ascent of Sap in Gymnosperms and Pteridophytes → Tracheids.
 Best experiment to show path of ascent of sap is Ringing or Girdling experiment
(removal of bark in the form of complete ring).
 This experiment not applicable in plants having bicollateral, amphivasal and
scattered vascular bundle.
 In a ringed or girdled plant, root will die first.
 Theories of Ascent of Sap:
(i) Vital Theories – depend on living cells.
(a) Relay pump theory – given by Godlewiski, due to pumping activities of xylem and
parenchyma.
(b) Pulasation theory – given by JC Bose, due to pulsatory activities of innermost
cortical cells just outside endodermis.
 Vital theories were first discarded by Strasberger.
(ii) Root pressure theory – given by Priestly.
 Root pressure becomes maximum when rate of water absorption is very high
and transpiration is very low.
 Max. value of root pressure can be indicated by Guttation and is in early
morning.
(iii) Physical force theory

(a) Atmospheric pressure theory – given by Boehm.
(b) Imbibitional theory – proposed by Unger, supported by Sachs.
(c) Transpiration pull and cohension tension theory – by Dixon and Jolly, widely
accepted theory.
TRANSPIRATION
 Transpiration is loss of water vapour (i.e. pure form) from aerial parts of plants.
 Transpiration occurs when the outer atmosphere has less moisture than substomatal
cavities.
 Transpiration is maximum when there is low humidity, high temperature, turgid
guard cell, moist soil.
 It is reduced due to deposition of cutin, decrease in light intensity.
 Transpiration is necessary for absorption of H2O and minerals, ascent of Sap, and
maintaining plant body temperature.
 Transpiration is a controlled phenomenon and a necessary evil (by Curtis).
 In herbaceous plant 99% of total water absorbed by plant is lost through
transpiration.
 Transpiration rate of a dorsiventral leaf is higher on the lower surface due to higher
number of stomata. This test can be done by using paper soaked in a solution of
Cobalt chloride (hydrated-pink, dry-blue).
 Transpiration through general body surface → Cuticular transpiration (3 – 10%).
Corky covering → Bark transpiration (0.5%)
Leaves → foliar transpiration
Lenticel → lenticular transpiration (0.1%)
Stomata → Stomatal transpiration (90%)
 Transpiration is involved in
 Regulating body temperature
 Passive absorption of water
 Ascent of Sap
 Increasing mineral contents of plants/ fruits.
 Structure of stomata:
(a) Guard cell. Kidney shaped-Dicot.
Dumb bell shaped-Monocot.
(b) Subsidiary cell – surrounding the guard cell.
 Guard cell are specialized as they contain chloroplast (as other epidermal cells
lack chloroplast)
 Photoactive stomata – opens during day time eg. green plants.
Scotoactive stomata – opens only during night eg. succulent xerophytes.
 Mechanism of opening and closing of stomata:
(i) Starch-sugar hypothesis- proposed by Lloyd, elaborated by Sayre and Steward.
 Opening and closing depends on activity of starch phosphorylase in different
pH.
(ii) Potassium- Malate/Active K+ exchange mechanism – widely accepted theory by
fujino, later modified by Levitt.
Complete Botany 45
 Influx of K+ into guard cell–stomata opens  active process.
Outflux of K+ from guard cell-stomata closes  passive process.
 Higher Root/shoot ratio greater will be rate of transpiration
 On per unit area basis, smaller plants transpire at much higher rate as compared to
larger plants.
 Rate of transpiration is inversely proportional to Humidity.
 Anti transpirants → Phenyl Mercuric acetate (PMA), Abscissic acid, silicon
emulsion, cutin, suberin and higher conc of CO2.
GUTTATION
 Due to root pressure.
 Loss of water (in the form of liquid droplets) from margin and tip.
 It occurs through Hydathodes (water stomata/internal glandular tissue)
 Hydathodes always remain open.
 Guttation occurs during early mornings or night when rate of transpiration is low and
absorption is high. So root pressure increases.
 Guttation is not due to activity of Hydathodes but due to root pressure.
 Loss of water is in the impure form as it contains dissolved minerals.
 Loosely arranged mass of parenchyma in hydathode is called epithem (to which
veins and veinlets end)
 Guttation is uncontrolled phenomenon.
WILTING
 Wilting is loosening of plant part.
 Wilting occurs when transpiration > water absorption due to lose of turgidity.
 It occurs when xylem is blocked or removed.
 Permanent wilting – permanent loss of turgidity, cell wall is wrinkled.
EXUDATION
 Loss of water sap from incision of plant body parts.
 Exudation of water from leaf incision → Bleeding.
 Exudation of water from leaf margin→ Guttation.
 If a plant cell is immersed in water, water continues to enter the cell until the DPD is
some inside the cell as outside.
 Adding solute to pure water will cause development of negative water potential.
 Enzymes involved in opening and closing of stomata is PEP carboxylase.
 Ringing / girdling experiment first performed by Hartig.
 Cut flowers are dipped in dil NaCl solution reduce transpiration.
GROWTH HORMONES
 Growth is measured by auxanometer.
 Growth curve is 'S' shaped sigmoid curve.
 The term 'hormone' given by starling.
 Hormones are synthesized in meristematic region of plants.

