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CHAPTER 2
BIOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION
Two Kingdom classification - Proposed by Carolus Linnaeus
Five kingdom classification - Proposed by R H Whittaker

• Kingdom Monera Criteria of five kingdom Classification

• Kingdom Protista 1. Cell structure - Prokaryotes / Eukaryotes
• Kingdom Fungi 2. Thallus organisation - Unicellular / Multicellular
• Kingdom Plantae 3. Mode of nutrition - Autotrophic / Heterotrophic
• Kingdom Animalia
Cyanobacteria (blue green algae)
• They are photosynthetic autotrophs.
• Forms blooms in polluted water bodies.
• The body is covered by mucilaginous
sheath.
• fix atmospheric nitrogen in specialised cells
called heterocysts.
• Eg :- Nostoc,Anabaena
Heterotrophic bacteria
• Important decomposers.
• Used to make curd from milk.
Mycoplasma
• The smallest known living organims.
• They lack cell wall.
PROTISTA
Diatomaceous earth : The cell wall deposits of diatoms on the surface of
sea over millions of years .
Used in polishing,filteration of oils and syrups.
Red tide :Cells of dinoflagellates undergo rapid multiplication and the
sea appears red .Toxins released kill marine animals.
Amoeboid protozoan Amoeba
Flagellated Trypanosoma
Ciliated Paramecium
FUNGI
Consist of long, slender thread-like structures called hyphae.
The network of hyphae is known as mycelium.
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LICHEN = Symbiotic association of algae + fungi

Good pollution indicators
Algal component - Phycobiont
Fungal component - Mycobiont

Mycorrhiza =fungi + roots of higher plants

Plasmogamy: fusion of protoplasms

Karyogamy: fusion of two nuclei.

Classes of Fungi
Phycomycetes Rhizopus
Ascomycetes Yeast, Penicillium.
Basidiomycetes Agaricus,
Deuteromycetes Trichoderma
(Imperfect fungi)
Economic importance of fungi
• Source of antibiotics. Eg: Penicillium.
• Yeast (unicellular fungi) are used to make bread and beer.

Dikaryon :two nuclei per cell

Louis Pasteur : gave the name virus (means venom or poisonous fluid)
D J Ivanowsky : Discovered virus.

Bacteriophages (viruses that infect the bacteria)

The protein coat called capsid made of small subunits called
capsomeres, protects the nucleic acid.
Viroids : free RNA; it lack protein coat.

Prions : are abnormally folded protein.They cause Bovine Spongiform

Encephalopathy (BSE) commonly called Mad cow disease in cattle .
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CHAPTER 3
PLANT KINGDOM
Natural System of classification George Bentham and
Joseph Dalton Hooker
Numerical Taxonomy Based on all observable characteristics.
Cytotaxonomy Based on cytological information
Chemotaxonomy Based on the chemical constituents

Classes Common Major Stored food

name pigments
Chlorophyceae Green algae Chlorophyll a,b Starch
Phaeophyceae Brown algae Fucoxanthin Mannitol,
laminarin
Rhodophyceae Red algae Phycoerythrin Floridean starch

Economic importance of algae

1.Used as food Eg: Sargassum
2. Produce large amount of hydrocolloids ( Algin and carageen).
3. Agar- Tissue culture medium
4. Chlorella,a unicellular green algae is used as a food supplement.

Bryophytes are called amphibians of plant kingdom because they

live in moist soil and they need water for reproduction.
➢ Plant body is a gametophyte(n)
➢ Presence of rhizoids.
Liverworts Mosses
Thallus with rhizoids Erect plant body with root like,stem like and
leaf like structures
Eg:- Marchantia Eg:- Funaria,Sphagnum (Peat moss)
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Gemmae are asexual buds in liverworts.