 Growth Hormones
Growth Inhibitors – Ethylene, Abscissic Acid (ABA)
Growth Promotors – Auxin, Giberellins, Cytokinin.
Auxin and Giberrellins → cell enlargement and Differentiation.

Cytokinin → cell division
Ethylene → senescence or Ageing.
Abscissic Acid → Bud domancy or Resting stage.
AUXIN
 Auxin (Indole 3- Acetic acid) found naturally in apical meristem of plant.
 Auxin discovered by FW Went by Avena Coleoptile Curvature Test.
 Auxin shows basipetal polar transport (Shoot apex to base).
 Mainly responsible for cell elongation and growth.
 Shows apical dominance due to which lateral buds are supressed.
 Maintains dormancy and induce Parthenocarpy.
GIBBERELLIN
 Discovered by Yabuta and Hayashi, first isolated from Fungi (Ascomycetes) →
Gibberella Fujikuroi or Fusarium Moniliformae.
 Gibberellin is synthesized in young leaves, buds, seeds and root tips.
 Mainly responsible for elongation of internode and leaf expansion.
 Generally dwarf plant can be made tall after Gibberellin treatment.
 Break the dormancy of potato tuber (which is maintained by Abscissic acid &
Auxin).
 Induce Parthenocarpy (more effective than Auxin).
 Induce flowing in long day plants but inhibits in short day plants.
CYTOKININ (KINETIN)
 Cytokinin induce cell division.
 Natural cytokinin is Zeatin (coconut milk factor)
 Most active cytokinin
 Isolated from maize grain.
 Synthesized in endodermis of root tips, shoot tips.
 Primarily responsible for cell division.
 Callus formation: conc. of auxin = conc. of cytokinin.
Root initiation: conc. of auxin > conc. of cytokinin
Shoot initiation: conc. of auxin > conc. of cytokinin.
 Counter action of apical dominance (Promotes growth of lateral buds)
 Induce formation of Inter fascicular cambium.
 Delay senescence /ageing so used as preservative.
 Cytokinin induce flowering is short day plants.
Complete Botany 47
ETHYLENE
 It is synthesized from amino acid methionine. It is the only gaseous hormone.
 Synthesis is promoted by O2 and inhibited by CO2.
 Produced at root and shoot meristem.
 Mainly responsible for ripening and dehiscence of fruits.
 Ethylene generally inhibits flowering but in case of pineapple it causes flowering.
 Induce flowering of female flower in monoecious plant.
 Promotes abscission of plant part.
 Causes senescence (which is prevented by cytokinin)
 Induces formation of adventitious roots.
ABSCISSIC ACID (ABA) OR DORMIN

 It is natural growth inhibitor, mild acidic.
 Also called as Dormant or stress hormone, produced during adverse environmental
conditions.
 Abundantly found in chloroplast.
 Hastens the process of senescence in leaves and causes abscission (Falling of
leaves).
 Maintains dormancy of buds, seeds.
 Causes closing of stomata, so called as anti transpirant.
 It inhibits activity of cambium.
 Functionally antagonistic to gibberellins.
 Protect plant from frost injury (at low temperature) and desiccation.
 Hormone responsible for flowering is florigen and for flowering under cold
condition is vernalization.
 Senescence is the process of ageing due to increased entropy, breakdown, reduced
homeostasis.
 Etiolation is the process by which a green plant, turn yellow which is placed in dark.
 Herbicide DCMU kills plant by inhibiting PS II.
 During drought, plants develop Abscissic Acid (to maintain Dormancy).
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
 Photosynthesis is simply defined as 'formation of carbohydrates from CO2 and
H2O by illuminated green cells of plants, O2 and H2O are the biproduct.
 The process of photosynthesis is reductive, endergonic and anabolic.
 During photosynthesis, light energy is converted into chemical energy in presence
of chloroplast.
 Photosynthesis is an oxidation and reduction process.
 Reaction: 6CO2 + 12H2O → C6H12O6 + 6H2O + 6O2
[In presence of light and chlorophyll]
 Volume of CO2 absorbed in photosynthesis is almost equal to O2 liberated.
 Reduction of CO2 to glucose → dark reaction in both dark and light.
 Oxidation of H2O to O2 → light reaction in light.

 In bacteria H2S is oxidized. Hence in place of O2. Sulphur is produced.
 In bacterial photosynthesis the hydrogen donor is H2S.
 Raw materials of photosynthesis are H2O and CO2.
 Photosynthetic appratus → chloroplast.
 Chloroplast:
Stroma → dark rxn → C6H12O6 is produced
Grana → light rxn → O2 is produced
 Photosynthesis is anabolic and it causes increase in dry weight.
 Main/ultimate source of energy is sunlight.
 Best spectrum for photosynthesis is Red.
 Second best spectrum for photosynthesis is Blue.
 Maximum photosynthesis occurs in white light/sunlight.
 O2 evolved during photosynthesis come from H2O ands not from CO2 (proved by
Ruben and Kamen while working on chlorella algae.
 Oxygen present in glucose and water comes from CO2.
 About 90% of total photosynthesis in world is done by algae (mainly by BGA) in
oceans and in fresh water.
 Ganong's light screen is used to prove that light is necessary for photosynthesis.
 Molls half leaf experiment is used to prove that CO2 is necessary for photosynthesis.
 The photosynthetic pigments are chlorophyll – a, b, c, d, e
 Carotenoids: carotene, xanthophylls.
 Phycobillins: phycoerythrin, phycocyanin.
 Photosynthetic pigments found in all algae is chlorophyll a and carotenoids.
 Primary/universal photosynthetic pigment chlorophyll a.
 Photosynthetic unit or quantasome – two types.
PS I PS II
• Located on both grana and stromal • Located only on grana lamella
lamella • Rxn. centre: P680
• Rxn centre. P700 • Chl-b > chl-a
• Chl-a > chl-b
 Term quantasome for PSU was given by Park and Biggins.
 Each quantasome contains about 230 chlorophylls.
 Chlorophyll is a magnesium porphyrin compound
Chlorophyll 'a' Chlorophyll 'b'
• C55H72O5 N4Mg • C55H70O6 N4Mg
• Contains CH3 group at 3rd carbon of • Contains – CHO group at 3rd carbon
2nd pyrole ring of 2nd pyrole ring.
 Photosynthesis occurs in two phases light reaction (Hill's rxn) and dark reaction
(Black mans rxn).
Light rxn/Hill rxn Dark rxn (Blackmann's rxn
• Light dependent rxn • Light independent rxn
• Process in grana region of chloroplast • In stroma
Complete Botany 49
• Occurs only in light • Occurs both in light and dark
• Photolysis of H2O and O2 evolution • No such process
• Synthesis of assimilatory powers • Utilization of assimilatory power to
(ATP and NADPH2) produce glucose.
• Source of energy is light • Source of energy is assimilatory
power. But ultimate source of energy
is light.
 First step of photosynthesis is excitement of electron of chlorophyll molecules.
 First chemical step of photosynthesis is photolysis of water that occurs in PSII in
light reaction in the presence of Mn and Cl.
 ATP formation from ADP + P1. in the presence of light is known as
photophosphorylation.
 It is of two types cyclic photophosphorylation and non-cyclic photophosphorylation.
Cyclic Non-cyclic
• Only PSI is involved • Both PS-I and PS-II are involved
• Water is not utilized • Water is utilized
• NO evolution of O2 • O2 is evolved
• 2ATP are produced and no NADPH2 • 1ATP and 2NADPH2 are produced
 In C3 plants, C3 cycle (Calvin cycle) occurs in stroma of chloroplast of mesophyll.
 In C4 plant. C3 cycle occurs in bundle sheath of chloroplast.
 Ribulose 1, 5 diphosphate (RUDP) is the initial acceptor of CO2 in calvin cycle.
 Calvin cycle takes six turns of the cycle to produce a glucose.
 In calvin cycle, for formation of one molecule of glucose 18 ATP and 12NADPH2
are used.
 About 85% of plant species are C3–plants.
 First stable product of calvin cycle is phosphoglyceric acid (PGA).
 Rubisco is most abundant protein
 C4 pathway was discovered by Hatch and Slack
 C4 plant becongs to monocot. (First observed in sugarcane, maize).
 Kranz types of leaf is seen in plant showing C4-cycle.
 First stable product of C4 cycle is oxaloacetate and initial acceptor of CO2 is
phosphoenol pyruvate.
 No. of ATP and NADPH2 required to produce one glucose molecule in C4 pathway
is 30 ATP and 12NADPH2.
 CAM plants (crassulacean acid metabolism plants) occurs mostly in succulents like
Opuntia, Aloe, Bryophyllum.
 First stable compound in CAM plants is either oxalo acetic acid (4C) or malic acid
(4C) compound.
 In CAM plants stomata open during night and close during day time (scotoactive
stomata).
 Photorespiration is considered to be wasteful metabolism for plants.
 Photorespiration occur when concentration of CO2 is less and O2 is high.