Protonema -green, branched and filamentous stage of bryophytes.
Economic importance of bryophytes
1.Prevent soil erosion
2. Used as fuel.
Pteridophytes are first terrestrial land plants with xylem and
phloem.
Prothallus-free-living,photosynthetic thalloid gametophytes,
produce sex organs -antheridium and archegonium.
Heterospory -produce two kinds of spores,macro (large) and
micro (small) spores.Eg:Selaginella and Salvinia
Precursor to seed habit
The development of the zygotes into young embryos take place
within the female gametophytes. This event is a precursor to the
seed habit considered an important step in evolution.

Gymnosperms are naked seeded plants.

Coralloid roots with N 2 - fixing cyanobacteria.Eg:- Cycas.
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CHAPTER 5
MORPHOLOGY OF ANGIOSPERMS
Regions of the root
➢ 1.Region of Root cap.
➢ 2.Region of meristematic
activity.
➢ 3.Region of elongation.
➢ 4.Region of maturation-
Root hairs arise from this
region.
They absorb water and
minerals from the soil.

Venation : The arrangement of veins and veinlets in the lamina of

leaf.
Reticulate venation Parallel venation
Veins and veinlets When the veins run parallel
form a network. to each other within a lamina
Dicot leaf Monocot leaf

Phyllotaxy is the arrangement of leaves on

the stem.
Alternate a single leaf arises at each node in alternate manner.
Opposite a pair of leaves arise at each node and lie opposite to
each other.
Whorled If more than two leaves arise at a node and form a whorl.
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Inflorescence:The arrangement of flowers on the floral axis .

Racemose inflorescence Cymose inflorescence
1.Unlimited growth of main axis 1.Limited growth of main axis.
2.Older flower at the base and 2.Older flower in the middle
younger flower at the tip and younger flower at the periphery

Hypogynous Perigynous Epigynous

Ovary superior Ovary half inferior Ovary inferior
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Aestivation:The arrangement of sepals /petals in floral bud.

Placentation:The arrangement of ovules within the ovary.

Epipetalous :When stamens are attached to the petals.

Epiphyllous :When stamens are attached to the perianth.
Family – Solanaceae

Flower: bisexual, actinomorphic

Calyx: sepals five, united, valvate aestivation
Corolla: petals five, united; valvate aestivation
Androecium: stamens five, epipetalous
Gynoecium:Bicarpellary,Syncarpous.
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Parthenocarpic fruit:Fruit is formed without fertilisation of the

ovary.
Drupe:Eg :- Mango,Coconut.Pericarp is differentiated into the outer
epicarp, the middle mesocarp and the inner endocarp.

Endosperm :-Food storing tissue in seed.

In monocot seed,the plumule are enclosed in sheaths called coleoptile

and and the radicle are enclosed in sheaths called coleorhiza.
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CHAPTER 6
ANATOMY OF FLOWERING PLANTS

Components of Xylem
1.Xylem tracheids 3.Xylem fibres
2.Xylem vessels 4.Xylem parenchyma
Gymnosperms lack vessels in their xylem.
In flowering plants, tracheids and vessels are the main water transporting
elements.
Endarch Exarch
The protoxylem lies towards the The protoxylem lies towards
centre (pith) and the metaxylem lies periphery and metaxylem lies
towards the periphery. towards the centre.
Seen in stems Seen in roots.

Conjoint Vascular bundle Radial vascular bundle

Xylem and phloem are arranged in Xylem & phloem are arranged in
the same radius. alternate radii.
Seen in stems. Seen in roots.

Open vascular bundle Closed vascular bundle

Cambium is present in between Absence of cambium in between
xylem and phloem. xylem and phloem.
Present in dicot stem. Present in monocot stem and roots.
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Dicot leaf Monocot leaf

Stomata are seen in lower epidermis Stomata present both on upper and
lower epidermis.
Mesophyll tissue is differentiated into Mesophyll is undifferentiated.
upper palisade tissue and lower
spongy tissues.
Bean shaped guard cells. Dumb-bell shaped guard cells.
Bulliform cells absent Bulliform cells present.

Bulliform cells- Large colourless empty cells help in rolling and

unrolling of leaves in dry weather.