 First stable compound of photorespiration is glycolate (2C compound. So also
known as C2 cycle.
 Photorespiration takes place in peroxisome, mitochondria, chloroplast.
 At compensation point rate of photosynthesis = rate of respiration.
 Limiting factor for photosynthesis is CO2.
 DCMU (Dichlorophenyl Dimethyl urea) a herbicide that inhibits oxygen release in
light reaction.
 In inhibitory effect of higher concentration of O2 on photosynthesis in C3 plant was
discovered by Warburg and is called Warburg effect.
 Decrease in rate of photosynthesis in red light beyond 680 nm is termed as Red
drop phenomenon.
 The increase in rate of photosynthesis due to combined effect of red and blue light is
termed as 'Emersion effect'.
1
 Quantum requirement = 8 and Quantum yield = 8 = 0.125.
 Translocation occurs through phloem in the form of sucrose in all direction.

 Boron helps in translocation of photosynthates.
 Stored in the form of starch.
 Most convincing theory, for translocation of photosynthetase is munch mass flow or
pressure flow theory.
 If phloem girdle is removed in a plant, its roots die first.
RESPIRATION
 Respiration is a catabolic, exothermic and oxidative process.
 C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O + 686 Kcal
(during aerobic respiration)
 When only carbohydrates are oxidized, the respiration is known as floating
respiration.
 When protoplasmic proteins constitute the respiratory material, it is called
protoplasmic respiration.
 Maximum energy is released when fats are oxidized.
 First preferred respiratory substrate is glucose.
 Anaerobic respiration occurs in cytoplasm.
 In anaerobic respiration, the end products are ethyl alcohol and CO2.
 Net gain of ATP = Total gain of ATP in anaerobic respiration is 2.
 Anaerobic respiration is sometimes used as a synonym for fermentation.
 Fermentation is an exothermic process.
 Net ATP production in aerobic respiration is 38.
 1 ATP contains 7.6 K cal energy.
 Respiration involves glycolysis, oxidative decarboxylation of pyruvic acid, Kreb's
cycle and terminal electron transport system and phosphorylation.
 Glycolysis is common process for both aerobic and anaerobic respiration.
 Glycolysis starts with 1 molecule of glucose and ends with 2 molecule of pyruvic
acid (3C compound).
Complete Botany 51
 Glycolysis is also known as EMP pathway (Embden, meyerhof and parnas) occurs
in cytoplasm.
 Net gain of glycolysis is 2ATP while total gain of ATP is 8ATP.
 Number of CO2 molecules evolved in one complete cycle of glycolysis is zero.
 2 molecules of NADH2 are formed in glycolysis.
 Organic compound linking glycolysis with Kreb's cycle is Acetyl CoA and the
process is oxidative decarboxylation of pyruvic acid.
 Oxidative decarboxylation leads to the production of 2CO2 and 2NADH2.
 Common metabolic pathway for the inter conversion of fat, protein and
carbohydrates is Kreb cycle.
 Complete oxidiation of pyruvic acid to CO2 and H2O is called Kreb's cycle.
 Kreb cycle is also called (tricarboxylic acid) TCA cycle or citric acid cycle.
 Kreb cycle occurs in matrix of mitochondria and is amphibolic in nature.
 Citric acid (6C) is the first stable product in Krebs cycle.
 12 ATP are produced from the complete oxidation of a mole of acetyl CoA.
 6NADH2, 2FADH2 and 2ATP are produced in Krebs cycle.
 Efficiency of aerobic respiration is 40%.
 Final electron acceptor in respiration is O2.
 Energy currency of the living cells is ATP.
 One NADH2 produces 3ATP in electron transport system and FADH2 produces
2ATP.
 NAD is universal hydrogen acceptor.
 Cytochrome is essential for both respiration and photosynthesis.
 Enzyme which catalyse reactions involving electron transport are called
oxidoreductase.
Vol. of CO2 evolved
 Respiratory coefficient = Vol. of O consumed
2
 Respiratory Quotient (RQ) for carbohydrate = 1, fat/protein

< 1, organic acid > 1. CAM plant = 0 and anaerobic respiration = .
 Pasteur effect is decrease in rate of respiration in presence of O2.
 Peroxisome in plant are the site of photorespiration.


DEVELOPMENT BIOLOGY
 The branch dealing with study of events which lead to the development of embryo
is embryology.
 Fertilization in plant first of all discovered by Strasburger
 Double fertilization was discovered by Nawaschin
 Homologies of flower parts
Carpel - Megasporophyll
Ovule - Mega sporangium
Embryosac - Female gametophyte
Egg - Female gamete
Stamen - microsporophyll
Anther (pollensac) - microsporangium
Pollen or pollen grain - Microspore
Pollen with pollentube - male gametophyte
 Microsporogenesis is the process of development of microspore or pollen grains
inside the microsporangium of a plant
 A typical anther is tetrasporangiate with 4 microsporangia (dithecous) but sometimes
with only 2 microsporangia (monothecous) eg. malvaceae.
 In the anther wall of a mature anther, the outermost layer is epidermis followed by a
single layer of endothecium then one to three middle layer and innermost is single
layered tapetum.
 Endothecium is hygroscopic and help in dehiscence
 The chief function of tapetum is the production and transport of enzymes, hormones
and nutrients which are necessary for pollen development. (provide nourishment)
 Tapetal cells are polyploid and multinucleate condition are seen.
 Tapetal cell also secrete the substance like callase enzyme, ubisch bodies and
pollenkit substance.
 Pollenkit substance are entomophilous, composed of lipids and carotenoids
 Microgametogenesis is the process of development of microgamete or male
gamete
 A pollen grain at maturity is 2 celled with larger vegetative cell and a smaller
generative cell.
 The generative cell gives rise to 2 male gametes while the vegetative cell forms
pollen tube.
 Study of pollen grains is called palynology.
 A pollen grain has 2 layered wall
 An outer exine → composed chiefly of sporopollenin
 An inner intine → Pectocellulosic in nature
 Area where exine is thin is called germpore. Pollen tube emerges from germpore.
 Pollen grains are presened for long periods in fossils due to sporopollenin. (Most
resistant biological substance).
Complete Botany 53
 Megasporogenesis is the process of development of megaspore inside
megasporangium or ovule
 Megaspore develops from the cells of Nucellus
 Ovule has nuclellus, integuments and a short stalk like structure (funicle) by which it
is attached to the placenta. Integuments enclose an opening, the micropyle.
 Chalaza is the basal part of the ovule point of attachment of body of ovule to its
funiculus is known as hilum
 Ovules symmetrical and straight with chalaza at the base and micropyle at the tip
(i.e. micropyle, Funicle and chalaza lie in a straight line) is orthotropous ovule
 Funicle and micropyle lie side by side is anatropous ovule eg. solanaceae.
Angiosperm etc.
 Ovule may be unitegmic (gymnosperms) bitegmic (eg. polypetalae)
 All cells in ovule (integument, nucellus, Funicle, hilum) are diploid (2n).
 Macrogametogenesis is the process of development of female gametes.
 The megaspore mother cell or megasporophyte divides by meiosis and a linear
tetrad of 4 megaspore is produced. The upper 3 toward micropyle degenerate and
the lowermost towards chalaza is functional
 7 - celled and 8 - nucleate and monosporic embryosac is known as polygonium
type of embryosac (most common type in angiosperm)
 A mature embryosac is formed by 1meiosis and 3 mitosis
 Fully develop normal type of embryosac have egg appratus at micropylar end (2
synergids + 1 egg cell), 3 antipodal cells at chalazal end and a central cell having
two polar nuclei in centre.
 In the embryosac, all the cells (synergids, antipodals) are haploid except
secondary nucleus (2n).
 Filiform apparatus is the feature of synergid.
 Synergids are short lived and secrete chemotropically active substance and
nutritive in Function.
 Nuclei found at the centre of embryosac are polar nuclei
 Pollination is the transfer of pollen grains from anther to the stigma (with in the
same flower or from one flower to another.
 Pollination in angiosperms generally takes place at 2 celled stage.
 Self pollination (autogamy): transfer of pollen grains with in the same flower.
 Condition favouring self pollination are:
 Bisexuality (flower having both male and female reproductive part)
 Homogamy (both male and female reproductive parts of a bisexual flower
mature at the same time) eg. wheat, rice.
 Cleistogamy: The flower which never open is called cleistogamy.
 Geitonogamy transfer of pollen grain from anthers to stigma of the another
flower on same plant is called geitonogamy.
 Genetically geitonogamy is equivalent to self-pollination (so autogamy and
geitonogamy are types of self pollination) eg. in maize
 Cross pollination or allogamy: Transfer of pollen from anther to stigma of different
flower on different plant, it is called cross pollination or allogamy.
 Xenogamy: Transfer of pollen grains from one plant to another of same species.