Stele:All tissues on the innerside of the endodermis such as pericycle, vascular

bundles and pith constitute the stele.

Endodermal cells in dicot roots possess casparian strips made up of

suberin.It prevent plasmolysis in the cells of endodermis.
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CHAPTER 8
THE CELL -THE UNIT OF LIFE
Shapes of bacteria
Bacillus Rod like
Coccus Spherical
Vibrio Comma
Spirillum Spiral
Plasmodesmata :- The cell wall and middle lamellae are traversed by
plasmodesmata which connect the cytoplasm of neighbouring cells.
Mesosome : the infoldings of cell membrane.
Functions : It increases the surface area of plasma membrane
Plasmid : Small circular DNA outside the genomic DNA.
Fluid mosaic model of cell membrane
Proposed by Singer & Nicolson (1972).
Consists of bilayer of lipids and two types of proteins.
- Integral proteins and Peripheral proteins.
According to this, the quasi- fluid nature of lipid enables lateral movement of
proteins within the overall bilayer.
Functions:
Transport of molecules: Selectively
permeable
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Cell organelles Function

Mitochondria
Chloroplasts
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
Golgi apparatus(Camillo Golgi)
Ribosomes(George Palade)
Lysosomes(Suicidal bags)
Vacuoles
Mitochondria are the sites of aerobic
respiration. They produce
energy in the form of ATP. So they are
called ‘power houses’ of the cell.
1.Light reaction:- Takes place in grana
of chloroplast
2.Dark reaction:- Takes place in stroma
of chloroplast.
RER:Protein synthesis and secretion.
SER:Lipid synthesis
1.Packaging of materials.
2.Formation of glycoproteins and
glycolipids.
Protein synthesis
Digestion of carbohydrates, proteins,
lipids and nucleic acids.
Semi permeable

Cristae : infoldings of mitochondria towards the matrix. They increase the

surface area.

Ribosomes are non-membranous granular structures in cytoplasm

Double membraneous organelles -Mitochondria,chloroplast,golgi bodies

Vacuole contain cell sap and covered by tonoplast.

Rough Endoplasmic reticulum Smooth Endoplasmic reticulum

(RER) (SER)
ER with ribosomes on their surface. ER without ribosomes on their
surface.
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Leucoplasts :Colourless plastids with stored nutrients.

Different types of leucoplasts:

Amyloplast Store starch
Elaioplasts: Store oils and fats
Aleuroplasts Store proteins

Chromosomes
Every chromosome has a primary constriction (centromere). On the sides
of the centromere, disc shaped structures called kinetochores are present.
Metacentric Sub-metacentric Acrocentric Telocentric
chromosome chromosome chromosome chromosome
Centromere in Centromere is Centromere is Centromere at the
the middle of the slightly away close to its end. tip.
chromosome from the middle
of chromosome

Sometimes,a few chromosomes have non-staining secondary constrictions at a

constant location. This gives the appearance of a small fragment called the
satellite.
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CHAPTER 10
CELL CYCLE AND CELL DIVISION
Cell Cycle
1.Interphase and 2.Mitotic phase
Interphase Feature
G 1 phase The cell is metabolically active and continuously grows
but does not replicate its DNA.
S phase DNA synthesis or replication takes place.
The amount of DNA per cell doubles.
G 2 phase Proteins are synthesised ,
cell growth continues.

G 0 phase ( Quiescent stage (G 0 )

An inactive stage of the cell cycle where the
cells remain metabolically
active but no longer proliferate.

M Phase (Mitosis phase) :

1.Karyokinesis (nuclear division) and
2.Cytokinesis (cytoplasmic division).
Prophase 1.Chromosomal material condenses to form compact
mitotic chromosomes.
2.Chromosomes are composed of two chromatids
attached together at the centromere.
Metaphase 1.Spindle fibres attach to kinetochores of chromosomes.
2.Chromosomes are moved to spindle equator and get
aligned along metaphase plate through spindle fibres to
both poles.
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Anaphase 1.Centromeres split and chromatids separate.

2.Chromatids move to opposite poles
Telophase 1.Chromosomes cluster at opposite spindle poles .
2.Nuclear envelope develops around the chromosome
clusters at each pole forming two daughter nuclei.

Significance of Mitosis
1. Mitosis usually results in the production of diploid daughter cells
with identical genetic complement.
2. Helps in the growth of multicellular organisms and cell repair.

Prophase 1 of Meiosis

Leptotene The chromosomes become gradually visible under the

light microscope
Zygotene 1.Pairing of homologous chromosome( Synapsis).
2.Formation of synaptonemal complex results in a
bivalent.
Pachytene 1.The four chromatids appears as tetrads.
2.The appearance of recombination nodules, the sites at
which crossing over occurs between non-sister chromatids
of the homologous chromosomes.
3.Crossing over takes place
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Diplotene 1.The dissolution of the synaptonemal complex.

The X-shaped structures called chiasmata are formed.
Diakinesis 1.Terminalisation of chiasmata.
2.Nucleolus & nuclear envelope disappear.

Crossing over is the exchange of genetic material between two homologous

chromosomes.
Crossing over leads to recombination of genetic material on the two
chromosomes.

Differences between Mitosis and Meiosis

Mitosis
1.It occurs in somatic cells
2.Two daughter cells are formed.
3.Daughter cells have same
chromosome number as that of
parent cell.
4.Mitosis is necessary for growth
and repair of cells.
Meiosis
1.It occurs in reproductive cells.
2.Four daughter cells are formed.
3.Daughter cells have half of the
chromosomes as compared to
parent cell.
4. Meiosis is necessary for sexual
reproduction.

Significance of Meiosis
1.Formation of gametes in sexually reproducing organisms.
2.Genetic variability
3.Conservation of specific chromosome number .
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CHAPTER 13
PHOTOSYNTHESIS IN HIGHER PLANTS
Pigments involved in Photosynthesis
Chlorophyll a is the chief photosynthetic pigment responsible for trapping
light.
Accessory pigments :-chlorophyll b, xanthophylls and carotenoids also absorb
light and transfer the energy to chlorophyll a.

Absorption spectrum shows the ability of chlorophyll-a to absorb lights of

different wavelength.
The maximum absorption by chlorophyll a in the blue and the red regions of
visible spectrum, shows higher rate of photosynthesis.
Photosystems
1. PSI(Photosystem I) P700
2. PSI (Photosystem II) P680
Mechanism of Photosynthesis
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RuBisCO – Ribulose 1,5 Bisphosphate Carboxylase Oxygenase

Dual role of RuBisCO:-
1.Carboxylation and 2. Oxygenation of RuBP
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Oxidative decarboxylation ( Aerobic oxidation of pyruvic acid)

Occurs in mitochondrial matrix.
Catalysed by pyruvate dehydrogenase.
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Kreb’s Cycle / Tricarboxylic Acid Cycle / TCA Cycle

It takes place in mitochondrial matrix.
Cycle was discovered by Hans Krebs; so called Krebs cycle.
The first stable product is Citric acid .- so called Citric acid cycle.

Electron Transport System (ETS)

Oxygen acts as the final hydrogen acceptor.

Oxidative Phosphorylation.
When the electrons pass from one carrier to another via complex 1 to IV, they
are coupled to ATP synthase ( complex V) for the ATP production.
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Respiratory Quotient (RQ)

The ratio of the volume of CO 2 evolved to the volume of O 2 consumed in
respiration is called the Respiratory Quotient (RQ) or Respiratory
ratio.
RQ -= Volume of CO 2 evolved
Volume of O 2 consumed

The respiratory quotient depends upon the type of respiratory substrate

used during respiration.

Respiratory substrate RQ value

Carbohydrates Equal to 1
Fats Less than 1 (0. 7 in palmitic acid )
Proteins Less than 1 (0.9)
Organic acid Greater than 1 ( 4 in oxalic acid)
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