 Condition favouring cross pollination are:
 Unisexuality or dicliny: flower are unisexual eg. palms, cucumber pumpkin.
 Dichogamy: In bisexual flower anther and stigma mature at different times.
 Protoandry: Anthers mature earlier than the stigma of the same flower eg.
cotton, sunflower, rose etc.
 Protogyny: stigma mature earlier than the anthers of same flower eg. 4 O' clock plant.
 Herkogamy: physical barrier to prevent self pollination eg. calotropis.
 Heterostyly: Stamens, style and stigma are at different height eg. primose.
 Self sterility: Pollen fails to germinate on the stigma of same flower.
 Cross pollination is favoured by nature:
 Anemophily: pollination by wind eg. gramineae (maize, rice wheat).
 Hydrophily: pollination by water eg. vallisneria, ceratophyllum zostera etc.
 Entomophily: pollination by insects.
 Ornithophily: pollination by birds.
 Cheiropteriphily: pollination by bat.
 Malacophily: pollination by snails.
 Myrmecophily: pollination by ant.
 The most common and specialized mode of pollination is entomophily.
 Commonest insect that causes pollination is the bee (80%).
 Nocturnal flowers are dull in colour and highly fragrant and pollinated by moth.
 Commonly pollen tube enters the ovule through micropyle (porogamy). Sometimes
through chalaza (chalazogamy) or through base of ovule or through funicle or
integuments (mesogamy).
 5 nuclei are involved in double fertilization.
 In maize cross fertilization occurs.
 Double fertilization is seen in angiosperms.
 Endosperm is nutritive tissue. It is post fertilization tissue and generally triploid
in nature. (in gymnosperm it is pre-fertilization tissue and Haploid in nature)
 Perisperm is remnant of nucellus or persistant nucellus surrounding the embryo.
 Apogamy: Development of embryo from cells other than egg inside embryosac
(synergids, antipodals) without fertilization.
 Apospory: Development of embryosac directly from a cell of nucellus (2n) is called
apospory.
 Amphimixis: normal type of sexual reproduction having two regular features ie.
meiosis and fertilization called amphimixis.
 Apomixis: In some plant normal reproduction is replaced by abnormal type of
sexual reproduction called apomixis.
 Presence of more than one embryo inside the seed is called polyembryony, first
reported by leeuwenhoek in citrus. (Most common in gymnosperm)
 Agamospermy: formation of seeds without fertilization.
 Parthenogenesis: formation of embryo from an unfertilized egg. It helps to form
azygospore.
 Parthenocarpy: Formation of fruit without pollination and fertilization.
 Haploid produced from microspores or pollen grains are known as androgenic haploid.
 Tissue culture is the latest and most promising technique.
 Tissue culture is based on concept of totipotency.
 Concept of totipotency was given by Haberlandt and it was proved by steward.
Complete Botany 55
 Embryoids: Non-zygotic embryo like structure produced through tissue culture.


APPLICATION OF BIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO BIOTECHNOLOGY
 Biotechnology is concerned with applications of living cells or their components for
the benefit of humans.
 Biotechnology is the utilization of biological knowledge for the production of
materials useful to society.
 Alcohol fermentation is a common traditional practice of Biotechnology.
 Branches of Biotechnology
 Plant Tissue Culture
 Protoplast Culture
 Gene Transfer
 Hybridoma technology
 Genetic Engineering: Also known as recombinant DNA technology.
 Applications of biotechnology
 In the field of agriculture
 In the field of medicine
 In the field of fermentation
 In the field of sewage treatment
 In the field of biogas
 In the field of organic acids
FERMENTATION
 Fermentation is the process of incomplete oxidation of organic compounds like
carbohydrates into alcohol, CO2 and metabolic energy by anaerobic organism.
 The term fermentation was first used by pasteur.
 Buchner discovered 'zymase-complex enzyme' from cell of yeast capable of
fermentation.
 Large scale fermentation by yeast is responsible for the production of alcohol.
 Pyruvic acid is the first stable product of fermentation completed in cytoplasm.
INSULIN
 Sharpy-Shafer discovered insulin while studying the islets of Langerhans in
pancreas.
 Banting and Best isolated insulin from the pancreas of dog and demonstrated its
effectiveness against diabetes.
 Insulin is a hormone secreted by -cells in islets of Langerhans.
 Insulin is a protein consisting of two short polypeptide chains A and B of 21 and 30
amino acids respectively interconnected by two disulphide bridges.
 New techniques are available to manufacture human insulin by recombinant
Escherichia coli clones.
Complete Botany 57
ANTIBIOTICS
 The term 'antibiotic' was coined by Selman A. Waksman who discovered
streptomycin.
 Antibiotics are chemical substances produced by certain microorganisms that kill or
inhibit the growth of other microorganisms.
 Antibiotics constitute a special class of drugs or chemotherapeutic agents, produced
by the microbial activity.
 Alexander Fleming extracted Penicillin from the fungus Penicillium notatum.
 Penicillin is the first antibiotic synthesized.
 Streptomycin is useful for treatment of both Gram-positive and Gram-negative
bacteria.
 Gram-positive bacteria are usually more sensitive to antibiotics than Gram-negative
bacteria.
 Antibiotics inhibit the growth of bacteria, fungi and viruses.
 Either bacteriostatic (inhibiting growth of micro-organisms) or bactericides (killing
the pathogenic micro-organisms).
 An antibiotic that acts on a variety of pathogenic organisms is called a broad
spectrum antibiotic. eg. Chloramphenicol, Tetracycline.
 An antibiotic that acts on selected or specific pathogenic organisms is called a
narrow spectrum antibiotic. eg. Penicillin, Streptomycin
VACCINES
 Vaccines are suspensions of killed or modified pathogenic microorganisms; when
injected into an animal, these produce immunity to a particular disease.
 Edward Jenner introduced vaccination of Smallpox.
 The scientific basis of vaccination was established by the French microbiologist
Louis Pasteur.
 Biotechnology has proved successful in the development of recombinant vaccines
also known as 'second-generation vaccines' and even 'third-generation vaccines'
(synthesized vaccines).
 Hepatitis B vaccine is a second generation vaccine.
 Vaccines produced using genetic engineering can usually be made faster than those
manufactured by traditional methods.
 Immunity is the ability of body to resist with diseases.
 Antigen (Ag) is the foreign material that elicits antibody formation.
 Antibody (Ab) is the molecule synthesized by human body in response of foreign
substance i.e. antigen. It is also known as immunoglobulin.
 Natural Immunity: Present in body since birth. Some are derived from mother to
fetus via placenta eg. IgG.
 Artificial Immunity: Acquired after birth or during lifetime. It may be active or
passive.
 Killed vaccines: Prepared by killing the pathogenic organisms by heat or UV-rays
or alcohol or formalin. Eg. Typhoid vaccine, pertusis.
 Toxoid: Prepared by destroying the toxic (virulence) property of toxins produced by
organism but retaining its antigenic property. Eg. Tetanus, Diphtheria.

 Attenuated Living Vaccines: Pathogen is made weakened and non-virulent. Eg.
Oral Polio Vaccine, BCG, mumps, measles, rubella (MMR) vaccine.
TEST TUBE BABIES

 A relatively recent solution to infertility is in vitro fertilization i.e. fertilization in a
laboratory dish.
 After viewing through a laparoscope, a ripe egg is removed from a woman's ovary.
 The egg is kept in laboratory culture dish and mixed with sperm from father.
 The fertilized egg undergoes cleavage in the laboratory dish, and when it reaches the
32-cell stage, it is transferred into the mother's uterus for implantation.
 A normal baby can be born to such a mother. Such a baby is called a test tube baby.
 IVF technology was first pioneered in humans by Prof. Robert Winston.
 The world's first test tube baby, Louise Joy Brown, was born in England on July
25, 1978.
 The first test tube baby of Nepal is OM Maya Tamang, born in OM Hospital and
research centre.
BIOFERTILIZERS
 The fertilizers of biological origin are called biofertilizers.
 Rhizobium bacteria live symbiotically in root nodules of legumes and which fix
atmospheric N2 and hence increase the fertility of soil.
 Some bacteria like Azotobacter (aerobic), Clostridium (anaerobic), Rhodospirillum,
(photosynthetic bacteria) are free living nitrogen fixing bacteria of soil.
 Blue green algae like Nostoc, Anabaena, Aulosira, Tolypothrix, Plectonema are the
most common nitrogen fixing organisms, probably with the help of heterocysts.
 In the rice field, Aulosira is the most active nitrogen fixing blue green alga.
 Azolla-Anabaena symbiotic system is the main biofertilizer which is inoculated in
rice fields in South-Eastern Asia.
 Mycorrhiza is a symbiotic association of certain fungi with the roots of higher
plants.
TISSUES AND ORGAN TRANSPLANTATION

 Transplantation involves the removal of damaged/injured tissues or organs from
the body of a person and their substitution by similar tissues/ organs from a donor.
 Most common type of tissue transplantation is skin and bone.
 Autograft: One's own tissue is grafted to another part of the body eg. skin graft
(most successful transplantation).
 Isograft: The doner and recipient are genetically identical eg. Transplantation from
a twin brother or sister.
 Allografts: Transplant between individuals of same species but with different
genetic background.
 Xenograft: Transplant between members of different species.
 Tissue rejection: The immune system recognizes the protein in the transplanted
tissue or organ as foreing and initiate cellular immunity.
 The first heart transplantation was done by Christian Barnard.
 The best known example of organ transplantation is that of cornea.
Complete Botany 59
 The corneal grafts have a much better chance of success than other types of
transplant, (no vascular supply).
 Immunesuppressive drugs are given to recipients to prevent rejection.
PLANT AND ANIMAL BREEDING

 It is the science of improvement in the hereditary characters of crops and
production of new crop varieties.
 Process of introduction of a new variety of plant into a locality is known as plant
introduction.
 Introduction is the most rapid and easiest method of plant breeding.
 The newly introduced variety of plant may invade and propagate in Nepal are wheat,
rice, potato, tobacco, papaya, grapes, guava etc.
 The choice of certain individuals (which produces good quality seeds, fruits and
show resistance to diseases) from a mixed population is called selection.
 Selection may be natural (survival of the fittest), artificial (mass selection, pure line,
clonal)
 Selection is the commonest and oldest method of crop improvement.
 Plants are selected from a mixed population on the basis of their genotypes.
 Hybridization
 Process of obtaining new varieties of crops by crossing 2 genetically different
parents is called hybridization.
 Hybridization produces strong/superior offspring (known as heterosis/hybrid
vigour).
(i) Intra-specific hybridization: When cross is made between plants of 2 different
varieties of same species.
(ii) Inter-specific hybridization: When cross is made between plants of 2 different
species of same genera
(iii) Intrageneric hybridization: When cross is made between plants of 2 different
species of same genus.
(iv) Intergeneric hybridization: When cross is made between plants of 2 different
genera of the same family.
e.g. Potato × tomato → Pomato
 Mutation more used in plant breeding is point or gene mutation.
 It may be Chemical mutagens (hydrazines, nitrous acid) and Physical mutagens (X-
rays, -rays, UV rays, etc.)
 Tissue culture is a technique of growing cells, tissue and organs in an artificially
prepared nutrient medium under aseptic conditions.
 The tissue or plant part removed from the plant body culture is called explant.
 Based on the explants used, plant tissue culture is of following types:
Types Explant used
Shoot culture sterile shoot tips/axillary buds
Protoplast culture isolated protoplast
Embryo culture embryos from immature seeds
Anther or microspore culture anthers or microspore (done on
Datura inoxia, Nicotina
tobacum)
Meristem culture apical meristem

 Meristem culture is very effective in creating virus free plants.
 Process of anther or microspore culture is called androgenesis
 Protoplast culture is the latest and most important type of tissue culture.
GENETIC ENGINEERING
 Branch of biology which deals with the synthesis of artificial genes, repair of
genes, combining the genes from two organisms and manupulation of genes for
improvement of living being.
 Paul berg is known as "Father of genetic engineering".
 Major types of vectors are plasmids and bacteriophages. (Carrier for transferring
selected DNA into living being)
 Endonuclease act on genetic material and cleavage the double stranded DNA.
 Restriction endonucleases are also called as 'molecular scissors'
 Nobel prize of 1978 for restriction endonuclease technology and their role in genetic
engineering was given to Daniel Nathans, Hamilton Smith, Werner arber.
 DNA fragments can be rejoined under the appropriate renaturation conditions by
using the enzyme DNA ligase.
 Genetic engineering means manipulation of genes and it depends upon recombinant
DNA technology.
 Polymerase chain reaction is a method of amplifying specific piece of DNA
molecule without the requirement of time consuming cloning procedures.
 Gene therapy is the transfer of normal genes into body cell to correct genetic defect.
eg. sickle cell anaemia.
 Clone is a population of cells or individuals which are genetically identical. eg. dolly
- sheep.
 Cloning is meant for preservation of genotype of organism.
 Animals that have forensic genes inserted into their germ lines are called transgenic.
 Recombinant DNA is also called chimeric DNA.
 DNA fingerprinting is the best way to determine paternity.

Complete Botany 61

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By Dr.

2 By Dr. Kabir Pokhrel

4 By Dr. Kabir Pokhrel

6 By Dr. Kabir Pokhrel

8 By Dr. Kabir Pokhrel

10 By Dr. Kabir Pokhrel

12 By Dr. Kabir Pokhrel

14 By Dr. Kabir Pokhrel

16 By Dr. Kabir Pokhrel

18 By Dr. Kabir Pokhrel

Monocots, wheat, maize, coconut, rice

Monocots, pothos, vallisnaria

20 By Dr. Kabir Pokhrel

FAMILY SOLANACEAE (POTATO FAMILY)

22 By Dr. Kabir Pokhrel

24 By Dr. Kabir Pokhrel

(iii) Nucleolus absent Nucleolus present

26 By Dr. Kabir Pokhrel

28 By Dr. Kabir Pokhrel

30 By Dr. Kabir Pokhrel

COMPLETE RANGE OF PLANT SUCCESSION

FOREST TYPES OF NEPAL

32 By Dr. Kabir Pokhrel

SOME IMPORTANT POINT

34 By Dr. Kabir Pokhrel

Note: Thiamine is Vit. B2

36 By Dr. Kabir Pokhrel

2. Ribonucleic Acid (RNA)

38 By Dr. Kabir Pokhrel

40 By Dr. Kabir Pokhrel

DPD = OP – TP where TP = WP and TP = Turgor pressure.

42 By Dr. Kabir Pokhrel

44 By Dr. Kabir Pokhrel

46 By Dr. Kabir Pokhrel

Growth Promotors – Auxin, Giberellins, Cytokinin.

Auxin and Giberrellins → cell enlargement and Differentiation.

ABSCISSIC ACID (ABA) OR DORMIN

48 By Dr. Kabir Pokhrel

50 By Dr. Kabir Pokhrel

 Translocation occurs through phloem in the form of sucrose in all direction.

 Respiratory Quotient (RQ) for carbohydrate = 1, fat/protein

52 By Dr. Kabir Pokhrel

54 By Dr. Kabir Pokhrel

56 By Dr. Kabir Pokhrel

58 By Dr. Kabir Pokhrel

TEST TUBE BABIES

TISSUES AND ORGAN TRANSPLANTATION

PLANT AND ANIMAL BREEDING

60 By Dr. Kabir Pokhrel

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